CHEMICAL BONDING AND

FORMULA WRITING
Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and
Bruce E. Bursten

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bond: the force of attraction between
nuclei and valence electrons of neighboring atoms
that binds the atoms together
 Interactions involving valence electrons are
responsible for the chemical bond (only valence
electrons are transferred or shared in chemical
reactions)
 Valence electrons are outermost s and p
sublevels
◦ bonds form in order to…
 decrease Potential Energy
 increase stability Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Sodium Chloride Crystal Lattice
 Sodium (Na+) is represented by
the grey spheres.
 Chloride (Cl-) is represented by
the green spheres.
 In sodium chloride, sodium ions
and chloride ions alternate in a
three-dimensional lattice.
 The formula, NaCl, signifies that
one mole of sodium ions is
combined with one mole of
chloride ions.
 It is incorrect to speak of a
‘molecule of sodium chloride.’
 Sodium chloride is a compound.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Covalent Bonding
 Covalent bonds form between non-metals which share electrons
in order to attain full outer shells.
 Covalent bonding between atoms results in the formation of
molecules.
 The simplest examples are diatomic molecules (that contain two
atoms).
 Examples of diatomic molecules include the elements such as
hydrogen, H2, and chlorine, Cl2.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Chemical Formulas
Chemical Formula

-A notation that uses chemical

symbols with numerical
subscripts to convey the
relative proportions of atoms
of the different elements in a
substance.

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right of
the symbol of an element tells
the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of the
compound.

Molecular compounds are

composed of molecules and
almost always contain only
nonmetals. Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
Diatomic Molecules

These seven elements occur naturally as

molecules containing two atoms.

Atoms,
Atoms,
LEARN!!! MUST REMEMBER!!! Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Types of Formulas
 Structural formulas show the
order in which atoms are
bonded.
 Perspective drawings also show
the three-dimensional array of
atoms in a compound.

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
Oxidation Number
 The number of electrons that an atom loses, gains,
or shares when it bonds with another atom is
known as the oxidation number of the atom.
 Elements which lose electrons in a chemical
reaction, or which have electrons which are shared
with another element deficient in electrons are
assigned positive oxidation numbers.
 Elements which gain electrons, or are deficient in
electrons, are assigned negative oxidation
numbers. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Ions

 Cations – positive charge

ions
◦ form when an atom loses
electrons
 Anions - negative charge
ions
◦ form when an atom gains
electrons
 Ions with opposite charges
attract

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Structures of Ions
 Metals form cations
 For each positive charge the ion has 1 less electron
than the neutral atom
◦ Na = 11 e-, Na+ = 10 e-
◦ Ca = 20 e-, Ca+2 = 18 e-
 Cations are named the same as the metal
sodium Na → Na+ + 1e- sodium ion
calcium Ca → Ca+2 + 2e- calcium ion
 The charge on a cation can be determined from the
Group number on the Periodic Table for Groups IA,
IIA, IIIA Atoms,

◦ Group 1A  +1, Group 2A  +2, (Al, Ga, In)  +3

Molecules,
and Ions
Atomic Structures of Ions
 Nonmetals form anions
 For each negative charge the ion has 1 more electron
than the neutral atom
◦ F = 9 e-, F- = 10 e-
◦ P = 15 e-, P3- = 18 e-
 Anions are named by changing the ending of the name
to -ide
fluorine F + 1e- → F- fluoride ion
oxygen O + 2e- → O2- oxide ion
 The charge on an anion can be determined from the
Group number on the Periodic Table
◦ Group 7A  -1, Group 6A  -2 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
+1 -1
-2
+2 +3 ±4 -3

Multiple/varying charges

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Common Cations

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Common Anions

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Writing Formulas
 The total oxidation number for compounds
must be zero.
 Positive ion charge must cancel negative ion
charge

E.g. Write the formula for potassium bromide.

K has a charge of +1
Br has a charge of -1
Therefore KBr Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Binary Compounds
 A binary compound is one that consists
of only two elements (no polyatomic ions).

◦ formed from a metal and a non-metal.

 Sodium + Chlorine give Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

◦ formed from two non-metals.

 Carbon + Oxygen give Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Binary compounds -metal & non-metal

• Name the metal followed by the stem name of

the non-metal with an -ide ending.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Example

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Binary compounds - metal & non-metal

 If the metal exhibits more than one oxidation state,

the oxidation state of the metal, in the compound of
interest, is indicated by a Roman numeral placed in
parentheses following the name of the metal.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Binary compounds - two non-metals

 The positive and negative oxidation numbers are

assigned to the elements according to their
electronegativities.
 The element with the lowest electronegativity is
named first.
 The common non-metals, arranged in order of
increasing electronegativity are:
Si, B, P, H, C, S, I, Br, N, Cl, O, F

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Binary compounds - two non-metals.

 Name each element in the order they appear in the

formula
 Use the appropriate prefix to indicate the number of
atoms of the element in the compound.
 The second element uses an -ide ending.

Atoms,
Molecules,
The prefix mono- is generally omitted unless it is needed to - distinguish between two or more
compounds of the same elements. and Ions
Binary compounds -two non-metals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
QUIZ Name the following compounds
Chemical Name Ionic or Chemical Formula
covalent
Potassium chloride
Sulfur trioxide
Dihydrogen monoxide
Calcium oxide
Aluminum chloride
Carbon tetrachloride
Sulfur hexafluoride
Barium chloride
Sodium oxide
Carbon monoxide
Dinitrogen tetraoxide Atoms,
Molecules,
Sodium chloride and Ions
QUIZ Name the following compounds
Chemical Name Ionic or Chemical Formula
covalent
Potassium chloride Ionic KCl
Sulfur trioxide Covalent SO3
Dihydrogen monoxide Covalent H2O
Calcium oxide Ionic CaO
Aluminum chloride Ionic AlCl3
Carbon tetrachloride Covalent CCl4
Sulfur hexafluoride Covalent SF6
Barium chloride Ionic BaCl2
Sodium oxide Ionic Na2O
Carbon monoxide Covalent CO
Dinitrogen tetroxide Covalent N2O4 Atoms,
Molecules,
Sodium chloride Ionic NaCl and Ions
Polyatomic Ions
 Some ions consist of groups of
atoms bonded together and
have an overall electric charge.
 Because these ions contain
more than one atom, they are
called polyatomic ions
 Polyatomic ions have
characteristic formulas, names,
and charges that should be
learnt.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Polyatomic Ions
Rules are the same
 monatomic (single-atom) ions: the positive and
negative charges must balance.
 If more than one of a particular polyatomic ion is
needed to balance the charge, the entire formula
for the polyatomic ion must be enclosed in
parentheses, and the numerical subscript is placed
outside the parentheses.
 This is to show that the subscript applies to the
entire polyatomic ion.
 Example is Ba(NO3)2. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example
Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound composed
of the potassium ion and the sulfate ion

K+ SO4 2-

K+ SO4 2-

K2(SO4)1
K2SO4
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Example
Write the chemical formula for an ionic compound ammonium
phosphate

NH4+ PO4 3-

NH4+ PO4 3-

(NH4)3(PO4)1
(NH4)3PO4
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Naming of Bases

• Bases are compounds which consist of a

metal ion combined with the hydroxide
polyatomic ion (OH).

To name a base, name the metal (include the

oxidation number in parentheses if the metal is
one which has more than one oxidation state)
followed by the word hydroxide.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Naming of Acids
• An acid is a compound consisting of hydrogen
combined with a non-metallic element or with
a polyatomic ion that has a negative oxidation
number.
In the formula for an acid, hydrogen is always
listed as the first element.

Types of acids
• Binary or Non-oxygen Acids
• Oxygen-containing Acids
• Organic Acids
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Binary or Non-oxygen Acids
• Binary acids consist of hydrogen combined with a
non-metal element.
Binary acids are named by using the prefix
hydro- followed by the stem name of the non-
metal element (the second element in the formula)
with an -ic ending. The name is followed by the
word acid.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Oxygen-containing Acids

• Oxygen-containing acids consist of three

elements: hydrogen, a non-metal, and oxygen.

Oxygen-containing acids are named by using

the stem name of the non-metal element
(the middle element) with an -ous ending if the
element is in its lower oxidation state or an -ic
ending if the element is in its higher oxidation
state, followed by the word acid.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Oxygen-containing Acids

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Oxygen-containing Acids

• Sometimes an element may form more than

two oxygen-containing acids.
In these cases, additional prefixes hypo- and per-
are used. Look at the anion involve

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
Note: HBrO2 and HIO2 are not stable and do not exist.
 SUMMARY Inorganic Nomenclature
 Write the name of the cation.
 If the anion is an element, change its
ending to -ide;
 if the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply
write the name of the polyatomic ion.
 If the cation can have more than one
possible charge, write the charge as a
Roman numeral in parentheses. Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
 When there are two oxyanions involving the
same element:
◦ The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
 NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
◦ The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
 NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

 The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.

– ClO2− : chlorite
 The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.
– ClO3− : chlorate

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
 The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and
ends in -ite.
– ClO− : hypochlorite
 The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
– ClO4− : perchlorate

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
 Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.

 Organic chemistry has its own system of
nomenclature.
Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds

containing only carbon and hydrogen) are alkanes.

Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

The first part of the names above correspond to

the number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop-
= 3, etc.).
Atoms,
Atoms,
Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.
 Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

 When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with

something else (a functional group, like -OH in the
compounds above), the name is derived from the
name of the alkane.
 The ending denotes the type of compound. Atoms,Atoms,
◦ An alcohol ends in -ol. Molecules,
Molecules,
andand
Ions
Ions
2009, Prentice-Hall,
Inc.