Strategies Used in Natural
Environments to Promote
Communication Development in
Young Children at Risk for Autism
Spectrum Disorder
Christan Grygas Coogle, PhD
Kim Floyd, PhD
West Virginia University
Mary Frances Hanline, PhD
Florida State University
Jacquie Kellner-Hiczewski, MS
Speech-Language Pathologist on Call
YEC
Introduction
The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) has
documented that 1 in every 88
children is identified with an autism
spectrum disorder (ASD; CDC,
2012). Autism is now recognized in
children at an earlier age because
most researchers agree autism can
be reliably identified by the time
children reach 24 months (Cox
et al., 1999; Stone et al., 1999).
Therefore, families who have young
children at risk for or identified with
ASD are increasing in the early
intervention community
(Henderson, 2009). Early
intervention is recognized as an
effective approach for children at
risk for or identified with an ASD
(National Research Council [NCR],
2001; Rogers & Vismara, 2008;
Wetherby & Woods, 2006); the
earlier these children receive
intervention, the more positive,
long-term outcomes will occur
(Volkmar, Lord, Bailey, Schultz, &
Klin, 2004).
It is vital that early intervention
enrich communication skills because
this is one of the core deficits for
children at risk for or identified with
Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
an ASD (Shumway & Wetherby,
2009) and the emergence of spoken
language is a critical variable in
predicting better outcomes in
childhood and adulthood; children
who exhibit communication and
social delays, specifically those
experiencing ASD, are at risk for
developing problem behaviors and
delays in literacy development
(Horner, Carr, Strain, Todd, &
Reed, 2002; Kamhi & Catts, 2005;
Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky,
& Seidenberg, 2001; Tager-Flusberg
et al., 2009). Numerous studies have
demonstrated the positive effects of
early intervention on language
development for the majority of
children with ASD (Rogers &
Vismara, 2008; Tager-Flusberg
et al., 2009). Therefore, the purpose
of this article is to discuss evidence-
based strategies for communication.
Examples of how these strategies
might be implemented in homes,
early childhood education programs,
and other natural environments, as
well as additional web-based
resources to understand and support
DOI: 10.1177/1096250612473126
http://yec.sagepub.com
© 2013 Division for Early Childhood
11
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
“
Language intervention is
most effective for children
with ASD when the
intervention begins early,
includes social uses of
language, and occurs with
the intensity and duration
needed to facilitate
acquisition and
generalization of new skills
(Hancock & Kaiser,
2002).
”
12 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
communication development of
young children at risk or identified
with ASD are included.
Language intervention is most
effective for children with ASD
when the intervention begins early,
includes social uses of language, and
occurs with the intensity and
duration needed to facilitate
acquisition and generalization of
new skills (Hancock & Kaiser,
2002). Teaching communication
skills in the natural environment has
resulted in an increase in
vocabulary, generalization,
maintenance, and unprompted use
of language in young children with
ASD (as reviewed in Mancil, 2009).
Because intervention takes place in
natural environments, these
strategies allow for multiple practice
opportunities and have the potential
to occur in activities that are of high
motivation to the child and family
(Woods, Wilcox, Friedman, &
Murch, 2011). The strategies
discussed share the common feature
of being able to be used within the
context of home and family
routines, as well as within the
activities of an early childhood
education (ECE) program.
If intervention is to be
conducted within the context of
family and ECE program routines
and activities, early interventionists
must be able to use adult learning
strategies to support parents and
other caregivers to learn and utilize
the research-based intervention
strategies. In this way, family,
friends, and/or early care providers
become an integral part of
intervention. Current literature
supports coaching strategies that
include modeling, reflective
listening, questioning, performance
feedback, prompting, and problem
solving (Woods et al., 2011). A
Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013
triadic relationship among the child,
parent/ECE teacher, and early
interventionist where the
interventionist acts as a coach is
important to facilitate not only child
growth but also adult learning and
practice. These practices are
illustrated in the scenarios below.
Strategies to Facilitate
Communication
Development in Young
Children at Risk for or
Identified With an ASD
The strategies in this article
have been implemented in a variety
of intervention settings (e.g., home,
community, clinic) with young
children at risk for or identified with
ASD and have led to an increase in
communication skills (Aldred,
Green, & Adams, 2004; Hancock &
Kaiser, 2006; Hwang & Hughes,
2000; Ingersoll & Dvortcsak, 2009;
Ingersoll, Dvortcsak, Whalen, &
Sikora, 2005; Ingersoll, Lewis, &
Kroman, 2007; Kashinath, Woods,
& Goldstein, 2006; Wetherby &
Woods, 2006). Table 1 provides an
overview of the strategies and Table
2 provides a list of web-based
resources that can be used to learn
more about the strategies as well as
other information to support
communication skill development in
young children. Included are
strategies that can be used in natural
environments and across cultures.
Activities and routines in which the
strategies are embedded should
match those of the child and family
and/or ECE program. For instance,
some of the examples are used while
playing with blocks; however, block
play might not be an activity in
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
Table 1
Communication and Strategies
Strategy Definition and references
Focusing or following the When the communication partner and child establish
child’s lead coordinated attention (Aldred, Green, & Adams,
2004; Hancock & Kaiser, 2006; Hwang & Hughes,
2000; Ingersoll & Dvortcsak, 2009; Ingersoll,
Dvortcsak, Whalen, & Sikora, 2005; Ingersoll, Lewis, &
Kroman, 2007)
Modeling Providing an example of expressive language (Aldred
et al., 2004; Ingersoll & Dvortcsak, 2009; Wetherby &
Woods, 2006)
Elaborations or Providing additional words around what the child says
expansions (Aldred et al., 2004; Ingersoll & Dvortcsak, 2009;
Ingersoll et al., 2005)
Interspersing preferred Scheduling preferred and nonpreferred routines
and nonpreferred throughout the day to provide opportunities for the
activities to promote child to request a preferred activity (Hancock &
requests Kaiser, 2006)
Choice making Providing choices to the child to create a
communication opportunity (Hancock & Kaiser,
2006; Hwang & Hughes, 2000; Wetherby & Woods,
2006).
Contingent imitation and Imitating what the child does to create a social
balanced turns interaction and communication opportunity
(Hancock & Kaiser, 2006; Ingersoll & Dvortcsak, 2009;
Ingersoll et al., 2007; Kashinath, Woods, & Goldstein,
2006; Wetherby & Woods, 2006)
Naturally reinforcing Upon appropriate communication attempts, providing
language the child with desired item or routine to naturally
reinforce communication attempts (Hancock &
Kaiser, 2006; Hwang & Hughes, 2000; Ingersoll et al.,
2007; Kashinath et al., 2006; Wetherby & Woods,
2006)
Wait time or time delay Using expectant looks and pauses prior to providing
child with desired routine or item to create a
communication opportunity (Hancock & Kaiser,
2006; Hwang & Hughes, 2000; Kashinath et al., 2006;
Wetherby & Woods, 2006).
Parallel talk Narrating what the play partner is doing (Aldred et al.,
2004; Ingersoll et al., 2005; Ingersoll et al., 2007)
Self-talk Narrating what oneself is doing (Ingersoll et al., 2005;
Ingersoll et al., 2007)
Obstruction Playfully interrupting a child’s play to create a
communication opportunity (Ingersoll & Dvortcsak,
2009; Ingersoll et al., 2005)
Sabotage Purposefully not providing all necessary materials to
create a communication opportunity (Ingersoll et al.,
2005)
Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Example
Lucas is playing with fish at the water table. His teacher
joins him to establish a shared focus (following his
lead) at the water table.
Juanita, an early intervention provider, uses modeling
when she observes Aaron reaching for his milk when
she says, “Milk please.”
Joey sees a cow in the field and says, “Cow.” His father
responds, “The cow says moo.”
Chenoa, an ECE teacher, manipulates her schedule so
that Marla participates in two preferred activities,
then a nonpreferred activity. She waits for Marla to
request to be all done, then moves to another
preferred activity.
At lunch, Stephen’s father asks if he would like to have
juice or milk with his lunch.
Sofia and her father are playing with blocks. Each time
Sofia places a block at the top of her tower, her father
places a block on top. Sofia takes a turn then her
father takes a turn doing the same thing with the
blocks that Sofia did.
When Aalap signs, “More please,” his big sister gives him
one more spoonful of yogurt.
Billy loves to spin while his father sings, “Ring around
the Rosie.” When Billy’s father finishes the song,
instead of starting all over again, he waits with a look
of expectation for Billy to communicate that he
wants more.
As Alice, a preschool teacher, interacts with Ojore, she
describes what he is doing with the blocks, “You are
stacking your blocks up sooo high.”
Petiri (an ECE teacher) interacts with Petal at the easels,
he describes what he is doing, “I am going to paint
with yellow paint now, and paint a big yellow circle.”
When Bernard is making a picture, his father playfully
removes his crayons.
When Xavia wants to play trains, her father withholds
the train track.
(continued)
13
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
Table 1
Continued
Strategy Definition and references
Violating routines Playfully changing the sequence or routines to create a
communication opportunity (Ingersoll et al., 2005)
In sight–out of reach Placing desired materials so the child can see them but
not reach them to create a communication
opportunity (Hancock & Kaiser, 2006; Ingersoll et al.,
2005; Kashinath et al. 2006)
Purposeful Treating all actions of the child as purposeful and
communication applying meaning (Ingersoll et al., 2005)
which all families engage or in
which all children show interest.
Therefore, it is best to use the
strategies in routines that are
consistent with families’ and/or
caregivers’ preferences and are of
interest to the child.
Following the Child’s Lead
Following the child’s lead within
activities and routines is important
to provide opportunities for the
child and communication partner to
interact with one another. By
following the child’s lead, the
caregiver is motivating the child to
participate in communication and
interaction because they are
engaging in a preferred activity
(Aldred et al., 2004; Hancock &
Kaiser, 2006; Hwang & Hughes,
2000; Ingersoll & Dvortcsak, 2009;
Ingersoll et al., 2005; Ingersoll et al.,
2007). The communication partner
is focused on the child when
following the lead of the child, and
this allows the child to have
opportunities for interaction. It also
requires the communication partner
to be observant of the child and to
join in the child’s activity, whether it
14 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013
Example
When it is time to brush Joshua’s teeth, his mother
hands him his cup to rinse before giving him his
toothbrush.
Laney knows that her son will be hungry soon, so she
places the crackers where he can see them, but
cannot reach them.
Dilip grabs his mother’s hand and escorts her to the toy
box that he is unable to open. Dilip’s mother says,
“Oh, you want toys.”
be within a play activity such as
rolling Play-Doh© or a daily routine
such as hand washing.
For example, Leo, an early
interventionist, and Emily’s mother
discuss routines and activities Emily
enjoys. Leo explains, “By looking at
those activities and routines that
Emily enjoys, we can decide where
we can use other intervention
strategies such as modeling or
expanding what she says.” Emily’s
mother responds, “Emily enjoys
walks, rolling balls, and watching
television.” A few moments later,
Leo observes Emily get a ball. Leo
says, “It looks like Emily wants to
play ball. Let’s go join her.” As they
join in Emily’s play, they wait for
Emily to roll the ball to them, then
roll it back to her. If Emily points to
or pats the ball, Emily’s mother
responds, “Yes, that is your big
yellow and red striped ball.”
Choice-Making Opportunities
By providing an opportunity for
a child to make choices, the child is
given opportunities to communicate
his or her preferences (Hancock &
Kaiser, 2006; Hwang & Hughes,

Table 2
Web-Based Resources
Web-based resource
What Works Clearinghouse (WWC)
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
National Early Childhood Technical Assistance
Center (NECTAC)
http://www.nectac.org/
Zero to Three
http://www.zerotothree.org/
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC)
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/index
.html
Autism Speaks
http://www.autismspeaks.org/about-us
Center on the Social and Emotional
Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL)
http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/
Autism Society
http://www.autism-society.org/
National Autism Association
http://nationalautismassociation.org/
American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association (ASHA)
http://www.asha.org/
Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
Description
As an initiative of the U.S. Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences (IES),
WWC was created in 2002 to be a central and trusted source of scientific evidence for
what works in education. This website delivers information through the “Find What
Works” tool, pulling findings from multiple reports, a searchable database of research
studies, and publications.
NECTAC is the national early childhood technical assistance center supported by the U.S.
Department of Education’s Office of Special Education Programs under the provisions of
the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). NECTAC serves Part C–Infant and
Toddlers With Disabilities Programs and Part B–Section 619 Preschool Programs for
Children With Disabilities in all 50 states and 10 jurisdictions to improve service systems
and outcomes for children and families. The website can be searched for information
related to early intervention, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and other relevant topics.
Zero to Three is a national, nonprofit organization that informs, trains, and supports
professionals, policy makers, and parents in their efforts to improve the lives of infants and
toddlers. The website can be searched for information related to early communication
skills development, ways to facilitate early development, and other relevant topics.
CDC’s mission is to collaborate to create the expertise, information, and tools that people
and communities need to protect their health—through health promotion, prevention of
disease, injury and disability, and preparedness for new health threats. CDC is committed
to continuing to provide essential data on ASD, search for risk factors and causes, and
develop resources that help identify children with ASD as early as possible.
Autism Speaks is the nation’s largest autism science and advocacy organization, dedicated to
funding research into the causes, prevention, treatments, and a cure for autism; increasing
awareness of ASD; and advocating for the needs of individuals with autism and their
families. The website can be searched for intervention techniques, early signs of ASD, and
other relevant topics.
CSEFEL is focused on promoting the social emotional development and school readiness of
young children birth to age 5. CSEFEL is a national resource center funded by the Office of
Head Start and Child Care Bureau for disseminating research and evidence-based practices
to early childhood programs across the country. The website can be searched for parent
and professional information to support appropriate early social and emotional
development.
The Autism Society exists to improve the lives of all affected by autism by increasing public
awareness about the day-to-day issues faced by people on the spectrum, advocating for
appropriate services for individuals across the life span, and providing the latest
information regarding treatment, education, research, and advocacy. The website can be
searched for intervention techniques, early signs of ASD, and other relevant topics.
The mission of the National Autism Association is to respond to the most urgent needs of
the autism community, providing real help and hope so that all affected can reach their
full potential. The website can be searched for information about ASD and intervention
approaches.
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association is the professional, scientific, and
credentialing association for more than 150,000 members or affiliates who are audiologists,
speech-language pathologists, and speech, language, and hearing scientists in the United
States and internationally. The website can be searched for information about ASD and
early communication development and intervention strategies designed for the public.
Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 15
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
2000; Wetherby & Woods, 2006).
The number of choices must be
appropriate for each individual
child. That is, while some children
can choose one book to read from
four possible books, other children’s
options are better limited to two
books from which to choose.
Children can be given opportunities
to make choices throughout the day
in activities and routines such as
getting dressed (“Do you want to
wear your blue or red shirt today?”)
or outdoor play (“Would you like to
swing or play in the sand?”). It is
important to note that the choices
offered are all appropriate choices
for the child to make.
For instance, Rachel, a
preschool teacher, Lori, a speech-
language pathologist, and Jamie, a
paraprofessional, are collaborating
with the goal of creating
communication opportunities for
the children in the classroom. One
way they provide communication
opportunities is by giving the
children choices. After small groups,
Rachel and Jamie ask the children in
their small groups which center they
16 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013
will choose. Rachel and Jamie use a
verbal prompt and pictures to be
sure the children understand and
give the children in their groups the
opportunity to make a choice. Some
children choose by pointing to a
picture and some children verbally
respond.
Intersperse Preferred and
Nonpreferred Activities
Deliberately engaging the child
in both preferred and nonpreferred
activities provides opportunities for
the child to use communicative
behaviors to protest, request release
from a nonpreferred activity, and to
request a preferred activity
(Hancock & Kaiser, 2006). This
strategy also provides the
opportunity to teach appropriate
ways to request and protest. When
the communication partners feel
they know the child, they can
purposefully arrange for both
preferred and nonpreferred activities
to occur to allow for these
communication opportunities.
The following scenario
illustrates interspersing preferred
and nonpreferred activities. Myla,
Raeshawn’s mother, explains to
Keisha, the early intervention
provider that Raeshawn loves to
play with trucks, trains, and cars.
She also indicates that reading
stories and playing with baby dolls
are nonpreferred activities. Myla
attempts to read a book with
Raeshawn which causes him to
protest by hitting the book and
squirming off the couch. Keisha
immediately says to Raeshawn,
“Raeshawn, use your cards to ask to
play with your vehicles,” gives
Raeshawn the appropriate card, and
physically prompts him to show the
card to Myla. Myla then says, “I see
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
you would like to play with your
cards and trucks, Raeshawn. Let’s
go get them.”
Obstruction
One way in which the
communication partner can provide
a communication opportunity is by
using obstruction or briefly
interrupting the child’s routine to
present a communication
opportunity (Ingersoll & Dvortcsak,
2009; Ingersoll et al., 2005). When
young children become focused in
their play, it can be difficult to
become a part of that activity;
however, by using obstruction, the
communication partner becomes an
active participant in the routine in
which the child is engaged. As the
communication partner “obstructs”
or stalls the child’s activity, the child
is provided a prompt to
communicate in order for the
activity to resume by communicating
verbally or nonverbally (e.g.,
gestures, visuals, choice boards) to
convey meaningful intent.
For example, Jeremy is playing
with his blocks. His mother is having
a difficult time becoming part of this
activity, but remembers how she and
Jana, the early intervention provider,
discussed obstruction as a possible
strategy to use. Sitting “crisscross
applesauce” on the floor close to
Jeremy, she playfully scoops the
blocks in between her legs and leans
over them, blocking Jeremy from
grabbing them. Jeremy provides his
mother with an eye gaze and reaches
for the blocks. Then his mother says,
“Oh, you need the blocks?” and
gives Jeremy one block. When
Jeremy protests by trying to push his
mother’s body away from the blocks,
his mother says, “You want more
blocks? Tell me, Jeremy . . . Use your
words, say ‘More blocks.’” Jeremy’s
Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
mother waits for a response prior to
providing the blocks to Jeremy.
Violating Routines
As children spend more time in
an early care setting or in their
home environment, they become
accustomed to the sequence of
activities and routines. Because of
this, violating routines is a way in
which the communication partner
can create a communication
opportunity for the child. Violating
routines is changing the order
of routines or the sequence of
tasks within a routine; however,
when violating routines, the
communicative partner must think
about the typical process or schedule
that the child enjoys or to which the
child has become accustomed and
change the routine to create a
communication opportunity
(Ingersoll et al., 2005).
For instance, in preparation for
bath time, Mark knows that the first
thing he does is wait for his brother
to finish his bath, and then Mark
gets into the bathtub. However,
when it is time for Mark to take a
bath, Mark’s father begins to put
him in an empty tub while his
clothes are still on. Mark begins to
shake his head no, and his father
responds, “Oh Daddy is so silly!
What did I forget to do?” Mark’s
father waits for Mark to point to his
clothes, and then says, “Yes, we
need to take off your clothes first.”
Sabotage and In Sight–Out of
Reach
Sabotage and in sight–out
of reach are strategies the
communication partner can use to
manipulate the environment,
allowing the child communication
opportunities. The communication
17
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
partner facilitates communication
through using in sight–out of reach
by placing desired items in a place
visible, but out of reach, to the child
(Hancock & Kaiser, 2006; Ingersoll
et al., 2005; Kashinath et al., 2006).
By allowing the child to see the item
but not reach the item, the
communication partner creates an
opportunity for a request to be
made. Another environmental
strategy is sabotage or withholding
the necessary materials to complete
a task to interfere with the
attainment of a desirable material
and thus a need for communication
arises (Ingersoll et al., 2005). The
communication partner must
prepare for upcoming routines by
thinking about what is needed to
successfully complete the desired
task and what could be removed to
create a communication
opportunity.
The following scenario
illustrates sabotage and in sight–out
of reach. Julio’s mother places his
juice cup on the counter where it is
visible to Julio but where he is
unable to obtain it on his own.
When Julio reaches for his juice and
says, “Ba ba,” his mother responds
by saying, “Juice please.” She then
waits for Julio to imitate her and
provides another prompt before
giving Julio his juice. Wade, the
family’s intervention provider,
comments, “You created an
excellent opportunity for
communication. Are there other
routines in which you might be able
to use this strategy?” Julio’s mother
observes that Julio enjoys sorting his
colored bears that are kept in a
cabinet behind closed doors. She
decides to place them instead on an
open shelf that is visible to Julio,
but too high for him to reach and
18 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013
grab the bears. Wade shares a
similar environmental strategy is
thinking about the routines and
activities Julio enjoys and not
providing all the necessary materials
to create a communication
opportunity.
Contingent Imitation and
Balanced Turns
Communication partners can
use contingent imitation and
balanced turns to engage with the
child by imitating child behaviors
(Hancock & Kaiser, 2006; Ingersoll
& Dvortcsak, 2009; Ingersoll et al.,
2007; Kashinath et al., 2006;
Wetherby & Woods, 2006). By
using contingent imitation and
balanced turn taking, the partner is
engaging with the goal of becoming
a part of the routine to create an
opportunity for reciprocal social
interaction and communication.
Recognizing the need for balance
within this strategy is key, as
contingent imitation and balanced
turns are meant to promote an equal
partnership between the
communication partner and child.
For example, Alice, a preschool
teacher, uses contingent imitation
during water play with Zeke. At the
water table, Zeke is pouring water
from one cup to another. Alice
moves next to Zeke at the water
table and begins to pour water from
one cup to another, making her
pours follow the pours of Zeke. At
first, Zeke does not notice, but Alice
continues to use contingent
imitation and balanced turn taking
and observes Zeke begin to notice
her. She then begins to encourage
him to verbalize, “My turn” when it
is his turn, as she models, “My
turn” when it is her turn.
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.

Modeling (Aldred et al., 2004; Ingersoll &

Dvortcsak, 2009; Ingersoll et al.,
Modeling involves providing an
2005). Expansions provide a model
expressive language example to the
of a lengthened utterance for the
child (Aldred et al., 2004; Ingersoll
child.
& Dvortcsak, 2009; Ingersoll et al.,
For instance, Ms. Joann
2005; Kashinath et al., 2006;
facilitates communication
Wetherby & Woods, 2006). The
development in her classroom by
communication partner can use
modeling appropriate
modeling by engaging in strategies
communication, but she has also
that include self-talk, parallel talk,
encouraged some of the children in
or expansions/elaborations because
her classroom to act as peer models
these are all different ways of
of communication. It is time for
providing expressive language
lunch, and Alejandro begins
around the child. Parallel talk
screaming and looking at the lunch
involves the communication partner
trays as the food tray arrives in the
providing a narrative of the child’s
lunchroom. His friend, Samuel says,
actions by describing what the child
“Alejandro say ‘lunch please.’”
is doing at an appropriate
Alejandro continued to scream and
developmental level for the child
another peer, Samantha says, “We
(Aldred et al., 2004; Ingersoll et al.,
are ready for lunch.” Then
2005; Ingersoll et al., 2007). Self-
Alejandro begins saying, “Please.”
talk is a narration of what the adult
When Ms. Joann noticed Alejandro
or communication partner is doing
saying “Please,” she promptly
and can be used to increase a child’s
provides him with his lunch while
exposure to language (Ingersoll
saying, “Lunch please” to expand
et al., 2005; Ingersoll et al., 2007).
upon what he said. As lunch
In addition, communication partners
continues, each of the children are
can engage in expansions by
using self-talk when they share what
providing additional words around
they are eating. Ms. Joann uses
what the child says to increase
parallel talk when she says,
language exposure and facilitate
“Alejandro is eating his sandwich.”
communication development

Wait Time or Time Delay

Adults often meet children’s
needs without modeling or requiring
communication; however, every
instance in which a young child
desires something could be an
opportunity to practice
communicating by waiting a few
seconds to give the child the
opportunity to initiate. Wait time
involves waiting (or pausing) for a
child to use a communicative
behavior and is sometimes used
after an adult makes a request or
solicits a response, or wait time may

Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 19

 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
simply involve an adult waiting for
a child to make a request (Hancock
& Kaiser, 2006; Hwang & Hughes,
2000; Kashinath et al., 2006;
Wetherby & Woods, 2006; Woods
et al., 2011). When communication
partners engage in wait time, they
are providing children the
opportunity to practice spontaneous
communication through gestures,
vocalizations, words, or other forms
of alternative communication (e.g.,
pictures, buttons).
The following scenario
illustrates wait time or time delay.
Laquisha enjoys music time, so her
teacher decides to use the music
routine as a time to embed wait
time, as this would be a motivating
routine. Ms. Joy, Laquisha’s teacher,
passes around a basket that has
shakers inside. As she gets to each
child, she waits for them to say,
“Shaker, please.” Once the child
says this, he or she may take a
shaker from the basket. When the
teacher reaches Laquisha, she does
not respond. Ms. Joy positions
herself at Laquisha’s level, shows
her the shakers, looks expectantly,
and waits. After 5 s, Laquisha does
not respond. Because Ms. Joy has
been working with Laquisha and
her family to develop some
functional signs, she assists Laquisha
in signing, “Please.” Once Laquisha
signs “Please,” Ms. Joy allows her
to take a shaker from the basket.
Combination of Strategies
The strategies discussed can also
be used in conjunction with one
another. For example, in a home or
center-based setting, a family member,
early intervention provider, friend, or
ECE teacher might find it appropriate
to use multiple strategies within one
activity or routine. Because all of the
20 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013
strategies can be implemented in the
natural environment of the child and
within routines that are familiar to the
child, family, or early care facility,
once the communication partner
begins feeling comfortable with each
of these strategies, it would be
appropriate to combine strategies
which would allow the child more
communication opportunities and
exposure.
Using a combination of
strategies is illustrated through
Kaley’s experience with Eric and his
family. Kaley, an early intervention
provider, collaborates with Eric and
his family. Eric’s mother, Ellen,
identifies environmental
arrangement, modeling, language
stimulation techniques, and wait
time as strategies she enjoys using
because she can embed them into
any routine in which Eric and his
family participate. Because Ellen
suggests these strategies are helpful,
Kaley models for Eric’s mother how
to combine these strategies. Eric
enjoys mealtime, so Kaley and Ellen
determine this would be a good
routine to practice communication
strategies. When it is time for lunch,
Kaley uses environmental
arrangement to place Eric’s lunch in
sight, but out of reach, and uses
wait time to provide a
communication attempt. When Eric
does not initially respond, Kaley
uses modeling. Because Eric is
verbal, she says, “Lunch please.”
Eric does not respond within a few
seconds, so Kaley assists Eric to
sign, “Eat,” and quickly provides
him with his lunch (natural
reinforcement). Kaley shows Ellen
how to use language stimulation
techniques. That is, while Eric is
eating, she says, “You are eating
your sandwich and mommy is
drinking some water.” Within the
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.
mealtime routine, Kaley and Ellen
collaborated to use multiple
strategies within one routine, as
these were strategies that Ellen
identified as helpful and easy to
implement in many routines.
In addition to communication
strategies, attributes of
communication engagement enhance
interaction and communication
between the caregiver and child.
Attributes of communication
engagement include purposeful
communication and naturally
reinforcing communication. These
are considered communication
attributes, as they are not specific
strategies; however, they are
communication qualities that can be
used during all communication
exchanges. Purposeful
communication involves capturing
opportunities to respond to
behaviors of the child as if they
were purposefully communicating
something to the communication
Vol. 16, No. 3, September 2013 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
partner (Ingersoll et al., 2005). For
example, Myla builds a tower and
then she begins throwing her blocks
across the room. Her mother
responds, “I see you are finished
playing with blocks.” Myla’s mother
observed her throwing blocks and
responded as though the child was
purposefully communicating that
she was all done.
Naturally reinforcing
communication is another attribute
of communication that involves the
communication partner directly
responding to communication acts
to reinforce communication acts
(Hancock & Kaiser, 2006; Hwang
& Hughes, 2000; Ingersoll et al.,
2007; Kashinath et al., 2006;
Wetherby & Woods, 2006).
Communication acts can be
gestures, approximations, words, or
multiple words. For example, Lana
gives a book to her teacher and
places the teacher’s hands on the
book, and the teacher responds,
“You want to read a book.” The
communication partner is
reinforcing this communication act
by responding directly to the child’s
request.
Conclusion
As families, early intervention
providers, and early childhood
educators work to promote critical
skill development in young children
at risk for or identified with an
ASD, it is vital to utilize research-
based intervention strategies.
Although the information presented
in this article provides many
strategies to facilitate
communication development in
young children at risk for or
identified with ASD, it is important
to note that there is a plethora of
additional information available
21
 Strategies Used to Promote Communication Development / Coogle et al.

regarding other developmental ensure that intended outcomes are

approaches to facilitate the
development of young children at
risk for an ASD (Wetherby &
Woods, 2008). It is critical that the
strategies selected are carefully
matched to child goals and to the
preferences of family members and
other caregivers. Furthermore,
methods to monitor the effectiveness
of the strategies must be used to
reached. However, this article
provides families, early intervention
providers, and early childhood
educators with information about
research-based strategies that can
be embedded in the natural
environment to facilitate
communication development in
young children at risk for or
identified with ASD.

Authors’ Note
You may reach Christan Grygas Coogle by email at christan.coogle@mail.wvu.edu.

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