The Summary of Grammatical Patterns in TOEFL-OK

TOEFL Section 2:
Structure and Written Expression
Basic Grammar Terminologies
Basic Grammar Terminologies are also called Parts of Speech. Traditional grammar classifies
words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the
adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection.
part of
function or "job" example words example sentences
speech
(to) be, have, do, like, EnglishClub.com is a web site. I

Verb action or state
work, sing, can, must like EnglishClub.com.
pen, dog, work,

Person, animal, plant, This is my dog. He lives in my
Noun music, town, London,
place, or thing house. We live in London.
teacher, John
a/an, the, 69, some,

Adjective describes a noun good, big, red, well, My dog is big. I like big dogs.
interesting
My dog eats quickly. When he is

describes a verb, quickly, silently, well,
Adverb very hungry, he eats really
adjective or adverb badly, very, really
quickly.
Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.
links a noun to another

Preposition to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday.
word
I like dogs and I like cats. I like

joins clauses or
Conjunction and, but, when cats and dogs. I like dogs but I
sentences or words
don't like cats.
1 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

Compiled by: Nurfitrina Rosman
short exclamation,
Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are
Interjection sometimes inserted oh!, ouch!, hi!, well
you? Well, I don't know.
into a sentence
To understand English Grammar fully, especially related to TOEFL question, we should start from
understanding the use and function of at least these six basic grammar terminologies, namely:
a. Pronoun and Noun : Kata Ganti Orang dan Kata Benda
b. Verb : Kata Kerja
c. Adjective : Kata Sifat
d. Adverb : Kata Keterangan
e. Article : Kata Sandang
f. Preposition : Kata Depan
Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more nouns. We use pronouns to:
 Refer to a noun (called its antecedent) that usually comes before the pronoun
 Make our writing clearer, smoother, and less awkward
In the sentence, “Roberto feels that he can win the race,” he is the pronoun, and Roberto is the
antecedent. In the sentence, “Terry and Jim know that they are best friends,” they is the pronoun,
and Terry and Jim are the noun antecedents.
There are several types of pronouns.
Subject Object Possessive Possesive Reflexive
Pronoun Pronoun Adjective* Pronoun** Pronoun
I Me My Mine Myself
You You Your Yours Yourself/Yourselves
We Us Our Ours Ourselves
They Them Their Theirs Themselves
She Her Her Hers Herself
He Him His His Himself
It It Its Its Itself
*: Must be followed by Noun
**: Must not be followed by Noun
There are also other types of pronoun:

 An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are which, who, whom, and
whose.
 A demonstrative pronoun is used to point out a specifi c person or thing. These pronouns include
this, that, these, and those. In the sentence, “Theresa, is this yours?” this is the demonstrative
pronoun, and yours is the personal pronoun.
 An indefinite pronoun often does not refer to a specific or definite person or thing. It usually does
not have a defi nite or specific antecedent as a personal pronoun does. In the sentence, “ Everybody
will select another to help with everything, ” The three italicized words are all indefi nite pronouns
since they take the place of a noun and do not refer to a specifi c or defi nite person or thing. These
are all indefi nite pronouns:
all each more one another either most other any everybody much
several anybody everyone neither some anyone everything nobody
somebody anything few none someone both many no one
Example:
- Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents they from drying out
A B C
Quickly in air, sun, or wind.
D
The sentence should read: Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents them from drying out
quickly in air, sun, and wind. Therefore the correct answer is (C)
- The petunia, a popular garden plant commonly grown for their colorful, often striped flowers, is a
A B C
relative of the potato.
D
The sentence should read: The petunia, a popular garden plant commonly grown for its colorful, often
striped flowers, is a relative of the potato.
- Young chimpanzees can learn over 200 signs of American Sign Language and use this signS to
A B C
communicate with human.
D

The sentence shoul read: Young chimpanzees can learn over 200 signs of American Sign Language and
use these signs to communicate with human. Therefore the answer is C.
Noun
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea:
People: farmer, mechanic, father, Professor Haskins, editors, Marcia
Places: ocean, Canada, porch, Spain, classroom
Things: scissors, giraffe, pen, smiles, tugboat, skateboard, braces, drill
Ideas: love, inspiration, courage, anxiety, eagerness, happiness
Patterns and Clues to identify Noun from its position and pattern:
 After “article” [the / a / an]+ Noun
 After possessive pronoun [ my, your, her, his, their, our, their, its]
 Before and after “of” [N of N]
 And
Same structure But Same structure
Or
 Suffixes that form Noun
 -ion (notification, production)  -gy (psichology, geology)

 -ment (agreement, development)  -al ( refusal, withdrawal, arrival)
 -ship (sholarship, relationship)  -ure (failure, pressure, exposure))
 -ness (effectiveness, brightness)  -phy (philosophy, photography)
 -ty (safety, responsibility)  -er ( manager. Presenter)
 -cy (efficiency, transparency)  -or (director, supervisor))
 -ry (delivery, discovery)  -ist ( scientist, specialist)
 -age/ge (storage, marriage, percentage)  -ian ( politician, musician)
 -dom (freedom, wisdom)  -ee ( employee, examinee, trainee)
 -nce ( performance, disturbance)  -eer ( engineer, pioneer
 -hood ( childhood, neighborhood)  -ant ( consultant, informant)
 -ism (journalism, tourism)  -ive ( detective, representative)
 -phy (philosophy, photography)

Some Random Noun Formations: 8. Speak (V) : Speech (N)
1. Grow (V) : Growth (N) 9. Deep (Adj) : Depth (N)
2. Fly (V) : Flight (N) 10. High (Adj) : Height (N)
3. See (V) : Sight (N) 11. Strong (Adj) : Strength (N)
4. Live (V) : Life (N) 12. Long (Adj) : Length (N)
5. Die (V) : Death (N) 13. True (Adj) : Truth (N)
6. Weigh (V) : Weight (N) 14. Hot (Adj) : Heat (N)
7. Believe (V) : Belief (N) 15. Wide (Adj) : Width (N
Samples :
1. The able of writers to precisely record observation made about others enables
B C
them to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own
C D
experience.
The sentence should read: The ability of writers to precisely record observation made about others
enables them to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own experience. Therefore,
the answer is (A).
2. Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to raise water from
A B C
streams for the irrigate of crops.
C
The sentence should read: Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to raise water from
streams for the irrigation of crops. Therefore, the answer is ( C )
3. Philosophy tries to discover the nature of true and knowledge and to find what is of the basic
A B C
value and importance in life.
D
The sentence should read: Philosophy tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find
what is of the basic value and importance in life. Therefore, the answer is (B)
Samples from TOEFL related to Noun :

4. Between 1725 and 1750, New England witnessed an increase in the specialization of ________
a. Occupation
b. Occupies
c. They occupied
d. It occupied them
5. Recent studies suggest that the shape of an-odor causing chemical molecule determines the nature of
the odor of ________ or substance.
a. That molecule
b. That the molecule
c. What the molecule
d. Molecule

6. Study of the Sun may lead to __________ of how the interior of the sun heats its outer atmosphere.
a. The discovery
b. Discover
c. Discovering
d. They will discover
7. The able of writers to precisely record observation made about others enables
B C
them to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own
C D
experience.
8. In chemistry, the term ‘verdigris’ is applied to acetates of copper formed by the react of copper
A B C D
with acetic acid.
9. Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to raise water from
A B C
streams for the irrigate of crops.
D
10. Philosophy tries to discover the nature of true and knowledge and to find what is of the basic
A B C
value and importance in life.
D
11. Because of its resistant to corrosion, tin is used as a protective coating for other
A B C
metals that corrode easily.
D
12. When the study of historic is merely a list of events that are isolated from one
A B C
another, there is little connection to the present.
D
13. In 1868, with the publish of the first volume of Little Women, Louisa May Alcott became a
A B C
celebrated writer.
D
Adjective
An adjective modifies (qualifies or limits the meaning of ) a noun or a pronoun. It answers the questions,
What kind? Which one(s)? How many? How much?
 Carrie read an interesting story. ( What kind of story?)
 The recent article has that information. ( Which article?)
 Kent owns those surfboards. ( Which surfboards?)

 Wendy paid fifty dollars for the jacket. ( How many dollars?)
 Much space was devoted to her artwork. ( How much space?)
The words a, an, and the are the most frequently used adjectives. Although they are sometimes referred to
as articles or noun markers, they are really adjectives, plain and simple. Use a before words that start with a
consonant sound ( a joking man or a lucky lottery player) and an before words that start with a vowel sound
( an hour’s wait or an interesting story).
An adjective can come before or after the noun or pronoun it describes:

 Older cards are found on the table. ( Which cards?)
 Tall players and intelligent coaches were interviewed by the interested reporter.
( Which players? Which coaches? Which reporter?)
 Tired and hungry , the campers reached the lodge. ( What kind of campers?)
 The campers, tired and hungry , reached the lodge. ( What kind of campers?)
Here are the clues to help us identify adjective easily in TOEFL question:
a. Suffixes that form Adjective
-ful (beautiful, useful) -ish (childish, selfish)
-less (speechless, powerless) -y (healthy, salty)
-al (industrial, political) -nt (different, significant)
-ive (creative, attractive) -ic (Islamic, historic)
-ble (comfortable, valuable) -an (Brazilian, European)
-ous (dangerous, famous) -ese (Chinese, Japanese)
-ar (circular, rectangular) -en (wooden, golden, woolen)
b. Participial Adjective
Adjective may also be derived from Present Participle (Ving) and (V3).
 Present Participle Adjective (Ving)
Ex: a washing machine, Ex: the confusing lesson
Adj N Adj N
 Past Participle Adjective (V3)
Ex: a limited edition Ex: a written document
Adj N Adj N
Samples:
1. Video artist combine many different ways of using video equipment both to
A B
create and to record various types of expression artistic.

C D
The sentence should read: Video artist combine many different ways of using video equipment both to
create and to record various types of expression artistic.
2. The convention national of a United States political party nominates candidates

A B
for the presidency and vice presidency of the country and issues a declaration of
C
policy.
D
The sentence should read: The national convention of a United States political party nominates
candidates for the presidency and vice presidency of the country and issues a declaration of policy.
Verb
There are several types of verbs to be studied: the action verb, the linking verb, and the helping verb.
Action Verbs An action verb tells what action (often a physical action) a subject is performing, has
performed, or will perform.
 My father delivers packages to department stores each day.
 Louie bowled a perfect game last night.
 Suzanne skated across the rink in Central Park.
 Turn at the next corner, Noel.
 Oscar will help Petra with the project.
Linking Verbs A linking verb connects (or links) a subject to a noun or an adjective in the predicate. The
most common linking verbs are the forms of the verb “to be” ( is, are, was, were, been, being, am ) and
appear , become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, and turn.
 My sister is a doctor. (The linking verb, is, connects the subject, sister, with the predicate
nominative, doctor. )
 My sister is studying to become a doctor. (In this sentence the word is is a helping verb for the main
verb, studying. Is does not function as a linking verb.)
 He appeared tired. (The linking verb, appeared, links the subject, He, with the predicate adjective,
tired. )
 He appeared at the game. (In this sentence the verb, appeared, is an action verb, not a linking verb.)
In the following group of sentences, the odd-numbered sentences exemplify the linking verb and the even-
numbered sentences show the same verb used as either an action verb or a helping verb. Discuss why each
verb functions as it does.
1. Reggie looked confused.
2. Reggie looked for his missing wallet.

3. Tammy grew tired during the long concert.
4. Tammy grew tomatoes in her garden this year.
5. I feel confused in math class.
6. I feel the penny at the bottom of this pool.
Helping Verbs or Auxulliaries A helping verb assists the main verb in a sentence. There can be more than
one helping verb in each sentence. In a questioning (interrogative) sentence, the helping verb is usually
separated from the main verb. The common helping verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, has,
had, have, do, does, did, may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, and would.
The italicized word in each sentence below is the helping verb. The underlined word is the main verb.
 The members are going to the city tomorrow evening.
 Are the members going to the city tomorrow evening?
 That joke has been heard around the offi ce.
 Has that joke been heard around the offi ce?
 Her brothers are leaving for the train.
 Are her brothers leaving for the train?
Verb Tenses in TOEFL Structure and Writen Expression Section

 Simple Present Tense [-s / -es] -> only for Singular or Uncountable Noun Subject in Present Tense
Subject Present Verb (V1) Present Verb (V1) +s/es
I,You, We, They √
She, He, It √
Singular Noun √
Plural Noun √
Uncountable Noun √
 Habitual/regular activity
Example:
She studies in ITI of Padang to increase her TOEFL score
She gets up at 5 A.M every morning
 General Truth/Fact,
Example:
The Earth revolves around the Sun
Water freezes at temperature below 00 C
A plant obtains energy from the Sunlight.

Plants obtain energy from the sunlight
Time signals:
- Today, recently, currently, nowadays,
- (every, each, any)+time.
- When the sentence discusses fact or general truth, time
signal is not necessary.
Example:
- According to a World Resources Institute Report, a significant part of forest
A B
acreage disappear each year.
C D
The sentence should read: According to a World Resources Institute Report, a significant part of forest
acreage disappears each year. Therefore the correct answer is (C).
- Variations in melody, rhythm and tone of voice becomes a major feature of child
A B C
speech toward the end of the first year.
D
The sentence should read: Variations in melody, rhythm and tone of voice becomes a major feature of
child speech toward the end of the first year. Therefore the correct answer is (B).
 Simple Past [-ed / irregular verb]

 Time Signals:
- ago
- last
- In 1972, in the eighteenth century, in the early 1800s
- First / early/ the earliest/ originally/ ancient/ prehistoric, etc
- When the subject is a historical figure / Fact (Albert Einstein, Civil War, World War II, etc)
Example:
- In the late 1800s, United States painter Thomas Eakins develop a broad,
A B
powerful Realist style that became almost expressionistic in his later years.
C D
The sentence should read: In the late 1800s, United States painter Thomas Eakins developed a broad,
powerful Realist Style that became almost expressionistic in his later years. Therefore, the correct
answer is (A).

 Continous/Progressive Tense [Tobe (am / is / are / was / were /be/been/being+ Ving)
Present Participle or Ving sometimes can be confusing because it has many function. Prent Participle
functions as Veb only when it is preceded by a to be . Pay attention to these following Ving examples :
 The meeting was cancelled (Gerund)
 We are discussing grammar now (Present Continues Tense)
 Indonesia is a developing country (Present Participial Adjective)
 Passive Voice [Tobe + V3]

Example:
- Prof Smith writes many articles (A) Many articles are written by Prof. Smith (P)
- Prof Smith wrote an article (A) An article was written by Prof Smith (P)
Note:
Ving ( Active voice / Continous Tense )
To Be +
V3 (Passive Voice )
Verb ‘be’ must not be followed by V1 and V2
Example:
- When a bone is broke into several pieces, doctors may pin the pieces together
A B C
for proper healing.
D
The sentence should read: When a bone is broken into several pieces, doctors may pin the pieces
together for proper healing. Therefore, the answer is (A)
- The one-fluid theory of electricity was proposing by Benjamin Franklin, a man famous for his
A B C D
wide interests and great attainments.
The sentence should read: The one-fluid theory of electricity was proposed by Benjamin Franklin, a
man famous for his wide interests and great attainments. Therefore, the answer is (B).
 Perfect Tense
Perfect tense uses auxilliaries [ have,has and had]
 Has / Have / Had + V3 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith has written many novels (A)
 Has / Have / Had + been + V3 (Passive)

Ex: Many novels have been written by Prof Smith (P)
Example:
- Law in the United States has became a complex blend of common law and
A B C D
statutory law.
The sentence should read: Law in the United States has become a complex blend of common law
and statutory law. Therefore, the answer is (B).
- Since Prehistoric times, artist have been arranged colors on surfaces in ways
A B
that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion.
C D
The sentence should read: Since prehistoric times, artists have arranged colors on surfaces in ways
that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion. Therefore, the answer is (A).
 Future Tense
Auxilliaries : Will/ Shall/Would
 Will + V1 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith will write an international Journal (A)
 Will + be + V3 (Passive)
Ex: An international journal will be written by Prof Smith (P)
 Modal (Can / Could / Shall / Should / May / Might)

 Modal + V1 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith must write an international journal. (A)
 Modal + be + V3 (Passive)
Ex: An international journal must be written by Prof Smith. P)
Example:
- The rights to any new and useful machine, manufacturing process, or
A B
material, or any improvement to these, can be protecting by United States
C D
patent law.
The sentence should read: The rights to ay new and useful machine, manufacturing process, or
material, or any improvement to these, can be protected by United States patent law.
 Tobe (am / is / are / was / were/ be / been /being + N/adj)

Example:
Prof Smith is a lecturer
He has been a lecturer for 10 years.

He will be a dean next month
He was a journalist
Example:
- Anyone with absolute, or perfect pitch are able to identify by ear any note at
A B
some standard pitch or to sing a specified note at will.
C D
The sentence should read: Anyone with absolute or perfect pitch is able to identify by ear any note
at some standard pitch or to sing a specified note at will. Therefore, the answer is (A)
Prefix and Suffixes that form Verb

en- (enrich, enjoy, entitle) -ate (vibrate, educate)
-ize (maximize, organize) -fy (classify, identify)
-en (shorten, sharpen) -er (lower, higher)
Summary:
- A sentence must consist of at least Subject and Verb
- Subject must be Noun
- To+V1 ≠ Verb
ADVERB
- When the verb of a sentence is underlined, check: There are five
a. Time Signals types of Adverb
in English:
b. Subject [singular/plural]
c. Active or passive voice
 Adverb of time
Now, recently , nowadays, currently
 Adverb of place
Here, there , at the office, etc
 Adverb of degree + Adjective
So, too, very, almost, rather, quite, pretty, somewhat
Ex : The Erie Canal became so successfully at providing cheap transportation that it was greatly
A B C
enlarged between 1835 and 1862.
D
Answer : A -> so successful
 Adverb of Frequency + Verb
Always
Often

Usually
Sometimes + Verb
Seldom
Ever
Never
 Adverb of Manner [How?]
a. -ly (beautifully, naturally)
b. -ward (backward, upward, downward, southward)
c. –wise (clockwise, counter-clockwise)
Adverb of manner has three different uses. They can describe verb, adjective or other adverbs.
The functions:
a. Modify verb
a. She walks toward me. How does she walk toward you? Slowly.
- She walks slowly toward me
- She slowly walks toward me
- She walks toward me slowly
b. The room is decorated with expensive painting. How is it decorated? Beautifully

- The room is decorated beautifully with expensive paintings
- The room is beautifully decorated with expensive paintings.
c. Modify adjective
Ex: Albert Einstein is brilliant
- Albert Einstein is exceptionally brilliant
- Albert Einstein is an extremely brilliant scientist
d. Modify Adverb
Ex:
She speaks unbelievably quickly
- It is an extremely quickly written letter
Patterns:
I. Verb+Adv / Adv+Verb
II. Tobe + adv + V3
III. Adv+Adj
Adv+Adj+Noun
IV. Verb+Adv+Adv

Adv+Adv+Adj+Noun
Ex:
1. The planet mercury has a moderately elliptically orbit
A B C D
2. In the Northern United States, two European species of small white birch are
A B
extensive planted as ornamentals.
C D
3. The Alaskan Highway was official opened on November 20, 1946, although much
A B
more works needed to be done to complete it.
C D
4. First reported by Spanish Explorers in 1796, the asphalt in California’s La Brea Tar Pit
A B
was mined commercial for many years.
C D
5. Violin is flexible extremely as an instrument, capable of playing long, sustained

A B C
Passages and those requiring great agility.
6. Canals are wholly or partially artificially waterways that convey goods or water from
A B C D
Point to point.
Answer key: 1. D, 2. C, 3. A, 4.C, 5.A, 6.A
Preposition
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of
gerund verbs).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
Preposition - Time
English Usage Example
 on  days of the week  on Monday
 in  months / seasons  in August / in winter

 time of day  in the morning
 year  in 2006
 after a certain period of  in an hour
time (when?)

 at  for night  at night
 for weekend  at the weekend
 a certain point of time (when?)  at half past nine
 since  from a certain point of time  since 1980

(past till now)
 for  over a certain period of time  for 2 years

(past till now)
 ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago
 before  earlier than a certain point of  before 2004

time
 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)
 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)
 to / till /  marking the beginning and end  from Monday to/till Friday
until of a period of time
 till / until  in the sense of how long  He is on holiday until Friday.

something is going to last
 by  in the sense of at the latest  I will be back by 6 o’clock.

 up to a certain time  By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.
Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)
 in  room, building, street, town,  in the kitchen, in London

country  in the book
 book, paper etc.  in the car, in a taxi
 car, taxi  in the picture, in the world
 picture, world
 at  meaning next to, by an object  at the door, at the station

 for table  at the table
 for events  at a concert, at the party
 place where you are to do  at the cinema, at school, at work

something typical (watch a

film, study, work)
 on  attached  the picture on the wall

 for a place with a river  London lies on the Thames.
 being on a surface  on the table
 for a certain side (left, right)  on the left
 for a floor in a house  on the first floor
 for public transport  on the bus, on a plane
 for television, radio  on TV, on the radio
 by, next to,  left or right of somebody or  Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.
beside something
 under  on the ground, lower than (or  the bag is under the table
covered by) something else
 below  lower than something else but  the fish are below the surface
above ground
 over  covered by something else  put a jacket over your shirt

 meaning more than  over 16 years of age
 getting to the other side  walk over the bridge
(also across)  climb over the wall
 overcoming an obstacle
 above  higher than something else,  a path above the lake

but not directly over it
 across  getting to the other side  walk across the bridge

(also over)  swim across the lake
 getting to the other side
 through  something with limits on top,  drive through the tunnel

bottom and the sides
 to  movement to person or  go to the cinema

building  go to London / Ireland
 movement to a place or  go to bed
country

 for bed
 into  enter a room / a building  go into the kitchen / the house
 towards  movement in the direction of  go 5 steps towards the house

something (but not directly to
it)
 onto  movement to the top of  jump onto the table

something
 from  in the sense of where from  a flower from the garden
Other important Prepositions
 from  who gave it  a present from Jane
 of  who/what does it belong to  a page of the book

 what does it show  the picture of a palace
 by  who made it  a book by Mark Twain
 on  walking or riding on horseback  on foot, on horseback

 entering a public transport  get on the bus
vehicle
 in  entering a car / Taxi  get in the car
 off  leaving a public transport  get off the train

vehicle
 out of  leaving a car / Taxi  get out of the taxi
 by  rise or fall of something  prices have risen by 10 percent

 travelling (other than walking  by car, by bus
or horseriding)
 at  for age  she learned Russian at 45
 about  for topics, meaning what about  we were talking about you
Patterns:

The N
 Preposition A Adj + N
An Adv+Adj+N
 Preposition + Ving
Ex: Before picking up my mom, I went to the market
Prep Ving
Ex: By practicing a lot, students can master writing and speaking English.
Prep Ving
Samples from TOEFL:
1. After the development of money in the seventh century B.C, people could sell goods without _______
to exchange them directly for other goods.
a. They had c. Having
b. Have d. To have had
2. The national debt is the sum total of financial obligations the national government incurs by
A B
borrow from foreign governments, international institutions, or its own population.
C D
Answer Key : 1.C, 2. C
 Preposition for Time
Ex: The seminar will be held __in__ 2015
The seminar will be held __in___ June 2015
The seminar will be held __on__June 6, 2015 __on__ Wednesday __at__ 4 A.M
Conclusion:
In : Month, Year, Month + Year
On : Date, Day
At : Hour
Note:
In 1970 (Correct)
In the 1970’s (Correct)
In the nineteenth century (Correct)
In the 1828 (Incorrect)  In 1828
In the twenty century (Incorrect)  In the twentieth century
Samples from TOEFL:
1. The Northern Hemisphere faces the Sun most fully during the summer solstice, which occurs in
A B C D
about June 22.

2.
Built in early 1820s, the Lachine Canal cuts directly through the southwestern tip of the Ile de
A B C D
Montreal in Canada.
3. Fencing, originally developed as a sport in fourteenth century, was included in the first modern
A B C
Olympic Games of 1896.
D
4. The appearance of Marianne Moore’s Collected Poems in 1951 confirmed her status as one of the
A B
major American Poets of the twenty century.
C D
Answer Key : 1.D, 2.A ,3.A, 4.D.
Another type of preposition is the compound preposition. It does the same as a common preposition but is
composed of two or more words. Here are the most common compound prepositions:
according to ahead of apart from as of aside from because of by means of in addition to

in back of in front of in place of in spite of instead of in view of next to on account of out
of prior to
Article
The N
A Adj + N
An Adv+Adj+N
1. A versus An
An : Vowel SOUND
A : Consonant SOUND
Article A/An both must be followed by Singular Noun
Ex: An Umbrella An Hour A europen country
A University A House A one-hour trip
Ex: The visible world …….. ( √ )

Art Adj N
A significance influent …….. ( × )

Art N Adj
A significant influence …….. ( √ )

Art Adj N
A perfectly strong boy …….. ( √ )

Art Adv Adj N
Sample:
Mark Spitz, an United States swimmer, won seven gold medals at the 1972 Olympic Games, all in
A B C D
world record times.
Answer: A
2. A/an versus The
A/AN  Generalization or definition
The is used in the following conditions:
a. Specific / special
b. Only one ex: the sun, the earth, the world, etc
d. Superlative Degree
Ex:
big, bigger, the biggest.
Expensive, more expensive, the most expensive.
Sample:
1. The gila monster is an only poisonous lizard native to the United States.
A B C D
2. Lake Superior, part of the United States-Canadian boundary, is a largest freshwater lake
A B C
In the world.
D
Answer Key: 1.A, 2. C.
EXERCISE:
1. Gasohol, a mixture of gasoline and alcohol, is often obtained by ___________

agricultural crops.

a. Fermentation
b. Fermenting
c. Ferment
d. It ferments
2. Study of the Sun may lead to __________ of how the interior of the sun heats its
outer atmosphere.
e. The discovery
f. Discover
g. Discovering
h. They will discover
3. After the development of money in the seventh century B.C., people could sell goods
without _______________ to exchange them directly for other goods.
a. They had
b. Have
c. Having
d. To have had
4. The able of writers to precisely record observation made about others enable them
A B
to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own experience.
C D
5. The convention national of a United States political party nominates candidates
A B C
for the presidency and vice presidency of the country and issues a declaration of
D
policy.
6. Canals are wholly or partially artificially waterways that convey goods or water
A B C
for irrigation from point to point.
D
7. Steam turbines are used to provide energy for most generators electric and ship
A B C
propellers.
D
8. Varying a camera’s shutter speed controls the film’s exposure to light and
A B
determines the speed of action that the photograph can produce without blur the

C D
image.
9. Because laser light is highly directional and monochromatic, extremity small

A B
amounts of light scattering or small frequency shifts caused by matter can easily be
C
detected.
D
10. Blood accounts for seven to eight percent of body weight in a average human.
A B C D
11. Because of its resistant to corrosion, tin is used as a protective coating for other
A B C
metals that corrode easily.
D
12. In the early nineteenth century, extensively canal building in the United States
A
resulted from the effort of eastern states to establish western markets.
B C D
13. Canada’s climate is dominated by its extremely cold and generally lengthily
A B C D
winters.
14. The typical of United States Trade Union is primarily a local organize devoted to
A B
the advancement and protection of the economic interest of its members.
C D
15. When the study of historic is merely a list of events that are isolated from one
A B C
another, there is little connection to the present.
D
16. Although the United States was beginning a vast program of building railroads,
A B C
canals, and highways in early 1800s, there were few technical training centers.
D
17. Video artist combine many different ways of using video equipment both to create
A B

and to record various types of expression artistic.
C D
18. Mark Spitz, an United States swimmer, won seven gold medals at the 1972 Olympic
A B C
games, all in world record times.
D
19. An attempt by government, business, or educationally institutions to remedy the
A B
past effect of discrimination against minority groups is referred to as ‘affirmative
C D
action’.
20. Born in 1882, the art Edward Hopper worked in New York City as a successful
A B
illustrator until 1924, when his paintings began to sell.
C D
21. The continental shelf, covered by waters of limited deep, is the part of the ocean
A B C
floor that is adjacent to the shore of a continent.

D
22. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries reserve varying portions
A B
of their nationally land, sea, and air forces as NATO forces.
C D
23. Rodney, a town on the Mississippi River, was chartered in the 1828 and was at its
A B
most populous about 30 years later.
C D
24. The planet mercury has a moderately elliptically orbit

A B C D
25. The national debt is the sum total of financial obligations the national government
A B
Incurs by borrow from foreign governments, international institutions, or its own
C D

Population.
26. In the Northern United States, two European species of small white birch are
A B
extensive planted as ornamentals.
C D
27. The Northern Hemisphere faces the Sun most fully during the summer solstice,
A B
which occurs in about June 22.
C D
28. Built in early 1820s, the Lachine Canal cuts directly through the southwestern tip
A B C D
of the Ile deMontreal in Canada.
29. Fencing, originally developed as a sport in fourteenth century, was included in
A B C
the first modern Olympic Games of 1896.
D
30. The appearance of Marianne Moore’s Collected Poems in 1951 confirmed her
A B
status as one of the major American Poets of the twenty century.
C D
31. The gila monster is an only poisonous lizard native to the United States.
A B C D
32. Lake Superior, part of the United States-Canadian boundary, is a largest freshwater
A B C
lake in the world.
D
33. First reported by Spanish Explorers in 1796, the asphalt in California’s La Brea Tar
A B
Pit was mined commercial for many years.
C D
34. Violin is flexible extremely as an instrument, capable of playing long, sustained
A B
passages and those requiring great agility.
C

Subject and Verb
A sentence in English should have a subject and a verb. The most common types of problem that you will
encounter in Structure questions on the TOEFL test are related to Subjects and verbs; perhaps the
sentence is missing either the subject or the verb, or perhaps the sentence contains the subject and verb
agreement problems.
A. Various Form of Subjects in A Sentence
The subject is a constituent that can be realized in numerous forms in English and other languages, many
of which are listed in the following table:
The large car stopped outside our house.

Noun (phrase) or pronoun
It is red
Farming requires much water
A gerund or gerund phrase His constant hammering was annoying.

(phrase)
Collecting antique stamps from around the world was a big trend in
the 1980s.
A to-infinitive (phrase) To read is easier than to write.
A full that-clause That he had traveled the world was known to everyone.
A free relative clause Whatever he did was always of interest.
A direct quotation I love you is often heard these days.
Zero (but implied) subject Take out the trash!
An expletive It is raining.

A cataphoric it It was known by everyone that he had traveled the world.
B. Subject and Verb Agreement
Basic The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural
Rule. subject takes a plural verb.
NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The
next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.
Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to
determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb
you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they.
Example: talks, talk

Which one is the singular form? Which word would you use with
he? We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks is singular. We say,
"They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.
Rule 1. Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.
Example: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a singular

verb as in Rule 1.
Examples: Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3. When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it
second and follow it with the singular verb am.
Example: Neither she nor I am going to the festival.
Rule 4. When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the
plural subject last and use a plural verb.
Example: The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
Rule 5. When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor,
put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.

Example: Neither Jenny nor the others are available.
Rule 6. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are
connected by and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
Rule 7. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along
with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining
whether to use a singular or plural verb.
Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause

of her shaking.
Rule The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone,
8. and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what
follows of.
Examples: Each of the girls sings well.
Every one of the cakes is gone.

NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every
one is two words when the meaning is each one.
Rule 9. With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all,
none, remainder, and so forth —look at the noun in your of phrase (object of
the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the
object of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the
preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples: Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.

Pie is the object of the preposition of.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.

Pies is the object of the preposition.
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.

NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.

Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
None of the garbage was picked up.
None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.
Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.
NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word only. However,
according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both
singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of
unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a
singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are
acceptable beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).
Rule 10. The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression
a number is followed by a plural verb.
Examples: The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.
Rule 11. When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
Examples: Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Rule The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though
12. they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject
follows the verb.
Examples: There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Rule 13. Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
Examples: Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Rule Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the
14. middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or

plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is
singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples: Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.

The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular.
Therefore, use the singular verb writes.
He is one of the men who does/do the work.

The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use
the plural verb do.
Rule 15. Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural
depending on their use in the sentence.
Examples: The staff is in a meeting.

Staff is acting as a unit here.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.

The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.
The sentence would read even better as:

The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.
Subject/Verb Agreement Exercises
1. The price of these jeans ____is/are_________ reasonable.

2. The books borrowed from the library __is/are____________ on my desk.
3. The boy who won the two medals ______is/are_________ a friend of mine.
4. Bread and butter _______is/are_______ our daily food.
5. The famous singer and composer ________have/has____________ arrived.
6. Collecting match-boxes _____is/are_________ one of his favorite pastimes.
7. The quality of the candies _______is/are_________ poor.
8. Neither his father nor his mother ______play/plays____________ mahjong.
9. Neither parent ________is/are__________ fond of playing mahjong.
10. None of my friends _____was/were____________ there.
11. Many students ______have/has________ made the same mistake.
12. Gold, as well as platinum, _______have/has_________ recently risen in price.
13. The boss, as well as his colleagues, _______have/has_________ been robbed by the robber.
14. Ten tons ______is/are__________ a heavy load.
15. Fifty miles ______is/are___________ a long distance.
16. Thirty years ______is/are______ a long time.
17. One of the books ___have/has________ been missing.
18. The poor __________is/are_________ suffering.
19. You should decide which one of the three choices A, B, or C best ____answer/answers____________ the
question.

20. One of the most intelligent students who ___score/scores__________ full marks ______is/are__________
John.
Task 2
1. The use of vitamin supplements and herbs (be) ___ becoming increasingly popular among Americans.
2. While many studies claim that vitamins and herbs can improve health, there (be) ___ a lot of
controversy about their safety.
3. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (do) ___ not regulate vitamins and herbs.
4. Most experts (believe) ___ that herbal supplements are mild and somewhat harmless.
5. Still, anyone who (take) ___ too much of a vitamin or herb could suffer negative side effects.
6. For example, some medical problems (have) ___ been linked to overuse of ephedra, an herb taken by
people to lose weight.
7. Some researches (suggest) ___ that Vitamin C may help prevent cancer.
8. People who (take) ___ more than 1,000 miligrams of vitamin C daily may experience diarrhea or kidney
stones.
9. Advertisers say that the herb "kava kava" (reduce) ___ anxiety and insomnia.
10. Using large amounts of kava kava (be) ___ not wise as muscle, eye or skin problems could result.
11. The danger of long-term use of vitamins and herbs (be) ___ still unknown.
12. There (be) ___ a lot of evidence that vitamin-rich foods are beneficial.
13. However, whether the use of supplements (be) ___ helpful or not is still being debated.
14. Most people (be) ___ able to get all the vitamins they need in the foods they eat.
15. A daily diet that (contain) ___ foods from the 4 groups should supply all the nutrients a person needs.
16. Eating 5 servings of fruits and vegetables daily (be) ___ said to provide all the essential vitamins we
require.
17. The best way to get the necessary vitamins and minerals (be) ___ naturally through a healthy diet.
18. Talking to your doctor before taking supplements (be) ___ advisable.

C. Simplifying A Sentence
In order to make it easier to find the subject and verb of a sentence especially in TOEFL Structure and
Written Expression part, the sentence can be eliminated by omitting some elements below:
1. Prepositional Phrase
Example:
1. Under a variety of conditions, in the presence or in the absence of water, ------------ with oxygen.
a. Iron reacting
b. Iron reacts
c. The reaction of iron
d. In which iron reacts
In this example you should look for the subject and the verb. You should notice that under a
variety of conditions, in the presence or in the absence of water are prepositional phrases that give
additional details to the main sentence therefore they can be eliminated. There are no subject
and verb in this sentence. Therefore answer (b) iron reacts is the best answer.
2. The major purpose of the United Stated Department of Education are to ensure
A
equal educational opportunity for all and to improve the quality of education.
B C D
In this example, the subject of the sentence is The major purpose. The word purpose is underlined
meaning that it is one of the suspects of error. Therefore the answer is (A) because when the
subject of the sentence is underlined, you must check the verb form, in this case are. The sentence
should read : The major purposes of the United Stated Department of Education are to ensure equal
educational opportunity for all and to improve the quality of education.
2. TO INFINITIVE [ to+V1 ]
Example:
-------------- to fly backwards and upside down and to hover is very unusual.
a. Hummingbirds are able
b. The ability of the hummingbird
c. The able hummingbird can
d. The hummingbird has the ability
3. Present Participle [Ving]/Past Participle [V3]
Example:
1. Founded in New Jersey in 1776 as Queen’s college, --------------- to honor a Revolutionary War hero in
1825.
a. Rutgers University, but renamed,
b. Rutgers University was renamed
c. But it was renamed Rutgers University
d. Renamed it Rutgers University
Answer : B
2. Among the factor affecting motivation are physiological ones, such as the body
A B

signals that tell people when they are hungry or tired.
C D
Answer : A
4. Appositive (words or phrases between two commas)
Example:
1. ____________, particularly the oxides of sulfur, greatly increases the rate at which rust forms.
a. The presence of air pollutants
b. Air pollutants are present
c. Because the presence of air pollutants
d. Air pollutants whose presence
Answer: A
2. The saguaro, found in desert regions in the southwestern United States, _____ cactus in the
world.
a. The largest
b. Is the largest
c. That is the largest
d. The largest that is a
Answer: B
5. Adjective Clause [ who, which, that, whom, whose, when, where]
Example:
---------- in the United Sates began in the eighteenth century, when individuals, merchants, and
colonial governments loaned money to one another.
a. It was banking
b. When banking
c. Banking
d. Banking was
Answer: C
6. Examples [ such as, like, especially, including, for example, etc].
Example:
Legumes such as alfalfa or clover are often plant as cover crops to replenish the nitrogen
A B
content of soil in heavily cultivated fields.
C D
The sentence should read: Legumes such as alfalfa or clover are often planted as cover crops to
replenish the nitrogen content of soil in heavily cultivated fields.

Subject and Verb Exercise
1. Until about 7.000 years ago, ……. no 6. …… was the most important economic
technology apart from simple tools. activity in the United States until about
a. There was almost 1890.
b. Was almost a. Agriculture when
c. There almost b. Agriculture
d. Almost c. It was agriculture
2. Ripe or rotting rain forest fruits …… d. There was agriculture
alcohol concentration as high as 5 percent. 7. Larch and spruce trees ….. in bogs and
a. Are contained wet areas of the northern United States.
b. That contain a. Found
c. Contain b. Are found
d. Containing c. Have found
3. ……. in eastern North America, within the d. Finding
belt of prevailing westerly winds, has 8. ….. by drying them is one of the oldest
given New Jersey a climate characteristic known methods of preventing food from
of an inland location. spoiling.
a. Located a. Preserving certain foods
b. Its location b. Preserve certain foods
c. It is located c. By preserving certain food
d. Because of its location d. certain foods preserved
4. Since the early 1950s, ……. throughout 9. In telecommunications, ...... data very long
the world has more than doubled. distances (up to 30 miles at one stretch).
a. There was demand for food a. For optical fibers to transmit
b. The demand for food b. Optical fibers transmit
c. Food, a demand that c. Optical fibers, when transmitting
d. Since the demand for food d. The transmission by optical fibers
5. The ordinary chair …… in countless 10. ……. To fly backwards and upside down
shapes, sizes, styles, and materials. and to hover is very unusual.
a. Has been made e. Hummingbirds are able
b. Has made f. The ability of the hummingbird
c. Been making g. The able hummingbird can
d. was making h. The hummingbird has the ability
11. Through reproduction ….. the properties a. That several

of a species. b. Several
a. Successive generations that carry on c. There are several
b. That successive generations carry on d. Several of the
c. Successive generations carry on 14. Migraine, one of the most common
d. Carry on successive generations headache condition known to human kind,
12. Refrigerating meats ….. the spread of ….. during the Mesopotamian era, about
bacteria. 3000 B.C.
a. Retards a. To be first described
b. Retarding b. Was first described
c. To retard c. Be first describing
d. Is retarded d. First describing
13. ….. Muscles in the shoulder, primarily the 15. …… to vapor without passing through
trapezius, which helps turn the scapula, the liquid phase is called sublimation.
and the deltoid, which moves the upper a. A solid converts
arm. b. The conversion of a solid

c. When a solid is converting d. A solid whose conversion
1. Saturn is surrounding by a vast swarm of particles that form many rings, some of which
A B C
are quite complex in composition.
D
2. Richard Wright’s Uncle Tom’s Children, a collection of short stories, were a critical
A B
success when it appeared in 1938.
C D
3. Legumes such as alfalfa or clover are often plant as cover crops to replenish the nitrogen
A B
content of soil in heavily cultivated fields.
C D
4. Children produce grammatically correct sentences by the age of three and uses
A B C D
some highly complex constructions by the time they are five.
5. Centrifuges are widely use to separate liquids having different densities or to separate
A B C
solids from liquids.
D
6. The first city in the United States to implement major plans for the clustering of
A B
government buildings were Washington D.C.
C D
7. Since prehistoric times, artists have been arranged colors on surfaces in a way to
A B C
represent their ideas of beauty.
D
8. In the nineteenth century, moving from crowded Britain to relatively sparsely populated
A B
North America were seen by many British as an act of patriotism.
C D
9. The rapid growth of the world’s population over the past 100 years have led to a great
A B
increase in the acreage of land under cultivation.
C D
10. One storm in the planet Jupiter’s upper clouds, known as the Great Red Spot, has
A B
observed for a period of well over 300 years.
B C D
11. Law in the United States has became a complex blend of common law and statutory law.
A B C D
12. Annually in the United States, paper currency with a face value of more than $35 billion
A B
is been printed, averaging about 16 million notes a day.

C D
13. In the United States, in the years after 1828, the Democrats won the presidency six out
A B
of eight times through 1856 and control Congress during most of that period too.
C D
14. In every culture, humans have organized themselves into groups, or communities and
A B C
have been established rules of living.
D
15. The Art Deco is characterizing by sleek forms, simplified lines, and geometric patterns.
A B C
Conclusion:
1. A sentence must contain at least subject and verb.
2. Subject must be noun.
3. The basic rule is that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a
plural verb.
4. To infinitive [ to + V1] is not verb or predicate of a sentence
5. When the subject is underlined, check the verb form
6. When the verb is underlined, check
- Time signal
- Subject (singular or plural)
- Active or passive voice
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE and ADJECTIVE PHRASE

An adjective clause describes a noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is positioned directly after the
noun that it describes.
 Function: To modify Noun
 Who + V
 Which/That + (S) + V
 Whom/Whose/When/Where + S + V
Example:
This is the house that I want to buy
The house that I want to buy is expensive
The ajective clause that I want to buy describe the noun house
An adjective Clause or reduced adjective clause begins with either a present participle (V-ing) or a past
participle (V3). It is simple to know which one to use: if the reduced clause is made from an active verb,
start the adjective clause with the present participle, but if it's made from a passive verb, begin the
adjective clause with a past participle. For example, the ordinary adjective clause in the first example:
Example 1

Verb in the adjective
Example Adjective Clause
clause
I saw a man who was carrying who was carrying an “was carrying” is
an umbrella. umbrella active
reduces to:
Reduced Adjective Participle that starts the

Example
Clause reduced clause
I saw a man carrying an

carrying an umbrella Carrying
umbrella.
We use “carrying” in the reduced clause because it comes from the active verb in the original clause.
Example 2
Adjective Verb in the adjective

Example
Clause clause
The people who worked there got a who worked

“worked” is active
raise last year. there
This reduces to:

Example
The people working there got

working there Working
a raise last year.
Example 3

Verb in the
Example Adjective Clause
adjective clause
The books which were published which were “were published”

that year are expensive. published that year is passive
reduces to:

Example
The books published that published that

Published
year are expensive. year
Ex: 1. The people [who consume too much sugar] have a greater risk of diabetes.
S Adj. Clause V
The people consuming too much sugar have a greater risk of diabetes.
S Adj. Phrase V
2. The government released a new policy [that regulated the number of political parties.]
S V Adj. Clause
The government released a new policy regulating the number of political parties.
S V Adj. Phrase
3. The books [which are written by Gus Dur] create a lot of controversies.
S Adj. Clause V
The books written by Gus Dur create a lot of controversies.
S Adj. Phrase V
4. Louis Pasteur [who is a French Chemist and Biologist] invented the Pasteurization.
S Adj. Clause V
Louis Pasteur, a French Chemist and Biologist, invented the Pasteurization.
S Adj. Phrase V

Directions: Change the adjective clauses to adjective phrases.
1. Dr. Stanton, who is the president of the university, will give a speech at the commencement
ceremonies.
2. Be sure to follow the instructions that are given at the top of the page.
3. The rules that allow public access to wilderness areas need to be reconsidered.
4. The photographs which were published in the newspaper were extraordinary.
5. There is almost no end to the problems that face a head of state.
6. The psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made important discoveries.
7. The experiment which was conducted at the University of Chicago was successful.
8. Kuala Lumpur, which is the capital of the city of Malaysia, is a major trade center in Southeast Asia.
9. Antarctica is covered by a huge ice cap that contains 70 percent of the earth's fresh water.
10. When I went to Alex's house to drop off some paperwork, I met Jerry, who is his longtime partner.

11. Our solar system is in a galaxy that is called the Milky Way.
12. Two out of three people who are struck by lightning survive.
13. Simon Bolivar, who was a great South American general, led the fight for independence early in the
19th century.
14. Many of the students who hope to enter the university will be disappointed because only one-tenth of
those who apply for admission will be accepted.
15. There must exist in a modern community a sufficient number of persons who possess the technical
skill that is required to maintain the numerous devices upon which our physical comforts depend.
16. Many famous people did not enjoy immediate success in their early lives. Abraham Lincoln, who was
one of the truly great presidents of the United States, ran for public office 26 times and lost 23 of the
elections. Walt Disney, who was the creator of Mickey Mouse and the founder of his own movie
production company, once was fired by a newspaper editor because he had no good ideas. Thomas
Edison, who was the inventor of the light bulb and the phonograph, was believed by his teachers to be
too stupid to learn. Albert Einstein, who was one of the greatest scientists of all time, performed badly
in almost all of his high school courses and failed his first college entrance exam.

Samples from TOEFL:
1. Scientists are now only beginning to understand the factors …….. cigarette addiction.
a. Cause
b. Causing
c. They cause
d. Causes
2. John Singleton Copley, ……… in Boston in 1793, built his reputation in colonial America as a
portraitist.
a. Born on
b. Was born
c. Born
d. Who born
3. An entire salt-marsh complex of creeks, marshes, river mouths, and barrier

A
islands can be seen as a single community linking by the tides.
B C D

4. Princeton University, was founded in 1746, is one of the oldest universities
A B C D
in the United States.
5. An entire salt-marsh complex of creeks, marshes, river mouths, and barrier
A
islands can be seen as a single community linking by the tides.
B C D
6. Establishing outside Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1976, The Minnesota
A
Valley National Wildlife Refuge contains more than 9,000 acres of forest,
B C
prairies, marshes and lakes.
D
Answer key: 1. B, 2. C, 3. D, 4. A, 5. D, 6.A
Preposition in Adjective Clause
Which (Thing)
Prep + S+V
Whom (Person)
Example:
For people: The teacher gave me good advice. I spoke to her yesterday
The teacher whom I spoke to yesterday gave me good advice.
The teacher to whom I spoke yesterday gave me good advice.
For things: The bag was empty. She looked in it.
The bag which she looked in was empty.
The bag in which she looked was empty.
1. Funeral is a ritual. Europeans wear black at funeral.

 Funeral is a ritual at which Europeans wear black.
2. Winter is a season. Many mammals such as bears hibernate during winter.

 Winter is a season during which many mammals such as bear hibernate.
3. Societies are informants. Anthropologists obtain cultural information from societies.

 Societies are informants from whom anthropologists obtain cultural information.
42 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

Compiled by : Nurfitrina Rosman
Sample from TOEFL:
1. Hypoglycemia is a condition _____ concentration of glucose in the blood falls to an abnormally low
level.
a. The
b. Of the
c. In which the
d. Such as the
2. Reflection occurs when light bounces off an objects and returns to the side ____
a. To come from
b. From which it came
c. It came
d. Which it came
3. In the cardiac cycle, the diastole is the period of relaxation of heart muscle
A B
which during the chamber of the heart fill with blood.
C
Answer key: 1. C, 2. B, 3.C
Expressions of Quantity in Adjective Clause
Whom (Person)
Expression of Quantity + Which (Thing) S+V
Whose (Possessive)
Examples:
a. In my class there are 20 students. Most of them are from the Far East.
 In my class there are 20 students, Most of whom are from Far East.
b. He gave several reasons. Only the few of them were valid.
 He gave several reasons, only of few of which were valid.
c. The teachers discussed Jim’s problems. One of his problems was poor study habits
 The teachers discussed Jim’s problems, one of whose problems was poor study habits.
Note:
- An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity with of: some of, many of, most of,
none of, two of, haft of, both of, neither of, each of, all of, several of, a few of, little of, a
number of, etc.
- The expression of quantity precedes the pronoun. Only whom, which, and, whose are used in
this pattern.
- Adjective clauses that begin with an expression are more common in writing than speaking.
- Commas are used.

3. ADVERB CLAUSE
 Function: To modify Sentence
 Connectors:
Because Until When As if
Since Unless Where As if Whether _ or
Though Before While As Though Yet + S+V
Although After Meanwhile So
Even though Once Whereas So That
Pattern:
Connector S V , S V If it rains, the streets get wet

S V Connector, S V The streets get wet, if it rains
Ex:
1. A delta is formed when _________ and the process of erosion does not carry the materials away.
a. the deposit of river c. the deposits of river sediment
b. the river deposits sediment d. the sedimentation of river
3. When ___________, the elections of the outer rings are exchanged
a. joining of two atoms c. two atom joint
b. two atoms join d. two of atom joining
4. Only a few sounds produced by insects are heard by humans ________ most of the sounds are
pitched either too high or too low.
a. In spite of c. as a result of
b. Because d. instead of
5. As a country develops from an agricultural to an industrial economy, the attitudes, values,
structures, and functions of the family _______.
a. The change c. change
b. Which change d. changing
6. Although the mole has no external ears, but its sense of hearing is acute.
A B C D
7. There are deposits of aluminum all over the earth because of the element is present in soils where
A B C
edible plants are grown.

D
8. Despite there are more than 4.200 miles of rivers in Massachusetts, the Connecticut River is the
A B C
state’s only major navigable waterways.
D
9. During a person inhales, the muscles of diaphragm contract, helping to pull air into the lungs.
A B C D
Answer key : 1. B, 2. B, 3. B, 4. C
Note:
a. Despite
In spite of + N/NP
Instead of
Because of
During
Ex: Because he is brilliant, he gets an achievement from his University.

Conn. S V
Because of his brilliance, he gets an achievement from his University.
Conn. NP
b. Two sentences  one connector
Three sentences  two connectors
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
and
Same Structure but Same Structure
or
Ex: The living room was decorated with expensive paintings and elegance lamps.
Adj. N N N
Elegance is a Noun. It should be changed into Elegant (Adj).
Ex: The student reads each chapter, takes a lot of notes and memories the materials.
V V N
Memories is a Noun. It should be changed into Memorizes (V).
PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS
 Both __________ and
 Either _________ or
 Neither ________ nor
 Not ___________ but
 Not only _______ but also
 Whether _______ or
 From __________to
 Between/among __________________and
 Rather than
 One _______ another
Ex: 1. Rapid eye movement sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because it has
A B
characteristics of either the waking and sleeping state.
C D
2. The moon has _________ athmosphere nor liquid water.
a. None c. But
b. Neither d. Whether
TWO WORD EXPRESSIONS

 Based on  According to  Devoted to
 Relate to  Resistant to  Similar to
 Derived from  Capable of  Differ from
 Exile from  Date from/to  Same as
 Adapted to  Regarded as  Carry on/out
 Consist of  Originated from  Native to
 Name for/after  Benefit from  Suited to
 Suffer from  Concern with  Result from
 Escape from  Purpose of  Come into
 Date to/from/back  Comment on  Known as/for
 Refer to  Depend on  Dedicated to
 Aware of  Combine into  Account for
 Deal with  Concentrated on  Subtitute for
 Cope with
Samples from TOEFL:
1. A liquid is similar at a gas in that a liquid can fit the shape of any container into which it is put.
A B C D
2. The development of microscope dates ________, which occurred between 1950 and 1610.
a. From the construction of compound-lens systems
b. When the construction of compound-lens systems
c. The construction of compound-lens systems
d. Was when the construction of compound-lens systems
3. Teak wood is highly valued because it is _________ to water.

a. Resisting, and strong, and durable
b. Strong, durable and resistant
c. Resistant, durable, and strong
d. Strong, durable, and resists
Answer Key: 1. A, 2. A, 3. B
COMPARISON
Positive Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller The smallest
Happy Happier The happiest
Expensive More expensive The most expensive
Beautiful More beautiful The most beautiful
Far Farther/ further The farthest/ the furthest
Good Better The best
Bad Worse The worst
Many/much More The most
Little Less The least
Patterns:
 Positive Degree (as adj as)
 Comparative Degree [more]adj
Adj [-er] + than
 Superlative Degree ( the + [most] + Adj

Adj+Noun
Adv + adj + Noun
Example:
1. Prized for centuries for their beauty, roses are the world’s______________ plants.
a. Cultivated ornamental most widely
b. Ornamental widely cultivated most
c. Most widely cultivated ornamental
d. Widely ornamental most cultivated
2. Of the more 850 species of trees in the United States, the most oldest, the
A B
bristlecone pine, grows in the Nevada and Southern California desert.
C D
3. When Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated as President in 1933, the United

A
States was in the midst of the worse economic depression in its history.
B C D
Answer key: 1. C, 2. B, 3. C
To infinitive in Superlative Degree

The first / The second / The third …….
To + V1 To + be + V3
The (most) adj. (-est) …………………
Ex: Sally Ride is the first American astronaut woman ______ on the moon.
a. landed c. landing
b. who landed d. to land
Equalisation
Pattern: The more _________; The more (S) V
Ex: 1. Hubble’s law states that the greater the distance between any two galaxies,
__________________ is their relative speed of separation.
a. the greatest c. greater than
b. the greater d. as great as
2. The more kinetic energy in the particles of a material, the hottest the material
A B C D
Is.
Answer key: 1. B, 2. D
Repetition in Comparison
Pay attention to these indicators:
 As ----------- as
 Same as
 Resemble to
 Look similar to
 Differ from
 More/ less ------ than-----
Rules:
a. The items that are compared or repeated must be similar or equal (apple to apple)
b. That (Singular) >< Those (Plural)
Example:
 The chemical composition of sand stone is the same as the chemical composition
of sand.
The repeated words “the chemical composition” could be changed into that.

Therefore, the sentence becomes : The chemical composition of sandstone is the
same as that of sand.
 The rules in Written English are more stringent than the rules of spoken English.
The repeated words “the rules” could be changed into those.
Therefore the sentence becomes: the rules of written English are more stringent
than those of spoken English
Ex:
1. Ostrich eggs are larger _____ of other birds; they are 50 mm long and 125 mm thick.
a. than they are c. than those
b. than that d. that than those
2. Veterinary medicine is practiced separately from human medicine since animal diseases differ
largely from ________________ humans.
a. those affecting c. they are affecting
b. what affecting d. affecting of
4. Among thr most fundamenataal concepts in physics are they of distance and time and of how
they relate to motion.
Answer key: 1. C, 2. A
INVERSION
Inversion means change in word order. These following words or group of words are followed by invesion
when they begin a sentence.
 Not until  Never
 Not only  Under the circumstances
Auxiliary
 Rarely  With no exception Does/Do/Did

 In no way  At no time
Has/Have/Had
S+V
 Never  Seldom
 Scarcely  Hardly
To be
 Only  No sooner Modal
Ex: 1. Television did not get its start as a full-scaled broadcasting service in the U.S until 1948
Not until 1948 did television get its start as a full-scaled broadcasting in U.S
2. I have never seen such a beautiful rose
Never have I seen such a beautiful rose
3. Earthquake not only destroys the buildings but also the fragile ecosystem
Not Only does the earthquake destroy the buildings but also the fragile ecosystem.
4. Rendang is seldom made of fish
Seldom is Rendang made of fish
Example:

1. Not until 1741 and the first installment of Benjamin Franklin’s General magazine _______________
their first appearance in North America.
a. When did literary magazines begin to make
b. Did literary magazines begin to make
c. Literary magazine began to make
d. Began to make literary magazines
2. Not only ________________ the center of French language and culture in North America, it is also
the second largest province in Canada with respect to population.
a. Considering Quebec
b. Where Quebec is considered
c. Quebec is considered
d. Is Quebec considered.
3. Not until fairly recently ____________ that land is not a limitless commodity.
a. Americans have realized
b. When have American realized
c. Have Americans realized
d. But Americans have realized
4. Despite widespread recognition of worsening urban housing problems in the 1950s, only after
1865 _________ to improve housing conditions.
a. Undertaking efforts by the United States government
b. Did the efforts undertaken by the United States government
c. Efforts that were undertaken by the United States government
d. Did the United States government undertake efforts
Answer key: 1. B, 2. D, 3. C, 4.D
EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY
For Singular Noun A, an, every, any, each, every, another
For Plural Noun Two, three, .., both, several, various, numerous, most, all, all of, of all,
some, between, among, many, few, a few, a number of, one of, a group
of, a lot of, lot of, other
For Countable Noun Many, few, a few, a number of
For Uncountable Noun Much, little, a little, the amount of
For both Countable and a lot of, some, most, all, all of, of all, a lot of, a lot, more, none, one of,
Uncountable Noun the majority of
Note:
 Another + Singular oun
Other + Plural Noun
Each
Any Other + Singular Noun
Every
 The other + Noun (Plural)
Adj
The others ( must not be followed by Noun)
The other elements ( Correct)
The others elements ( Incorrect)
 The number of [N] takes singular Verb
A number of [N] takes plural verb
Ex:
The number of people visiting Paris has increased.
A number of People visit Paris every year
 Most
All + Plural Noun
Some
Most
All my
Some your
Part + of + the
Half our, etc
Ex:
Most vegetables contain vitamins, fibers and minerals
Most of the vegetable is contaminated by pesticides
Most of the vegetables are contaminated by pesticides
Example:
 Cone shells live in much different seas and feed mainly on small fish and
A B C
worms.
D
 Another great artists of the time and possibly the most gifted silversmith in
A B C
the colonies was Paul Revere.
D
The sentence should read: Another great artist of the time and possibly the most gifted silversmith
in the colonies was Paul Revere. Therefore the correct answer is (A)
Samples from TOEFL:
1. Numerous approaches have been used in modern times to promote trade among nation.
2. Forests are plant communities that have a closed canopy of trees, beneath which may be another
small trees, shrubs, and a ground layer of herbs.

3. An American poet, dramatist, and performer, Maya Angelou is regarded as one of the foremost voice
of African American Literature.
4. Much artists have formal arrangements with galleries that act as their agents or dealers, showing the
artists’ works and taking percentage of the selling price.
NOUN CLAUSE
A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses most often begin with the
subordinating conjunction.
 Who - How - How much -Whatever

 Which - Why - How many - If
 That - When - Whenever - Whether
 what - Where - Wherever -Whoever
Since a noun clause acts as a noun, it can do anything that a noun can do. A noun clause can be a
subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, a subject complement, an object
complement or an appositive.
Examples:
Whatever you decide is fine with me. [ Noun Clause as a subject]

S V
Whether he continues his study next year or not remains unknown [NC as subject]
S V
That Jokowi chose many businessmen to join his cabinet is not surprising. [NC as Subject]
He wondered why he had to live there alone . . .. He wondered where his friends were, where his
family was. He wondered what he had done to earn himself this precarious and uncomfortable
circumstance. He remembered when he was a powerful man, successful, well-regarded." [ Noun
Clause as Object of the verb wonder and remember]
Lacey talked at length about how she had won the perogy-eating contest.
[ Noun Clause as object of the preposition about)
Sample from TOEFL:
…… different kinds of sleep has long been recognized.

a. There are
b. Although there are
c. Why there are
d. That there are
REVERSED WORDS
Example:
Specialization in industry creates workers lack who versatility in their ability to
A B C D
step in to other jobs.

The sentence should read: Specialization in industry creates workers who lack versatility in their
ability to step in to other jobs. Therefore, you the correct answer is (C).
Omitted Words
Example:
Yosemite National Park is most well known its beautiful spouting geysers of all
A B C
sizes.
D
The sentence should read: Yosemite National Park is most well known for its beautiful spouting
geysers of all sizes. Therefore, the correct answer is (B).
UNNECESARY WORDS
Example:
While push-ups build your arms, shoulders and chest, sits-ups they strengthen
A B
your abdominal muscles.
C D
The sentence should read:” While push-ups build your arms, shoulders and chest, sits-ups
strengthen your abdominal muscles. The word they is omitted. Therefore, the correct answer is (B).
Purpose vs. Effect

SO THAT — PURPOSE
A statement of action or intended action is followed by the preposition so and that + clause
expressing purpose or goal.
Example:
 We stayed out all night so that we could watch the World Cup final match.
 We took some blankets so that we could keep warm
SO [ ADJECTIVE/ADVERB+ADJECTIVE] THAT + S + V ---- INTENSIFIER
So has two meanings and uses for expressing effect: (1) a connector followed by a clause
expressing a result; (2) an intensifier for some remarkable situation or condition followed by that
+ clause expressing the effect.
Example:
 The car is so expensive that we could not afford to buy it.
 The weather is so hot that you could fry an egg on the sidewalk.
Sample from TOEFL:

Fluorine is a greenish gas too active that even water and glass burn in it.
A B C D
The sentence should read: Fluorine is a greenish gas so active that even water and glass burn in
it.


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TOEFL Section 2:

Structure and Written Expression

Basic Grammar Terminologies

(to) be, have, do, like, EnglishClub.com is a web site. I

pen, dog, work,

a/an, the, 69, some,

My dog eats quickly. When he is

links a noun to another

I like dogs and I like cats. I like

1 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

2 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

3 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

 Suffixes that form Noun

 -ion (notification, production)  -gy (psichology, geology)

4 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

Samples from TOEFL related to Noun :

5 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

6 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

An adjective can come before or after the noun or pronoun it describes:

7 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

2. The convention national of a United States political party nominates candidates

8 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

Verb Tenses in TOEFL Structure and Writen Expression Section

9 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

 Simple Past [-ed / irregular verb]

10 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

 Passive Voice [Tobe + V3]

Verb ‘be’ must not be followed by V1 and V2

11 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

 Modal (Can / Could / Shall / Should / May / Might)

 Tobe (am / is / are / was / were/ be / been /being + N/adj)

12 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

Prefix and Suffixes that form Verb

13 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

b. The room is decorated with expensive painting. How is it decorated? Beautifully

14 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

5. Violin is flexible extremely as an instrument, capable of playing long, sustained

 on  days of the week  on Monday

 in  months / seasons  in August / in winter

15 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

 since  from a certain point of time  since 1980

 for  over a certain period of time  for 2 years

 ago  a certain time in the past  2 years ago

 before  earlier than a certain point of  before 2004

 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)

 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)

 till / until  in the sense of how long  He is on holiday until Friday.

 by  in the sense of at the latest  I will be back by 6 o’clock.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English Usage Example

 in  room, building, street, town,  in the kitchen, in London

 at  meaning next to, by an object  at the door, at the station

16 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

something typical (watch a

 on  attached  the picture on the wall

 over  covered by something else  put a jacket over your shirt

 above  higher than something else,  a path above the lake

 across  getting to the other side  walk across the bridge

 through  something with limits on top,  drive through the tunnel

 to  movement to person or  go to the cinema

17 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

 into  enter a room / a building  go into the kitchen / the house

 towards  movement in the direction of  go 5 steps towards the house