CHEM 111 MIDTERMS

LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS

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 The atoms form a covalent bond by sharing their

OUTLINE valence electrons to get a stable octet of electrons.
(filled valence shell of 8 electrons)
WEEK 7 :  Electron-Dot Diagrams of the atoms are combined
to show the covalent bonds
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC
 Covalently bonded atoms form MOLECULES
CHEMISTRY

CHEMICAL BONDS
 IONIC BONDS
 COVALENT BONDS

IONIC BONDS

 An attraction between anions and cations.
 Valence electrons are completely transferred.
 A bond between a metal and a non-metal.
 Stronger than covalent bonds.
 Commonly called metallic salts.
 Occurs between nonmetal atoms which need to
gain electrons to get a stable octet of electrons or
a filled outer shell.
General Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures

Examples; NaCl, CaCl , K O  All valence electrons of the atoms in Lewis

2 2
structures must be shown.
IONIC BONDING  Generally each atom needs eight electrons in its
valence shell (except Hydrogen needs only two
It forms ionic compounds electrons and Boron needs only 6).
Always formed between metal cations and non-metals  Multiple bonds (double and triple bonds) can be
anions.
formed by C, N, O, P, and S.
Metals lose electrons to match the number of valence
electrons of their nearest noble gas. When carbon is one of your atoms,it will always be in the
center.
The oppositely charged ions stick like magnets
Sometimes you only have two atoms,so there is no central
METALS(+) NON-METALS(-)
atom.
LOST e- GAINED e-
Cl2 HBr H2 O2 N2 HCI
COVALENT BONDING
NON POLAR COVALENT BONDS
Pairs of e- are shared between 2 non-metal atoms to
acquire the electron configuration of a noble gas. When electrons are shared equally H2 or Cl2

Ex. O2,CO2,C2H6,H2O,SiC

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CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS
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Covalent bonds- Two atoms share one or more pairs of OPEN CHAIN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
outer-shell electrons

ALKANES
OXYGEN MOLECULE (O2) Alkanes are the saturated hydrocarbons with general
formula CnH2n+2.
POLAR COVALENT BONDS
They contain only carbon-carbon and carbon- hydrogen
When electrons are shared but shared unequally H2O
single bonds in their molecules.
CLASSIFICATION AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

Alkenes are hydrocarbons with one or more carbon–carbon

double bonds (R2C=CR2). Alkenes general formula is CnH2n

ALKYNES

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with general

formula CnH2n-2. They contain at least one carbon to
carbon triple bond in their molecules.

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LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS
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CLOSED CHAIN (CYCLIC)ORGANIC FORMULA OF ORGANIC

COMPOUNDS
 Molecular Formula
 Electron-dot formula
 Structural formula
 Contracted or condensed formula
 Bond-line formula
HOMOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS  Spatial formula
Cyclic organic compounds in which the ring forming atoms 1.MOLECULAR FORMULA
are only carbon. More specifically, it is carbocyclic
compounds. It represents actual number of atoms of all the elements
present in one molecule of the compound. For example.
ALICYCLIC COMPOUNDS
Methane = CH4

Ethane=C2H6

Ethene= C2H4

Benzene=C6H6

2.ELECTRON-DOT FORMULA
In this formula valence electrons are represented by dots
placed around the chemical symbol. It is also called Lewis
formula. For example
AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

3.STRUCTURAL FORMULA

It indicates how the atoms are bonded in a molecule of the

compound. For example
HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS

Cyclic organic compounds in which at least one heteroatom

(i.e. atom other than carbon eg. N, O or S ) is present as one
of the ring forming atoms

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4.CONTRACTED OR CONDENSED FORMULA ISOMERISM

It is the structural formula in contracted form to save space and
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time.

5.BOND – LINE FORMULA

ISOMERS
In this type of formula, carbon and hydrogen
atoms are not shown and only hetero atoms are
 Isomers are compounds that have the

shown. The point of intersection represents

same molecular formula (same
carbon along with required number of hydrogen
to satisfy the valency of carbon. For example:
numbers and kinds of atoms) but

differ in the way the atoms are

arranged

CONSTITUTIONAL
ISOMERISM

 Also called Structural isomerism

 These are isomers that differ in the
connectivity of atoms, that is, in the

6.SPATIAL FORMULA
order which atoms are attached to
This formula represents the three
each other within molecules.

dimensional shape or arrangement

of atoms in the molecule.

Forexample :

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DIS DIASTEREOMERS
STEREOISOMERISM Diastereomers are not mirror-images, which may or
not contain chiral centers.
These are isomers that have the same molecular and
structural formula, but different orientations of atoms in
space.

ENANTIOMERS

Optical isomerism is one type of stereoisomerism: when two objects

are mirror images of each other and cannot be superimposed, it is

also called enantiomers.

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LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS
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KETONES
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Only one oxygen
An atom or group of atoms in a molecule which
largely determines the chemical properties of the Has a C=O group
organic compounds is known as functional group.
C=O group is not at the end of carbon chain,so is
For example: organic compounds having – OH as functional group
next door to 2 carbons
constitutes a class of compounds called alcohol
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
ALAKNES
Has 2 oxygens
Only carbon and hydrogen
Has O-H and C=O groups on the same carbon atom
All single bonds
This –COOH group has to be at the end of a carbon
ALKENES chain(why?)
Only carbon and hydrogen ESTERS
A carbon to carbon double bond
Haas 2 oxygens
ALCOHOLS One oxygen is part of a C=O bond the other is next
door sandwiched between two carbons
Only one oxygen

Has an O-H group

ETHERS

Can classify as 1/2/3 according to position of O-H group on carbon Has 1 oxygen
skeleton.
No O-H or C=O group
PHENOLS The oxygen is sandwiched between two carbon
Only one oxygen atoms

Has an O-H group Why do ethers have much lower boiling points
than their isomeric alcohols?
The O-H group is directly attached to a benzene ring.
No hydrogen bonds between ether molecules
ALDEHYDES (why?)

Only one oxygen

Haas a C=O group

C=O group is at the end of carbon chain,so is next door to a

hydrogen atom.

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CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS
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ACIDS AND BASES CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS:TASTE

SOUR
ACIDS
Acids in food taste sour and produce a burning or
An acid is a substance that releases H+ ions in aqueous prickling feeling on the skin
solution
Since tasting or touching an unknown chemical is
Example:when hydrochloric acid is dissolved in water the extremely dangerous other methods are needed to tell
compound separates into chlorine ions (CL)and wether a solution is an acid
hydrogen(H+)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS:REACTS
WITH CARBONATE

A safe way to test to see if a solution is an acid is to

place a few drops on a compound that contains a
carbonate (CO3)

STRONG ACIDS Example:Limestone is a rock that contains calcium

carbonate (CaCO3)When an acid touches a piece of
A strong acid breaks down completely in water and gives limestone a reaction occurs that produces carbon
off many H+ions dioxide gas

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS:REACTS
WITH METAL

Acids also reacts with most metals

The reaction produces hydrogen gas which you can see

as bubbles
WEAK ACID

A weal acid only partially breaks down.It gives off much

less H+ than strong acid

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS

Corrosive

Acids have a sour taste

Ph of <7

Acids react with metals and carbonates to produce gas

Acids contain hydrogen

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LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS
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BASES
A base is a substance that releases hydroxide (OH-)ions
in an aqueous solution
Example:When sodium hydroxide (NaOH)is dissolved in
water the compound separates into sodium ions
(Na+)and hydroxide ions (OH-)
In fact, this is exactly how soapis made. Mixing base- usualy
sodium hydroxide – with fatty acids produces soap
So when a base touches your skin, the combination of the base with
your own fatty acids actually makes a smal amount of soap
Contain Sodium Hydroxide (OH-)

CHARACTERISTICS OF BASES

Bases usual taste bitter

Bases feel slippery

Caustic

pH>7

Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-)

CHARACTERISTICS OF BASES:TASTE
BITTER

EXAMPLE:BAKING SODA

Mild beases in foods taste bitter and feel slippery,but as
with acids tasting and touching are not safe ways of
testing wether a solution is a base
In fact some strong bases can burn the skins badly as
strong acids.
Properties of Acids &Bases
-Similarities between acids and bases
-Dissolve in water
-Conduct electricity in aqueous solution

-Can irritate or burn skin

CHARACTERISTICS OF BASES:FEEL
SLIPPERY

Bases feel soapy or slippery because they react with acid

molecules in your skin called fatty acids.

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CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER 1-Y1-1 | BSMLS
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Acid-BaseStrength
 pH stands for “potential hydrogen” and is a measure of how
many H+ ions there are in solution
 The strength of an acid or base is usual y measured using a pH
scale
 The more H+ there are, the lower the pHwill be
The pH scale is often used to express the hydronium ion
concentration in an aqueous solution
-Litmus turns red/pink in an acidic solution
-Litmus turns blue in a basic solution
-The color of hydrangea flowers isdependent upon the pH of soil
-It would be impossible todetermine the pH of all solutions using just
one indicator, such as litmus
-Several other acid-base indicators exist, each producing a color change at a
specific pH level
-A universal indicator is a mixture of chemicals that changes color
through a wide range of pH values

-An even more precise pH is to use a pH

Using this formula, we can calculate the pH of pure water
ACIDS AND BASES NEUTRALIZE EACH
ACID BASE STRENGTH OTHER

When an acid and base react with each

other, the characteristic properties of both are destroyed. This is called
neutralization.

Acid + Base → H2O + Salt

HCl + NaOH → H2O + NaCl

The numbers of the pH scale usual y range from 0 – 14, but numbers
outside thisrange are possible
Salt means any ionic compound formed from an acid/base
reaction
The middle number, 7, represents aneutral solution
Acommon example of neutralization reaction occurs when you
Aneutral substance is neither an acid nor a base. Pure water has a pH of 7
swallow an antacid tablet to relieve an upset stomach

The acid in your stomach has a pH of about 1.5 due to mostly

pH < 7 indicate acidic solution hydrochloric acid produced by the stomachlining

pH = 7 indicate neutral solution An antacid tablet contains a base, such as sodium bicarbonate,
magnesium hydroxide or calcium carbonate. The base reacts with the
pH > 7 indicate basic solution stomach acid and produces a salt and water.
 Aconcentrated strong acid has a low pH value
 Aconcentrated strong base has a high pH value This reaction lowers the acidity and raises to pH to its normal
value (about 2)
Acid-BaseIndicators

An acid-base indicator is a compound that will change color in the presence

of an acid or base
Litmus is a plant extract that can be blueor red (pink)

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