See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/318293321

Mechanical properties of low-strength concrete at exposure to elevated

temperatures

Article in Journal of Structural Fire Engineering · July 2017

DOI: 10.1108/JSFE-11-2016-0017

CITATIONS READS
10 1,622

3 authors:

Muhammad Masood Rafi Tariq Aziz

NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi Western Sydney University
101 PUBLICATIONS 1,175 CITATIONS 21 PUBLICATIONS 88 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Sarosh Lodi
NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi
149 PUBLICATIONS 936 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Sarosh Lodi on 20 December 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering
Jo
ur
na

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LOW-STRENGTH CONCRETE

lo
AT EXPOSURE TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
fS
Journal: Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

Manuscript ID JSFE-11-2016-0017.R1
tru
Manuscript Type: Research Paper

cement, elevated temperatures, residual strength, elastic modulus,

Keywords:
Poisson’s ratio, spalling
ct
ur
al
Fi
re
En
gi
ne
er
in
g
Page 1 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LOW-STRENGTH CONCRETE AT
4
5
6 EXPOSURE TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
ur
7
8 Abstract
9
na
10
11
Purpose: This paper presents the results of testing of low-strength concrete specimens
12
13 exposed to elevated temperatures. These data are limited in the existing literature and do
lo
14
15 not exist in Pakistan.
16
fS
17
18 Design/methodology/approach: An experimental testing programme has been
19
20 employed. Cylindrical specimens of 100×200 mm were used in the testing programme.
tru
21
22 These were heated at temperatures which were varied from 100oC to 900oC in increment
23
24
25 of 100oC. Similar specimens were tested at ambient temperature as control specimens.
ct

26
27 The compressive and tensile properties of heat treated specimens were determined.
28
ur

29
Findings: The colour of concrete started to change at 300oC and hairline cracks appeared
30
31
al

32 at 400oC. Explosive spalling was observed in few specimens in the temperature range of
33
34 400-650oC which could be attributed to the pore pressure generated by steam. Significant
Fi

35
36
37 loss of concrete compressive strength occurred on heating temperatures larger than 600oC
re

38
39 and the residual compressive strength was found to be 15% at 900oC. Residual tensile
40
41 strength of concrete became less than 10% at 900oC. The loss of concrete stiffness
En

42
43
44 reached 85% at 600oC. Residual Poisson’s ratio of concrete increased at high
45
temperatures and became nearly 6 times larger at 900oC as compared to that at ambient
gi

46
47
48 temperature.
ne

49
50
51 Research limitations/implications: The parameters of the study included heating
52
er

53 temperature and effects of temperature on strength and stiffness properties of the concrete
54
55
in

56
specimens.
57
58
g

59
60
1
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 2 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Practical implications: Building fire incidents have increased in Pakistan. Since a large
4
5
6 number of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings exist in the country, the data related to
ur
7
8 elevated temperature properties of concrete are required. These data are not available in
9
na
10
11
Pakistan presently. The study aims at providing this information for the design engineers
12
13 to enable them to assess and increase fire resistance of RC structural members.
lo
14
15 Originality/value: The presented study is unique in its nature in that there is no
16
fS
17
18 published contribution to date, to the best of authors’ knowledge, which has been carried
19
20 out to assess the temperature dependent mechanical properties of concrete in Pakistan.
tru
21
22 Keywords: cement, elevated temperatures, residual strength, elastic modulus, Poisson’s
23
24
25 ratio, spalling, mass loss
ct

26
27 Introduction
28
ur

29
Concrete is one of the popular construction materials around the world and is employed
30
31
al

32 in both structural and non-structural applications. According to a conservative estimate,

33
34 one ton of concrete is produced annually for each person living on earth (Goldstein,
Fi

35
36
37 1995). The use of concrete in building construction is due to its properties such as
re

38
39 strength, durability, ease of fabrication, plasticity, non-combustible behaviour (Kim et al.,
40
41 2009; Kodur 2014) and low cost. Concrete also protects steel bars in reinforced concrete
En

42
43
44 (RC) structural members from harsh environment such as chloride attack, exposure to
45
gi

46 extreme temperatures, etc.

47
48 Commercial, industrial and residential buildings typically constitute a significant
ne

49
50
51 proportion of the overall construction. Historically, these are vulnerable to several
52
er

53 possible hazards such as earthquakes, floods, high winds and fire. However, fire is
54
55
in

56
considered one of the biggest threats to both the building occupants and its contents (Rafi
57
58
g

59
60
2
Page 3 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
et al., 2007; Salleh and Ahmad, 2009). The causes of fire in urban areas include
4
5
6 accidental fire, antisocial activities, criminal acts, industrial accidents and, at present,
ur
7
8 terrorism. Building fire incidents result in significant life and economic losses. The
9
na
10
11
contributing factors include high poverty rates, poor housing, undereducated populations
12
13 and sole parenting (Fire, 2000). Building control authorities require sufficient fire
lo
14
15 resistance of structural elements. This ensures that structural integrity could be the last
16
fS
17
18 line of defence when all other means and measures of restraining a fire fail (Kodur,
19
20 1999).
tru
21
22 Concrete exhibits low thermal conductivity and high heat capacity (Arioz, 2007) as
23
24
25 compared to other building materials. These properties enable concrete to sustain high
ct

26
27 temperatures during fire. Nevertheless, chemical, physical and mechanical changes take
28
ur

29
place in concrete at high temperatures (Thelandersson, 1972; Biolzi et al., 2008; Erline et
30
31
al

32 al., 1972; Mindess and Young, 1981; Hanson, 1990; Khoury, 1992; Mehta and Monteiro,
33
34 1993; Sarshar and Khoury, 1993; Cong and Kirkpatrick, 1995; Escalante et al., 1998;
Fi

35
36
37 Handoo et al., 2002; Mehta and Moteiro, 2006; Arioz, 2007; FIB, 2007). These changes
re

38
39 include loss of free, adsorbed and chemically bound water, breakdown of calcium-
40
41 silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) structure, decomposition of calcium hydroxide and calcium
En

42
43
44 aluminates, phase expansion, cracking, decolouring and spalling (Lea, 1920; Lea, 1922;
45
gi

46 Malhotra, 1956; Schneider, 1988; Khoury, 1992; Saad et al., 1998; Phan and Carino,
47
48 1998; Handoo et al., 2002; Heikal, 2000; Khoury, 2000; Xu et al., 2001; Savva et al.,
ne

49
50
51 2005; Morsy et al., 2009; Kowalski, 2010).
52
er

53 The strength and stiffness of concrete are the most important properties for its structural
54
55
in

56
applications. The worldwide research has indicated that both these properties degrade at
57
58
g

59
60
3
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 4 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
high temperatures (Lea, 1922; Malhotra, 1956; Zoldners, 1960; Abrams, 1971; Harada et
4
5
6 al., 1972; Thelandersson, 1972; Kordina, 1979; Schneider, 1982; Bazant and Chern,
ur
7
8 1982; Schneider, 1985; Schneider, 1988; Diederichs et al., 1989; Castillo and Durrani,
9
na
10
11
1990; Papayianni and Valiasis, 1991; Hertz, 1991; Morita et al., 1992; Sullivan and
12
13 Shanshar, 1992; Noumowe et al., 1994; Furumura et al., 1995; Hammer, 1995; Nassif et
lo
14
15 al., 1995; Bazant and Kaplan, 1996; Felicetti et al., 1996; Noumowe et al., 1996;
16
fS
17
18 Almeida, 1998; Chan et al., 1999; Ghan et al., 1999; Felicetti and Gambarova, 1998;
19
20 Galleto and Meneguini, 2000; Phan et al., 2001; Xiao and Konig, 2004; Husem, 2005;
tru
21
22 Chang et al., 2006; FIB, 2008; Kowalski, 2009; Khaliq and Kodur, 2011a; Akca and
23
24
25 Zihnioglu, 2013; Bahr et al., 2013; Chowdhury, 2014) which may affect load carrying
ct

26
27 capacity of structural members. The reduction of concrete mechanical properties at high
28
ur

29
temperatures is the result of weakening of bond between aggregates and cement paste
30
31
al

32 (Kim et al., 2009). Mechanical behaviour of concrete has been found to be affected
33
34 during the first heating up to 600oC (Khoury et al., 1985). Loss of concrete strength takes
Fi

35
36
37 place at 400-800oC (Ghan et al., 1999; Anand and Arulraj, 2011) which could be as high
re

38
39 as 60% at 500oC (Hager, 2013). Most of the changes in concrete at 500oC are irreversible
40
41 (Luccioni et al., 2003).
En

42
43
44 Thermal stresses are applied on the structures during fire due to high temperature
45
gi

46 gradients which produce large strains. Nevertheless, fire damaged RC buildings in many
47
48 cases can be repaired and retrofitted (Chang et al., 2006). The knowledge of temperature
ne

49
50
51 dependent material properties is critical in the assessment of residual capacity of fire
52
er

53 damaged structures (Rafi and Nadjai, 2010). These properties can be employed in the
54
55
in

56
analysis of fire exposed buildings to determine and to increase resistance of structural
57
58
g

59
60
4
Page 5 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
members (Kodur et al., 2009). Contrary to the elastic design at ambient temperature, an
4
5
6 elastic-plastic analysis is required for a fire damaged building to determine the residual
ur
7
8 load-carrying capacity of its structural elements. As a result, a complete history of
9
na
10
11
concrete stress-strain relationship at elevated temperatures is necessary (Freskakis et al.,
12
13 1979).
lo
14
15 A comprehensive research programme to investigate the behaviour of locally available
16
fS
17
18 construction materials is in progress in the Department of Earthquake Engineering at
19
20 NED University of Engineering and Technology. Rafi and Nasir (2014, 2016a)
tru
21
22 conducted a study to compare the properties of locally available cements. Rafi et al.
23
24
25 (2014) studied the behaviours of locally manufactured steel bars and their design
ct

26
27 implications. This paper presents the results of studies which were carried out to
28
ur

29
determine the residual properties of locally available concrete after exposure to high
30
31
al

32 temperatures. The properties studied include residual compressive and tensile strength,
33
34 modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio.
Fi

35
36
37 Background and Scope
re

38
39 Concrete construction is widespread in urban areas of Pakistan similar to several other
40
41 parts of the world. Both engineered and non-engineered RC buildings are constructed and
En

42
43
44 become part of the existing built environment. The major reasons for this type of built
45
gi

46 environment include non-existence of techno-legal regime, lack of monetary resources

47
48 and absence of implementation of building codes and bye-laws (Rafi et al., 2016b). Most
ne

49
50
51 of the time, this construction is carried out using low strength concrete. Nisikawa et al.
52
er

53 (2005) and Naseer et al. (2006) reported an average concrete compressive strength of 15
54
55
in

56
MPa in the buildings collapsed in Kashmir during the 2005 earthquake.
57
58
g

59
60
5
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 6 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
The incidents of building fire have increased in Pakistan owing to a lack of fire safety
4
5
6 provisions or their implementations in the building design. The existing building stock
ur
7
8 appears to be vulnerable to the damages caused by fire. The absence of data related to
9
na
10
11
elevated temperature properties of building materials is a major hindrance to the
12
13 assessment of fire exposed buildings. As a result, reliance is made on the elevated
lo
14
15 temperature property data of concrete available in other parts of the world.
16
fS
17
18 As mentioned earlier, elevated temperature properties of concrete are necessary for the
19
20 assessment of fire resistance of RC buildings. Most of the studies in the existing literature
tru
21
22 focused the normal strength and high strength concrete (Toumi et al., 2009). Despite the
23
24
25 fact that a wealth of information on temperature dependent thermal and mechanical
ct

26
27 properties of concrete is available, the interest of the researchers in these studies still
28
ur

29
exists (Schneider, 1988). This is owing to the fact that the generic information on the
30
31
al

32 elevated temperature properties of concrete cannot be used in the fire resistant design of
33
34 RC structures. These clearly justify the work which is presented in this paper.
Fi

35
36
37 The strength of heated concrete is influenced by the mix proportions and types of
re

38
39 aggregates, and low strength mixes lose less strength at high temperatures compared to
40
41 richer mixes (Malhotra, 1965; Roux, 1974). Further, the literature on the concrete
En

42
43
44 Poisson’s ratio and tensile strength at elevated temperatures is limited at present
45
gi

46 (Schneider, 1988, Hager, 2013). Temperature dependent tensile properties are important
47
48 to understand spalling behaviour of concrete. In addition, the data of high temperature
ne

49
50
51 properties of low strength concretes (typically used in Pakistan) is limited, as mentioned
52
er

53 earlier. Without these data, the assessment of fire resistance of structural members
54
55
in

56
remains uncertain. This is a demanding challenge and emphasizes an outstanding need
57
58
g

59
60
6
Page 7 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
for investigative work in this area. The presented study partly addresses this gap in the
4
5
6 existing knowledge. Cylindrical concrete specimens have been tested after these are
ur
7
8 heated at elevated temperatures. The temperatures varied from 100oC to 900oC in
9
na
10
11
increments of 100oC.
12
13 An unstressed residual property test method has been employed in the studies presented
lo
14
15 in this paper. In this method, the concrete specimens are heat treated under steady-state
16
fS
17
18 conditions and are allowed to cool down before they are tested at ambient temperature
19
20 (Packman, 1975; Phan et al., 2002). These tests have been commonly used in the studies
tru
21
22 reported in the technical literature (Bazant and Kaplan, 1996; Noumowe et al., 1995).
23
24
25 The residual strength of concrete obtained from this method represents the lower limit
ct

26
27 (Toumi et al., 2009) and compares well with the hot testing provided that the specimens
28
ur

29
are cooled slowly (Abramowicz and Kowalski, 2007). Note that in the hot testing
30
31
al

32 method, the specimens are tested while they are exposed to high temperature. The
33
34 presented study is unique in its nature in that there is no published contribution to date, to
Fi

35
36
37 the best of authors’ knowledge, which has been carried out to assess the temperature
re

38
39 dependent mechanical properties of concrete in Pakistan. The parameters of the study
40
41 included the heating temperature and the effects of temperature on strength and stiffness
En

42
43
44 properties of the concrete specimens.
45
gi

46 Experimental Programme
47
48 Materials
ne

49
50
51 i) Aggregates
52
er

53 Natural sand was used as fine aggregate in the concrete mix. Coarse aggregates consist of
54
55
in

56
normal weight crushed limestone. Sieve analysis was carried out for both aggregate types
57
58
g

59
60
7
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 8 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
which complied with ASTM C33-16 (ASTM, 2016). Standard tests were carried out to
4
5
6 determine the physical properties of aggregates. A summary of these tests and the results
ur
7
8 are given in Table 1 along with the relevant ASTM standards.
9
na
10
11
ii) Cement
12
13 Ordinary Portland cement was used in this study. The cement complies with ASTM C150
lo
14
15 (ASTM, 2004) and was purchased from the local market.
16
fS
17
18 iii) Specimen Details
19
20 Cylindrical specimens 100×200 mm were cast in accordance with ASTM C192/C192M–
tru
21
22 02 (2002) to determine the concrete strength in compression and tension. Splitting tests
23
24
25 were conducted to determine the concrete tensile strength. The target strength of the
ct

26
27 concrete at 28 days (fc) was taken as 21 MPa and the mix design procedure was carried
28
ur

29
out in accordance with ACI 211.1-91 (ACI, 2011) using a water/cement ratio of 0.67.
30
31
al

32 Trial batches were cast and tested at an age of 28 days. Based on the results, the selected
33
34 mix proportions of concrete are given in Table 2.
Fi

35
36
37 Mixing of concrete was done by using a rotating mixer having a rotating speed of 40 rpm.
re

38
39 The maximum aggregate size was 19 mm. Potable tap water was mixed in the concrete
40
41 and the exact amount of water varied depending on the moisture contents of aggregates.
En

42
43
44 The slump of concrete ranged from 20 to 30 mm; it was measured at each casting of
45
gi

46 concrete batches in accordance with ASTM C143/C143M–10a (2010). A total of nine

47
48 batches were used and 24 cylinders were cast in each batch. As a result, a total of 216
ne

49
50
51 cylinders were cast and tested during the testing programme. The concrete cylinders in
52
er

53 each batch were used for testing at one particular temperature. Note that this factor does
54
55
in

56
not affect the results of the study as the residual strength of a concrete grade is not
57
58
g

59
60
8
Page 9 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
influenced by its strength before heating (Freskakis et al., 1979). The concrete in the steel
4
5
6 mould was vibrated using a mechanical vibrator of shaft diameter 16 mm. The concrete
ur
7
8 specimens were removed from the mould after 24 hours and were cured in a water tank
9
na
10
11
up to the required age (7 or 28 days). The temperature of water in the tank varied from
12
13 18-27oC. The ambient temperature strength of concrete in compression (fc30) and tension
lo
14
15 (ft30) on 28 days along with standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CoV) is
16
fS
17
18 given in Table 3. These are an average of 4 cylinders for each batch. Note that the 95%
19
20 confidence interval for fc30 in Table 3 as compared to the target strength (21 MPa) is
tru
21
22 approximately in the range of 1.06 to 1.13 with a standard deviation of 0.059.
23
24
25 Details of Furnace
ct

26
27 An electrical heat treatment furnace with a digital control panel (Fig. 1) was used for
28
ur

29
heating the concrete specimens. The internal size of the furnace chamber is
30
31
al

32 1500x750x750 mm with a capacity of 870 litres. The chamber is lined with high grade
33
34 insulating bricks. The temperature inside the furnace chamber is controlled by the
Fi

35
36
37 electrical heating elements which are placed on all four sides of the furnace chamber. A
re

38
39 digital display with control panel indicates the temperature inside the chamber. Type S
40
41 thermocouples are provided to monitor the internal environment of the furnace. A double
En

42
43
44 glazed quartz viewing port of 100 mm diameter allows viewing the specimens inside the
45
gi

46 furnace. The heating elements are able to raise the temperature inside the furnace up to a
47
48 maximum of 1200°C.
ne

49
50
51 Test Procedure
52
er

53 The cylinders were taken out from the curing tank on the day of testing. These were kept
54
55
in

56
in open air in sun for nearly 4 hours and 1 day before testing on 7 and 28 day,
57
58
g

59
60
9
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 10 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
respectively, to allow the free moisture to escape. All the dried specimens were weighed.
4
5
6 The control specimens were tested shortly after they were dried to reach saturated surface
ur
7
8 dry (SSD) condition in accordance with ASTM C39/C39M–03 (2003). A total of 8
9
na
10
11
cylinders were tested in compression at ages of 7 and 28 days each. Of these, four were
12
13 control specimens which were tested at ambient temperature. The remaining 4 cylinders
lo
14
15 were heated in the furnace up to the target temperature (100-900oC). A slow heating rate
16
fS
17
18 of 5°C was employed to avoid sudden increase in temperature of the specimens which
19
20 can cause high temperature differential and spalling due to large tensile stresses. A
tru
21
22 typical temperature ramp is shown in Fig. 2. It is seen in Fig. 2 that the specimens were
23
24
25 slowly heated for 40 min up to reaching 100oC and 20 min at 100oC to allow the slow
ct

26
27 evaporation of free moisture in the concrete which reduces the build-up of high pore
28
ur

29
pressure by the steam in the concrete pores. The temperature up to the target was
30
31
al

32 increased at a slow rate (5oC/min) and the specimens were heated at the target
33
34 temperature for an hour to allow the temperature to stabilize throughout the specimen.
Fi

35
36
37 The furnace was powered off after an hour of heating and the specimens were cooled
re

38
39 down keeping them in the furnace. The heat was allowed to escape slowly through small
40
41 openings in the furnace provided for inserting thermocouples. The specimens were
En

42
43
44 removed from the furnace when the temperature inside the furnace dropped well below
45
100oC. The specimens were cooled in air for further 4-5 hours to allow them to reach
gi

46
47
48 ambient temperature. The specimens were weighed again before they were tested in
ne

49
50
51 tension and/or compression. The same procedure was repeated for testing at both 7 and
52
er

53 28 days. Note that the specimens at 7 days were tested only in compression at ambient
54
55
in

56
and elevated temperatures.
57
58
g

59
60
10
Page 11 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
Sulphur was used as a capping material for concrete cylinders. The capped surfaces were
4
5
6 checked using water level to ensure that they were perpendicular to the major axis of the
ur
7
8 cylinder to avoid non uniform stress distribution during the test. The surfaces of
9
na
10
11
specimens and loading head of the machine were properly cleaned with cloth to remove
12
13 any particle present that might cause stress concentrations. The specimens were aligned
lo
14
15 with care under the loading head of machine to avoid any eccentricity.
16
fS
17
18 The testing was carried out in a 500 kN universal testing machine (UTM). The machine
19
20 used is Shimadzu make hydraulic type machine with rigid loading head. A
tru
21
22 compressometer was attached to the specimens to measure the displacement in both the
23
24
25 vertical and horizontal directions. An average strain over a central 100 mm length of
ct

26
27 cylinder was calculated using the vertical displacement. The tests were carried out in a
28
ur

29
displacement controlled mode. The rate of loading was so adjusted that it corresponded to
30
31
al

32 a constant machine’s head movement of 1 mm/min. The specimens were loaded until
33
34 failure cracks were visible on the surface and the load dropped off. An average value of
Fi

35
36
37 strength of four tested specimens was taken as compressive strength except noted
re

38
39 otherwise. Fig. 3 shows crushed cylinders after the compression test.
40
41 Tensile strength of concrete was also determined by carrying out splitting tests on
En

42
43
44 concrete cylinders in accordance with ASTM C496/C496M-11 (2011). Four cylinders
45
gi

46 were tested at 28 days each at ambient temperature and the target temperature, and an
47
48 average value was used as concrete tensile strength except noted otherwise.
ne

49
50
51 Test Results
52
er

53 Physical Observations
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
11
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 12 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
The specimens were inspected after heat treatment to observe changes in colour of
4
5
6 concrete and surface cracking. The first change in colour from grey to pink was observed
ur
7
8 at 300oC. The colour changed to reddish at 400oC and 500oC of heating temperatures.
9
na
10
11
Red colour indicates presence of hydrated iron oxides which are mostly found in
12
13 siliceous aggregates (Ingham, 2009; Short et al., 2001; Colombo and Felicetti, 2007;
lo
14
15 Hager, 2013). Red colour is also an indication of beginning of concrete strength reduction
16
fS
17
18 (Ingham, 2009).
19
20 A grey discoloration was observed at 600oC on the surfaces of the specimens. The colour
tru
21
22 of the specimens changed to whitish grey on heating at 900oC. The whitening of concrete
23
24
25 indicates significant loss in compressive strength which reduces the ability of concrete to
ct

26
27 resist the service loads (Akca and Zihnioglu, 2013).
28
ur

29
First appearance of hairline cracks on the surface of cylindrical specimens was observed
30
31
al

32 at 400oC. These changed into visible cracks when the specimens were heated at 700oC.
33
34 Large surface cracks formed at 900oC (Fig. 4). All the aforementioned observations
Fi

35
36
37 related to the colour changes and surface cracking are similar to those reported by other
re

38
39 researchers (Malhotra, 1954; Akca and Zihnioglu, 2013, Short et al. 2001; Colombo and
40
41 Felicetti, 2007).
En

42
43
44 Explosive Spalling
45
gi

46 Spalling in concrete takes place when its tensile strength is overcome by the tensile
47
48 stresses. These stresses are applied by both the steam pressure in the concrete pores and
ne

49
50
51 the temperature differential across the cross section. Explosive spalling was observed in
52
er

53 few of the concrete specimens during heating at 400-650oC (Fig. 1). The cylinders
54
55
in

56
spalled with loud noises. One specimen (out of four) at the age of 7 days and one
57
58
g

59
60
12
Page 13 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
specimen out of eight at the age of 28 days were explosively spalled during heating at a
4
5
6 target temperature of 700oC. Similarly, three cylinders (out of four) at the age of 7 days
ur
7
8 and six cylinders (out of eight) at the age of 28 days were explosively spalled during
9
na
10
11
heating at 900oC. As a result, only one leftover cylinder was tested in compression at 7
12
13 days after it is heat treated at 900oC. Further, since only two cylinders were left out for 28
lo
14
15 days testing at 900oC, these were tested in compression and tension one each.
16
fS
17
18 The factors responsible for causing concrete explosive spalling include age, moisture
19
20 content, type of aggregates, curing method and rate of heating (Short et al. 2001). As
tru
21
22 noted above, a slow rate of heating was employed (5oC/min) to heat the specimens in the
23
24
25 presented study. The factors of age, aggregate types and curing method can also be ruled
ct

26
27 out as these were the same for all specimens. Although the moisture contents were not
28
ur

29
measured in the presented study, the results of the concrete tensile strength (Table 3)
30
31
al

32 indicates that the tensile strengths of the batches tested at 700oC and 900oC were similar
33
34 to the other batches. In fact, the tensile strength of the batch tested at 900oC was the
Fi

35
36
37 largest of all. This indicates that pore pressure could be the primary reason of higher
re

38
39 tensile stresses applied on the spalled cylinders compared to the thermal gradient. This is
40
41 also evident due to the explosive sounds of the concrete cylinders and spread of concrete
En

42
43
44 fragments over a wide area inside the furnace (Fig. 1). Similar observations were also
45
gi

46 reported by Phan et al. (2001). Meyer-otetens (1975) has indicated that tensile strength of
47
48 concrete may be reached with 3% moisture by weight in the normal strength concrete.
ne

49
50
51 Further, Kowalski (2010) indicated that random pattern of spalling could be observed in
52
er

53 normal strength concrete owing to its porous structure compared to high strength
54
55
in

56
concrete.
57
58
g

59
60
13
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 14 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Mass Loss
4
5
6 Mass losses of the specimens at high temperatures were calculated by determining
ur
7
8 change in weight (W) before and after heating. The change was expressed as percentage
9
na
10
11
of the initial weight (wi) (Eq. (1)).
12
13
lo
14 
W= × 100 (1)
15 
16
fS
17 where ws is the mass of the heated cylinder after it is cooled to ambient temperature.
18
19
The results of mass losses have been illustrated in Fig. 5. It is seen in Fig. 5 that the mass
20
tru
21
22 loss is nearly the same up to 400oC for the specimens tested at 7 and 28 days. This mass
23
24 loss is due to the release of both the capillary and the gel water (Arioz, 2007). The mass
25
ct

26
27
loss became higher at increased temperatures for the specimens tested at 28 days as
28
ur

29 compared to those tested at 7 days. The mass loss increased almost linearly with
30
31 temperature up to 600oC; it reduced beyond 600oC for both the 7 and 28 days testing of
al

32
33
34 specimens. This is due to the fact that once the water is evaporated from the concrete, the
Fi

35
36 mass loss occurs due to the decomposition of aggregates, release of carbon dioxide (CO2)
37
re

38 and surface cracking of specimens (Xiao and Falkner, 2006). The contribution of these
39
40
41 factors in mass loss is generally less compared to that of loss of water. It is seen in Fig. 5
En

42
43 that the maximum mass loss for 900°C of heating for the specimens tested on 7 and 28
44
45
days corresponds to 11% and 12% of the initial mass, respectively.
gi

46
47
48 Compressive Stress-Strain Relationship
ne

49
50 The results of compression testing at 7 and 28 days of concrete specimens exposed to
51
52
er

53
different target temperatures are presented in Fig. 6 in terms of stress versus strain. Since
54
55 different batches of concrete were used to cast the specimens, the stress at high
in

56
57 temperature (σcT) has been normalised to fc30. As mentioned earlier, the results in Fig. 6
58
g

59
60
14
Page 15 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
for the concrete specimens heated at 900oC are based on only one specimen at both the
4
5
6 aforementioned ages. It is seen in Fig. 6 that the curves appear to be similar both at 7 and
ur
7
8 28 days. In addition, elevated temperature stress-strain curves also appear similar to that
9
na
10
11
at ambient temperature.
12
13 Fig. 6 shows that the normalised compressive strength is close to unity up to 300oC which
lo
14
15 indicates insignificant change in the concrete compressive strength. As a result, the
16
fS
17
18 residual strength is close to the strength at ambient temperature. The slope of the
19
20 ascending parts of the stress-strain curves and the strain corresponding to the peak
tru
21
22 normalised stress are also similar up to 300oC. The peak normalised compressive
23
24
25 strengths at different exposure temperatures are illustrated in Fig. 7 at both 7 and 28 days.
ct

26
27 Note that the peak normalised strength is the ratio of peak stress at the target temperature
28
ur

29
(fcT) and fc30, and represents the coefficient (kcT) for the reduction of concrete compressive
30
31
al

32 strength as a function of exposure temperature. The residual compressive strength can be

33
34 calculated by multiplying kcT with fc30. It is seen in Fig. 7 that the kcT initially decreased
Fi

35
36
37 up to 200oC before increasing slightly at 300oC. This initial reduction of concrete strength
re

38
39 up to 200oC is the result of evaporation of free water from the concrete (Castillo and
40
41 Durrani, 1990). Nevertheless, the concrete is able to retain nearly 90% of its strength at
En

42
43
44 this stage. The compressive strength stabilises after the free water is lost between 100-
45
400°C (Khaliq and Kodur, 2011b). A gradual reduction in kcT is seen later up to 600oC in
gi

46
47
48 Fig. 7. Thereafter, kcT decreased rapidly up to 900oC. It is seen in Fig. 7 that the residual
ne

49
50
51 compressive strength of concrete became less than 15% at 900oC at both 7 and 28 days.
52
er

53 A comparison of concrete strains at different target temperatures in Fig. 6 indicates that

54
55
in

56
the deformation of concrete specimens (corresponding to the peak normalised stress)
57
58
g

59
60
15
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 16 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
increased with increased exposure temperatures. A summary of strain corresponding to
4
5
6 peak normalised stress at 7 and 28 days is given in Table 4. It is noted in Table 4 that
ur
7
8 change in strain is insignificant up to 300oC at 7 days 28 days. Higher strain levels are
9
na
10
11
noted in Table 4 and Fig. 6 beyond 300oC at 7 days which is an indication of increased
12
13 concrete ductility at higher exposure temperatures. On the other hand, strains increased
lo
14
15 continuously with increase in the heating temperature for the specimens tested at 28 days.
16
fS
17
18 Further, the maximum strain level of concrete also increased with increased heating
19
20 temperature which also indicates higher concrete ductility at elevated temperatures.
tru
21
22 Residual Tensile Strength
23
24
25 The splitting tensile strength of the concrete specimen (ft) was calculated by Eq. (2)
ct

26
27 (ASTM 2011)
28
ur

29
ft =2P/πld (2)
30
31
al

32 where P is the maximum applied load; and l and d are the length and the diameter of the
33
34 concrete cylinder, respectively.
Fi

35
36
37 The results of concrete splitting tensile strength at elevated temperatures (ftT) are plotted
re

38
39 in Fig. 7 in terms of peak normalised tensile strength (ftT/ft30) which represents reduction
40
41 coefficient (ktT). As mentioned earlier, the specimens for tensile strength were tested only
En

42
43
44 at 28 days. It is seen in Fig. 7 that the reduction in tensile strength is similar to that of
45
compressive strength up to 400oC. A sharp reduction in the residual tensile strength took
gi

46
47
48 place during the heating of specimens between 400-700°C (Fig. 7). The residual tensile
ne

49
50
51 strength of concrete decreased to about 35% at 600oC. This sharp reduction in splitting
52
er

53 tensile strength beyond 400°C can be attributed to the development of excessive micro
54
55
in

56
and macro cracks due to the thermal stresses, and thermal incompatibility between the
57
58
g

59
60
16
Page 17 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
cement paste and aggregates within the concrete mass (Thelandersson, 1972; Khaliq and
4
5
6 Kodur, 2011b). The concrete residual tensile strength became less than 10% at 900°C.
ur
7
8 Modulus of Elasticity
9
na
10
11
It is seen in Fig. 6 that the slope of the ascending branch of the stress-strain curves reduce
12
13 with an increase in the heating temperature of the specimen which is an indication of
lo
14
15 reduction in the elastic modulus of concrete owing to loss of stiffness and increased
16
fS
17
18 material deformation. The static elastic modulus of concrete (Ec) was calculated with the
19
20 help of Eq. (3) suggested by ASTM C469 (ASTM 2002).
tru
21
22 - 
23 E=
 -.
(3)
24
25
ct

26 where S2 is the stress corresponding to 40% of ultimate load; S1 is the stress

27
28
ur

corresponding to a longitudinal strain of 50 millionths; and ε2 is the longitudinal strain

29
30
31 caused by stress S2. The values of S1, S2 and ε2 were determined from the stress-strain
al

32
33
34 curves both at ambient and elevated temperatures (Fig. 6).
Fi

35
36 The values of Ec for the control specimens (Ec30) are given in Table 3. The normalised
37
re

38 values of Ec (EcT/Ec30) are presented in Fig. 7 which represents the coefficient of

39
40
41 reduction of concrete elastic modulus (kET) as a function of the heating temperatures. It is
En

42
43 seen in Fig. 7 that kET at 28 days is similar to kcT and ktT up to 300°C. A much lesser
44
45 reduction in kET is observed in concrete up to 400oC at 7 days. Thereafter, the elastic
gi

46
47
48 modulus degrades rapidly at both 7 and 28 days. KET became nearly 15% at 600°C at both
ne

49
50 7 and 28 days. A gradual reduction in kET is seen after 600°C up to 900oC (Fig. 7); it
51
52
er

53
became 4% and 2% at 900°C for the specimens tested at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
54
55
in

56 Poisson’s Ratio
57
58
g

59
60
17
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 18 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Poisson’s ratio (µ) is the ratio of transverse to the longitudinal strain under the application
4
5
6 of compressive load. Poisson’s ratios for the tested specimens were calculated using Eq.
ur
7
8 (4) as suggested by ASTM C469 (ASTM, 2002).
9
na
10  
11 = (4)
 .
12 where εt2 is the transverse strain at mid height of the specimen produced by stress S2; and
13
lo
14
15 εt1 is the transverse strain at mid height of the specimen produced by stress S1. The values
16
fS
17 of εt1 and εt2 have been obtained from the data of compression testing of concrete
18
19 cylinders at ambient and high temperatures.
20
tru
21
22 The normalized values of Poisson’s ratios (µcT/µc30) have been plotted in Fig. 8 versus the
23
24 heating temperature which represents the reduction coefficient (kµT). It is seen in Fig. 8
25
ct

26
27
that kµT increases with heating temperature. Further, kµT is higher at 7 days compared to
28
ur

29 28 days. Nevertheless, both curves are nearly parallel to each other up 400°C. Thereafter,
30
31 kµT became larger at 28 days as compared to 7 days and the curve for the former crossed
al

32
33
34 over the latter curve at 650°C. kµT at 900°C comes out to be 3.85 and 6.08 at 7 and 28
Fi

35
36 days, respectively.
37
re

38 Comparison with Existing Data

39
40
41 The data of residual compressive strength have been compared with those available in the
En

42
43 existing literature. Since the data on low strength concrete is limited, a wide range of data
44
45
of unstressed tests with siliceous and siliceous type aggregates, and testing conditions
gi

46
47
48 similar to those used in the presented study have been employed. Table 5 summarises the
ne

49
50 details of existing studies. It is noted in Table 5 that fc30 of concrete ranges 25-62 MPa
51
52
er

53
and the duration of heating of specimens varies from 1-4 hours. An unstressed test
54
55 method was used in all the studies in Table 5. The results of the studies in Table 5 have
in

56
57 been compared with those presented in this paper (designated as NED M21) in Fig. 9 in
58
g

59
60
18
Page 19 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
terms of coefficient kT. The results of both the residual compressive and tensile strengths
4
5
6 have been illustrated in Fig. 9. It is seen in Fig. 9(a) that, except for the studies reported
ur
7
8 by Phan et al. (2001), and Behnood and Ghandehari (2009), the results of residual
9
na
10
11
compressive strength for others are close to NED M21 data up to 400oC. Large variations
12
13 exist after this temperature even with the same duration of heating as in the case of
lo
14
15 Husem (2006) (fc30 = 34 MPa). Similarly, residual tensile strength of the NED M21
16
fS
17
18 samples differs significantly with those available in the literature (Fig. 9(b)). These
19
20 results further justify the need of the presented study.
tru
21
22 Conclusions
23
24
25 The results of experimental testing at elevated temperature of cylindrical specimens made
ct

26
27 of low-strength concrete are reported in this paper. The main findings of the investigation
28
ur

29
are listed as under
30
31
al

32 1. The colour of concrete started to change at 300oC from grey to pink. A reddish
33
34 colour was observed at 400oC and 500oC. The colour changed to whitish grey at
Fi

35
36
37 900oC.
re

38
39 2. Hairline cracks formed on the surface of specimens at 400oC which increased in
40
41 thickness gradually with heating temperature and changed to visible cracks at
En

42
43
44 700oC. Large cracks were seen on the surface of specimens at 900oC. A few
45
cylinders spalled explosively at 400-650oC which may be the result of high
gi

46
47
48 pressure applied by the steam in the concrete pores.
ne

49
50
51 3. The mass loss at 7 and 28 days was similar, although it was slightly higher at 28
52
er

53 days. The mass loss increased sharply almost linearly up to 600oC. Thereafter, it
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
19
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 20 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
reduced linearly until 900oC. The mass loss at 900oC came out to be 11% and
4
5
6 12% of the initial mass at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
ur
7
8 4. The compressive behaviour of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures was
9
na
10
11
similar at both 7 and 28 days. The residual strength of concrete decreased sharply
12
13 after 600oC and the concrete lost nearly 60% of its strength at 700oC. The residual
lo
14
15 compressive strength of concrete was found to be 15% at 900oC.
16
fS
17
18 5. The compressive strain of concrete increased at exposure to high temperatures
19
20 and the specimens showed considerably long descending branch of stress-strain
tru
21
22 curve. This indicates increased concrete ductility at higher heating temperatures.
23
24
25 The strain corresponding to the peak stress also increased with increasing
ct

26
27 exposure temperatures.
28
ur

29
6. Residual tensile strength of concrete was similar to that of compressive strength
30
31
al

32 up to 400oC. Residual tensile strength decreased rapidly after 400oC and concrete
33
34 lost nearly 65% of its strength at 600oC. Residual tensile strength was reduced to
Fi

35
36
37 nearly 10% at 900oC.
re

38
39 7. Residual elastic modulus of concrete was different at 7 and 28 days up to 600oC.
40
41 It decreased rapidly after 300oC and became 15% at 600oC at both 7 and 28 days.
En

42
43
44 The loss of concrete stiffness was higher than its strength at high temperatures.
45
Concrete lost nearly all its stiffness at 900oC.
gi

46
47
48 8. Residual Poisson’s ratio of concrete increased with exposure at high temperatures.
ne

49
50
51 It was initially higher at 7 days compared to 28 days. A sharp increase in the
52
er

53 residual Poisson’s ratio at 28 days took place at 600oC and it exceeded that at 7
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
20
Page 21 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
days at 650oC. The residual Poisson’s ratio at 900oC was found to be 3.85 and
4
5
6 6.08 at 7 and 28 days, respectively.
ur
7
8 9. The results of residual compressive and tensile strengths were compared with
9
na
10
11
those available in the existing literature. The comparison indicated that
12
13 differences in the behaviour of samples tested in the presented paper existed with
lo
14
15 those reported by other researchers.
16
fS
17
18 The preparations for the next phase of testing work are in progress. It is hoped that
19
20 these will prove helpful in proposing constitutive relations both at ambient and
tru
21
22 elevated temperatures for the typical concrete grades used in Pakistan.
23
24
25 References
ct

26
27 Abrams M.S. (1971), “Compressive strength of concrete at temperatures to 1600 F” ACI
28
ur

29
Publication SP25, paper SP25-2, Detroit 1971.
30
31
al

32 Abramowicz, M., Kowalski, R. (2007), “Residual mechanical material properties for the
33
34 reassessment of reinforced concrete structures after fire” in The 9th International
Fi

35
36
37 Conference of Modern Building Materials, Structures, and Techniques, Lithuania,
re

38
39 Vilnius (2007), pp.16-18.
40
41 Akca AH, Zihnioglu NO. (2013) “High performance concrete under elevated
En

42
43
44 temperatures” Construction and Building Materials, vol.44, pp. 317–328.
45
gi

46 Almeida, D.F.A (1998), “Patologia, TeraplaeProfilaxianasconstrucaes In 19oSimpatcom–

47
48 Simposia de Aplicacao da Tecnologia do concreto, Campisas, Sao Paulo, 1998.
ne

49
50
51 Anand N, Arulraj P. (2011), “The effect of elevated temperature on concrete materials -
52
er

53 A literature review” International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering Volume 1,

54
55
in

56
No 4,.
57
58
g

59
60
21
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 22 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
4
5
6 Arioz, O. (2007) "Effects of elevated temperatures on properties of concrete", Fire Safety
ur
7
8 Journal, Vol. 42, No. 8, pp. 516-522.
9
na
10
11
American Concrete Institute (ACI). (2011). “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions
12
13 for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete” (ACI 211.1-91) (Reapproved 2009), ACI
lo
14
15 Committee 2011, Detroit, Michigan.
16
fS
17
18 American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). (1997), “Test Method for Bulk Density
19
20 (“Unit Weight”) and Voids in Aggregate” (ASTM C-29/C), USA.
tru
21
22 American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). (2001a), “Test Method for Density,
23
24
25 Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate” (ASTM C-
ct

26
27 127), USA.
28
ur

29
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). (2001b), “Test Method for Density,
30
31
al

32 Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregate”, (ASTM C-128),
33
34 USA.
Fi

35
36
37 ASTM Standard ASTM C192/C192M-02, (2002 ), “Standard Practice for Making and
re

38
39 Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory”, ASTM International, West
40
41 Conshohocken, PA.
En

42
43
44 ASTM Standard ASTM C39/C39M-03 (2003), “Standard Test Method for Compressive
45
gi

46 Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM

47
48 International, West Conshohocken, PA.
ne

49
50
51 American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) (2004), “Standard Specification for
52
er

53 Portland Cement” (ASTM C150-04), USA.

54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
22
Page 23 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
ASTM Standard ASTM C143/C143M-10a (2010), “Standard Test Method for Slump of
4
5
6 Hydraulic-Cement Concrete”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM International,
ur
7
8 West Conshohocken, PA.
9
na
10
11
ASTM Standard ASTM C496/C496M-11, (2011), “Standard Test Method for Splitting
12
13 Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
lo
14
15 ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
16
fS
17
18 ASTM Standard ASTM C469/C469M-14, (2014), “Standard Test Method for Static
19
20 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in Compression”, Annual Book of
tru
21
22 ASTM Standards, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
23
24
25 American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM). (2016), “Standard Specification for
ct

26
27 Concrete Aggregates” (ASTM C33/C33M-16), USA.
28
ur

29
Bahr O, Schaumann P, Bollen B, Bracke J. (2013), “Young’s modulus and Poisson’s
30
31
al

32 ratio of concrete at high temperatures: Experimental investigations” Materials and

33
34 Design, Vol. 45, pp. 421–429.
Fi

35
36
37 Bazant Z. P. Chern J. C. (1982), “Normal and Refractory Concretes for LMFBR
re

38
39 Applications”, EPRI: NP-2437, Vol. 1, Northwestern University, Evanston, 1982.
40
41 Bazant Z.P., Kaplan M.F. (1996) “Concrete at high temperatures: material properties and
En

42
43
44 mathematical models” Concrete Design and Construction Series, Longman Group Ltd.
45
gi

46 England.
47
48 Behnood A, Ghandehari M. (2009), “Comparison of compressive and splitting tensile
ne

49
50
51 strength of high-strength concrete with and without polypropylene fibres heated to high
52
er

53 temperatures” Fire Safety Journal, Vol.44 , pp.1015–1022.

54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
23
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 24 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Biolzi L, Cattaneo S, Rosati G. (2008), “Evaluating residual properties of thermally
4
5
6 damaged concrete” Cement & Concrete Composites vol.30, pp. 907–916
ur
7
8 Castillo C, Durrani AJ. (1990), “Effect of transient high temperature on high strength
9
na
10
11
concrete” ACI Material Journal, Vol. 87(1), pp. 47–53.
12
13 Chan YN, Peng GF, Anson M. (1999), “Residual strength and pore structure of high-
lo
14
15 strength concrete and normal strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures”
16
fS
17
18 Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 21, pp. 23-27.
19
20 Chang YF, Chen YH, Sheu MS, Yao GC. (2006), “Residual stress–strain relationship for
tru
21
22 concrete after exposure to high temperatures” Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 36,
23
24
25 pp. 1999–2005.
ct

26
27 Colombo M, Felicetti R. (2007), “New NDT techniques for the assessment of fire-
28
ur

29
damaged concrete structures”, Fire Safety J., Vol.42 (6–7), pp. 461–472.
30
31
al

32 S.H. Chowdhury, (2014). "Effect of elevated temperature on mechanical properties of

33
34 high strength concrete" 23rd Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures
Fi

35
36
37 and Materials (ACMSM23) Byron Bay, Australia, 9-12 December 2014, S.T. Smith (Ed.)
re

38
39 Cong X, Kirkpatrick RJ. (1995), "Effects of the temperature and relative humidity on the
40
41 structure of C - S - H gel”, Jour. of Cement and Concrete research, vol. 25 ,pp.1237-
En

42
43
44 1245.
45
gi

46 Diederichs, U., Jumppanen, U. M. and Penttala, V. (1989), “Behavior of high strength

47
48 concrete at high temperatures”, Helsinki University of Technology, Department of
ne

49
50
51 Structural Engineering, Report no. 92,.
52
er

53 Ellingwood, B. and Lin, T. D. (1991), “Flexure and shear behavior of concrete beams
54
55
in

56
during fires,” J. Struct. Engg., ASCE, Vol. 117, No. 2, pp. 440-458.
57
58
g

59
60
24
Page 25 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
Erline, B., W.G. Hime and H.W. Kueneeing, (1972), “Evaluating fire damage to concrete
4
5
6 structures” Concr. Constr., pp: 154-159.
ur
7
8 Escalante – Garcia JI, Sharp JH. (1998), " Effect of temperature hydration of the main
9
na
10
11
clinker phases in portland cements: part i, neat cements”. Cement and Concrete
12
13 Research, Volume 28, Issue 9, Pages 1245–1257.
lo
14
15 Faiyadh F. I., and Al-Ausi M. A. (1989), “Effect of elevated temperature on splitting
16
fS
17
18 tensile strength of fibre concrete” The Intemational Journal of Cement Composites and
19
20 Lightweight Concrete, Volume 11, Number 3.
tru
21
22 Felicetti, R., Gambarova, P. G., Rosati, G. P., Corsi, F. and Giannuzzi, G. (1996) ,
23
24
25 “Residual mechanical properties of HSC subjected to high-temperature cycles”,
ct

26
27 Proceedings, 4th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength/High-
28
ur

29
Performance Concrete, Pans, France, 1996, 579-588.
30
31
al

32 Felicetti R. and Gambarova P.G. (1998), “Effects of high temperature on the residual
33
34 compressive strength of high strength silicious concretes” ACI Materials Journal, V. 95,
Fi

35
36
37 No. 4, pp. 395-406.
re

38
39 FIB Bulletin 38 (2007), “Fire design of concrete structures—materials, structures and
40
41 modelling” The International Federation for Structural Concrete, Lausanne, Switzerland.
En

42
43
44 FIB Bulletin 46 (2008), “Fire design of concrete structures – structural behaviour and
45
gi

46 assessment”
47
48 Fire Research Report (2000), “Where in New Zealand have fatal domestic fires
ne

49
50
51 Occurred?” University of Otago Research Team, New Zealand, pp. 1-9.
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
25
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 26 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Freskakis GN, Burroe RC, Debbas EB. (1979), “Strength properties of concrete at
4
5
6 elevated temperature” Civil Engineering Nuclear Power, Vol. 1, ASCE National
ur
7
8 Convention, American Society of Civil Engineers, Boston, Massachusetts, April 1979.
9
na
10
11
Furumura, F., Abe, T. and Shinohara, Y. (1995), “Mechanical properties of high strength
12
13 concrete at high temperatures”, Proceedings of the Fourth Weimar Workshop on High
lo
14
15 performance Concrete: Material Properties and Design, Weimar, Germany, October 4th
16
fS
17
18 and 5th, 237-254.
19
20 Galletto, A.; Meneghini, E. C. A. (2000), “Comportamento do Concreto Submetido à
tru
21
22 Temperaturas Elevadas” Seminário apresentado na disciplina Análise Experimental de
23
24
25 Estruturas – FEC – UNICAMP – Fev.
ct

26
27 Ghan YN, Peng GF, Anson M (1999) “Residual strength and pore structure of high-
28
ur

29
strength concrete and normal strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures”. Cem
30
31
al

32 Concr Compos, vol. 21, pp. 23–27.

33
34 Goldstein, H. (1995), “Not your father’s concrete.” Civil Engineering, vol.65(5), pp. 60-
Fi

35
36
37 63.
re

38
39 Gonzalez-Fonteboa, B., and Martinez-Abella, F. (2007). “Shear strength of recycled
40
41 concrete beams.” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 21(4), pp. 887–893.
En

42
43
44 Hager I. (2013), “Behaviour of cement concrete at high temperature” Bulletin of the
45
gi

46 Polish Academy of Sciences - Technical Sciences, Vol. 61, No. 1, 1-10.

47
48 Hammer, T. A. (1995), “High-strength concrete phase 3: Compressive strength and E-
ne

49
50
51 modulus at elevated temperatures”, SP6 Fire Resistance, Report 6.1, SINTEF Structures
52
er

53 and Concrete, February 1995.

54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
26
Page 27 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
Handoo, S.K., S. Agarwal and S.K. Agarwal, (2002), “Physicochemical, mineralogical,
4
5
6 and morphological characteristics of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures” Cem.
ur
7
8 Concr. Res., vol.32(7), pp. 1009-1018.
9
na
10
11
Hanson, M.A., (1990), “Petrographic examination of concrete cores from a structure
12
13 exposed to fire”, Proc. Int. Conf. Cem. Microsc., Vancouver, Canada, pp: 379-373.
lo
14
15 Harada T, Takeda J, Yamane S, Furumura F. (1972), “Strength, elasticity and thermal
16
fS
17
18 properties of concrete subject to elevated temperature”, concrete for nuclear reactors,
19
20 ACI SP-34, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1972, pp. 377–406.
tru
21
22 Heikal, M. (2000), “Effect of temperature on the physico-mechanical and mineralogical
23
24
25 properties of homra pozzolanic cement pastes”, Cem. Concr. Res., vol30, pp. 1835-1839.
ct

26
27 Hertz, K. (1991), “Danish investigations on silica fume concretes at elevated
28
ur

29
temperatures”, Proceedings of ACI 1991 Spring Convention, March 17-21.
30
31
al

32 Husem M. (2006), “The effects of high temperature on compressive and flexural

33
34 strengths of ordinary and high-performance concrete”, Fire Safety Journal, vol.41, pp.
Fi

35
36
37 155–163.
re

38
39 Ingham JP. (2009) “Application of petrographic examination techniques to the
40
41 assessment of fire-damaged concrete and masonry structures”. Mater Charact, vol.60(7),
En

42
43
44 pp.700-709.
45
gi

46 Joseph A. (2013), “Residual compressive strength of normal and high strength concrete at
47
48 elevated temperatures” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology
ne

49
50
51 (IJERT), Vol. 2 Issue 6, ISSN: 2278-0181.
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
27
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 28 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Khaliq W, Kodur V. (2011a), “Thermal and mechanical properties of fibre reinforced
4
5
6 high performance self-consolidating concrete at elevated temperatures”, Cement and
ur
7
8 Concrete Research, vol.41, pp. 1112–1122.
9
na
10
11
Khaliq, W., & Kodur, V. K. R. (2011b), “Effect of high temperature on tensile strength of
12
13 different types of high-strength concrete” ACI Materials Journal, vol.108(4), pp.394-402.
lo
14
15 Khoury, G.A (1992), “Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures”, magazine
16
fS
17
18 of concrete research, vol. 449(61), pp. 291 – 309.
19
20 Khoury, G. A., Grainger, B. N. and Sullivan, P. J. E. (1985), “Strain of concrete during
tru
21
22 first heating to 600oC,” Mag. of Conc. Res., Vol. 37, No. 133, pp. 195-215.
23
24
25 Khoury GA. (2000), “Effect of fire on concrete and concrete structures”, Prog Struct Eng
ct

26
27 Mater, vol.2(4), pp.429–47.
28
ur

29
Kim G-Y, Kim Y-S, Lee T-G. (2009), “Mechanical properties of high-strength concrete
30
31
al

32 subjected to high temperature by stressed test”, Transactions of Nonferrous Metal Society

33
34 of China, vol.19, pp.128-133.
Fi

35
36
37 Kodur V. K. R. (1999), “Fire resistance requirements for FRP structural members”,
re

38
39 Annual Conference of the Canadian Society of Civil Engineering, Regina,1999, June, 83-
40
41 94.
En

42
43
44 Kodur V. (2014), “Properties of Concrete at elevated temperatures”, ISRN Civil
45
gi

46 Engineering, Volume 2014, Article ID 468510, 1-15.

47
48 Kodur V., Dwaikat M., Raut N., “Macroscopic FE model for tracing the fire response of
ne

49
50
51 reinforced concrete structures,” Engineering Structures, vol. 31, no. 10, pp. 2368–2379,
52
er

53 2009.
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
28
Page 29 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
Kordina K. (1979), “The Behaviour of Structural Elements and Buildings under Fire”(in
4
5
6 German), Rheinisch-Westf~lische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Nr. 281, Westdeutscher
ur
7
8 Verlag, Opladen, 1979.
9
na
10
11
Kowalski R. (2009), “Calculation of RC structures fire resistance”, Architecture Civil
12
13 Engineering Environment, The Silesian University of Technology. Vol.2, No. 4, pp.61-
lo
14
15 69.
16
fS
17
18 Kowalski R. (2010), “Mechanical properties of concrete subjected to high temperature”,
19
20 Architecture, Engineering and Environment, vol.2, pp.61-70.
tru
21
22 Lea FC. (1920), “The effect of temperature on some of the properties of materials”
23
24
25 Engineering (London), vol.110(3), pp.293–8.
ct

26
27 Lea FC, Stradling R. (1922), “The resistance to fire of concrete and reinforced concrete”
28
ur

29
Engineering (Lodon), Vol.114(4), pp.341–4.
30
31
al

32 Luccioni, B.M., Figueroa, M.I. and Danesi, R.F. (2003), “Thermo-mechanic model for
33
34 concrete exposed to elevated temperatures” Eng. Struct.,Vol.25, pp.729-742.
Fi

35
36
37 Malhotra, H. L. (1954), “Effect of temperature on the crushing strength of concrete,” Fire
re

38
39 Research Note, No. 130, Fire Research Station, Borehamwood.
40
41 Malhotra HL. (1956), “The effect of temperature on the compressive strength of
En

42
43
44 concrete”, Mag Concrete Res, vol. 8(22), pp.85–94.
45
gi

46 Malhotra, H. L. (1965), "The effect of temperature on the compressive strength of

47
48 concrete", Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 382-388.
ne

49
50
51 Mehta, P. K., & Monteiro, P. J. M. (1993). “Concrete: Microstructure, properties, and
52
er

53 materials” New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
29
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 30 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Mehta P. K., Monteiro P. J. M. (2006), “Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and
4
5
6 Materials”, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA.
ur
7
8 Meyer-otetens C. Zur Frage der Abplatzungen an Bauteilen aus Beton bei
9
na
10
11
Brandbeanspruchungen. Berlin: Deutsher Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton; 1975.
12
13 Mindess, S., Young JF. (1981), “Concrete”, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
lo
14
15 Morita, T., Saito, H. and Kumagai, H. (1992), “Residual mechanical properties of high
16
fS
17
18 strength concrete members exposed to high temperature - Part 1. Test on material
19
20 properties”, Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting, Architectural Institute of
tru
21
22 Japan, Niigata, August 1992.
23
24
25 Morsy, M. S. Rashad A. M., El-Nouhy, H. A., (2009), “Effect of elevated temperature on
ct

26
27 physico-mechanical properties of metakaolin blended cement mortar,” Structural
28
ur

29
Engineering and Mechanics, 31, pp.1-10.
30
31
al

32 Morsy M. S., Alsayed S. H. and M. Aqel (2010), “Effect of elevated temperature on

33
34 mechanical properties and microstructure of silica flour concrete” International Journal
Fi

35
36
37 of Civil & Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS, Vol: 10 No: 01.
re

38
39 Naseer, A., Ali, S. M. & Hussain, Z. (2006), “Reconnaissance Report on the 8th October,
40
41 2005 Earthquake Pakistan”, Earthquake Engineering Centre, Department of Civil
En

42
43
44 Engineering ,NWFP UET Peshawar, Pakistan.
45
gi

46 Nassif A.Y., Burley E., Rigden S. (1995), “A new quantitative method of assessing fire
47
48 damage to concrete structures”, Mag. Concr. Res. Vol.47 (172), pp. 271–278.
ne

49
50
51 Nisikawa, T., Nakano, Y., Tsuchiya, Y., Sanada, Y. & Sameshima, H. (2005), “Quick
52
er

53 report of damage investigation on buildings and houses due to October 8, 2005 Pakistan
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
30
Page 31 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
earthquake”, Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) and Architectural Institute of Japan
4
5
6 (AIJ).
ur
7
8 Noumowe AN, Clastres P, Debicki G, Bolvin, M. (1994), “High temperature effect on
9
na
10
11
high performance concrete: strength and porosity”, Third CANMET/ACI international
12
13 conference on durability of concrete. Nice, France, 1994.
lo
14
15 Noumowe, A.N., Clastres, P., Debicki, G. and Costaz, J.L. (1995), “High Performance
16
fS
17
18 Concrete for Severe Thermal Conditions”, Proceedings of the International Conference
19
20 on Concrete under Severe Conditions, CONSEC’95, Sapporo, Japan, August, E.&F.N.
tru
21
22 Spon., London, 1129- 1140.
23
24
25 Noumowe, A. N., Clastres, P., Debicki, G. and Costaz, J.-L. (1996), “Thermal stresses
ct

26
27 and water vapor pressure of high performance concrete at high temperature”,
28
ur

29
Proceedings, 4th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength/High-
30
31
al

32 Performance Concrete, Paris, France, 1996.

33
34 Packman PF. (1975), “Experimental techniques in fracture mechanics”, vol. 2. Ames
Fi

35
36
37 (IA): Iowa State University Press.
re

38
39 Papayianni J, Valiasis T, (1991), “Residual mechanical properties of heated concrete
40
41 incorporating different pozzolanic materials”, Mater. Struct. Vol.24, pp. 115–121.
En

42
43
44 Phan LT, Carino NJ. (1998), “Review of mechanical properties of HSC at elevated
45
gi

46 temperature”, J Mater Civil Eng ASCE 1998, vol.10(1), pp.58–64.

47
48 Phan LT, Lawson JR, David FL. (2001), “Effects of elevated temperature exposure on
ne

49
50
51 heating characteristics, spalling, and residual properties of high performance concrete”,
52
er

53 Materials and Structures, Vol. 34, pp. 83-91.

54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
31
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 32 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Phan LT, Carino NJ. (2002), “Effects of test conditions and mixture proportions on
4
5
6 behavior of high-strength concrete exposed to high temperatures”, ACI Mater J,
ur
7
8 vol.99(1), pp.54–66.
9
na
10
11
Rafi MM, Nadjai A, Ali F. (2007), “Fire resistance of carbon FRP reinforced concrete
12
13 beams” Magazine of Concrete Research, vol.59(4), pp.245-255.
lo
14
15 Rafi MM, Nadjai A, Ali F. (2008), “Finite element modeling of carbon fiber-reinforced
16
fS
17
18 polymer reinforced concrete beams under elevated temperatures”, ACI Structural
19
20 Journal, vol.105(6), pp.701-710.
tru
21
22 Rafi MM, Nadjai A. (2010), “Analytical Behaviors of steel and CFRP reinforced
23
24
25 concrete Beams in fire”, Journal of ASTM International, vol.7(8), pp.1-21.
ct

26
27 Rafi MM, Nasir MM. (2014), “Experimental investigation of chemical and physical
28
ur

29
properties of cements manufactured in Pakistan”, ASTM Journal of Testing and
30
31
al

32 Evaluation, vol. 42(3), pp.774-786.

33
34 Rafi MM, Lodi SH, Nizam A. (2014), “Chemical and mechanical properties of steel
Fi

35
36
37 rebars manufactured in Pakistan and design implications”, Journal of Materials in Civil
re

38
39 Engineering, ASCE, vol. 26(2), pp.338-348.
40
41 Rafi MM, Nasir MM. (2016a), “Models for prediction of 28-Day concrete compressive
En

42
43
44 strength”, ASTM Journal of Testing and Evaluation, vol. 44(3), pp.1217-1228.
45
gi

46 Rafi MM, Lodi SH, Ahmed M, Kumar A, Verjee F. (2016b), “Development of building
47
48 inventory for Northern Pakistan for seismic risk reduction”, International Journal of
ne

49
50
51 Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, DOI 10.1108/IJDRBE-05-2015-0028.
52
er

53 Roux, F. J., (1974), "Concrete at Elevated Temperatures", Doctoral Thesis, University of

54
55
in

56
Capetown, South Africa, August 1974.
57
58
g

59
60
32
Page 33 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
Saad, M., Galal A. F., Abo-El-Enein, S. A. (1998), “Effect of temperature on phase
4
5
6 composition and microstructure of artificial pozzolana-cement paste containing burnt
ur
7
8 kaolinite clay, ” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 28, pp. 1157-1163.
9
na
10
11
Salleh, N.H. and Ahmad, A.G. (2009), “Fire safety management in heritage buildings: the
12
13 current scenario in Malaysia”, in proceedings of 22nd CIPA Symposium in Kyoto, Japan,
lo
14
15 2009.
16
fS
17
18 Sarshar, R. and Khoury, G. A. (1993), “Material and environmental factors influencing
19
20 the compressive strength of unsealed cement paste and concrete at high temperatures”,
tru
21
22 Mag. of Conc. Res. 45 (162) 51–62.
23
24
25 Savva, A., Manita, P., Sideris, K.K., (2005), “Influence of elevated temperatures on the
ct

26
27 mechanical properties of blended cement concretes prepared with limestone and siliceous
28
ur

29
aggregates.” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 27, pp. 239-248.\
30
31
al

32 Schneider U. (1982), “Behaviour of Concrete at High Temperatures”, Deutscher

33
34 Ausschuss fiir Stahlheron, Heft 337, Verlag W. Ernst und Sohn, Berlin.
Fi

35
36
37 Schneider U. (1985), “Properties of Materials at High Temperatures – Concrete”, RILEM
re

38
39 44-PHT, University of Kassel, Kassel.
40
41 Schneider U. (1988), “Concrete at high temperatures – a general review”, Fire Safety J,
En

42
43
44 vol. 13(1), pp.55–68.
45
gi

46 Short N.R., Purkiss J.A., Guise S.E. (2001), “Assessment of fire damaged concrete using
47
48 color image analysis”, Construction and Building Materials, vol. 15, pp.9–15.
ne

49
50
51 Sullivan, P. J. E. and Shanshar, R. (1992), “Performance of concrete at elevated
52
er

53 temperatures (as measured by the reduction in compressive strength)”, Fire Technology ,

54
55
in

56
vol. 28 (3), pp.240-250.
57
58
g

59
60
33
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 34 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Thelandersson S. (1972), “Effect of High Temperatures on Tensile Strength of Concrete”.
4
5
6 Division of Structural Mechanics and Concrete Construction, Bulletin 26, Lund Institute
ur
7
8 of technology, Lund, Swedon.
9
na
10
11
Toumi B, Resheidat M, Guemmadi , Chabil H. (2009), “Coupled Effect of High
12
13 Temperature and Heating Time on the Residual Strength of Normal and High-Strength
lo
14
15 Concretes”, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, Volume 3, No. 4, 322-330.
16
fS
17
18 Xiao, J. and Konig, G. (2004), "Study on concrete at high temperature in China - An
19
20 overview", Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 39, No. 1, pp. 89-103.
tru
21
22 Xiao J, Falkner H. (2006), “On residual strength of high-performance concrete with and
23
24
25 without polypropylene fibres at elevated temperatures” Fire Safety Journal 41 (2006),
ct

26
27 pp.115–121.
28
ur

29
Xu, Y. Wong, Y. L. Poon C. S., Anson, M., (2001), “Impact of high temperature on PFA
30
31
al

32 concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol.31, pp. 1065-1073.

33
34 Zoldners N.G. (1960), “Effect of high temperatures on concretes incorporating different
Fi

35
36
37 aggregates”, American Society of Testing Materials, vol. 60, pp.1087-1108, Sixty-third
re

38
39 Annual Meeting of the Society.
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
34
Page 35 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
TABLES AND FIGURES
4
5
6 List of Tables
ur
7
8 Table 1. Physical properties of aggregates
9
na
10
11
Table 2. Constituents of concrete mix
12
13 Table 3. Properties of control specimen for different batches
lo
14
15 Table 4. Data of strain at peak normalised stress
16
fS
17
18 Table 5 Summary of existing studies
19
20 List of Figures
tru
21
22 Fig. 1 View of furnace and spalled specimens
23
24
25 Fig. 2 Typical temperature ramp for heating of cylinders
ct

26
27 Fig. 3 Representative sample of specimens tested in compression
28
ur

29
Fig. 4 Surface cracks after heating at 900oC
30
31
al

32 Fig. 5 Mass loss at elevated temperatures

33
34 Fig. 6 Relationship between normalized stress and strain: (a) 7 day; (b) 28 day
Fi

35
36
37 Fig. 7 Reduction coefficient of concrete strength and modulus at elevated temperatures
re

38
39 Fig. 8 Relationship between normalized Poisson’s ratio and temperature
40
41 Fig. 9 Comparison of residual strength: (a) compressive strength; (b) tensile strength
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
35
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 36 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Table 1. Physical properties of aggregates
4
5 Property Sand Coarse Aggregate
6
ur
7 ASTM Value ASTM Value
8
9
na
10 Specific Gravity C 128 (ASTM 2.40 C127 (ASTM 2.62
11 2001b) 2001a)
12 Absorption (%) C 128 (ASTM 1 C127 (ASTM 0.39
13
lo
2001b) 2001a)
14
Loose Density C 29 (ASTM 2002.8 C 29 (ASTM 1817.9
15
16 (kg/m3) 1997) 1997)
fS
17 Dry Rodded C 29 (ASTM 2120.9 C 29 (ASTM 1896.7
18 Density (kg/m3) 1997) 1997)
19
20
tru
21
22
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
Table 2. Constituents of concrete mix
48
225 Kg/m3
ne

49 Water (W)
50 Ordinary Portland Cement (C) 335 Kg/m3
51 W/C ratio 0.67
52
1083 Kg/m3
er

Coarse aggregate – 19 mm
53
54 Sand 871 Kg/m3
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
36
Page 37 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
Table 3. Properties of control specimen for different batches
4
5
6 Batch Target fc30 (MPa) ft30 Ec30 µc
ur
7 Temperature (MPa) (MPa)
8 (oC) Mean SD CoV Mean SD CoV Mean Mean
9
na
10
1 100 23.7 2.18 0.09 2.99 0.61 0.20 8.3 0.15
11 2 200 23.4 1.63 0.07 2.81 0.42 0.15 8.4 0.1
12 3 300 22.4 2.41 0.11 2.58 0.55 0.21 7.4 0.05
13
lo
4 400 21.2 1.56 0.07 2.13 0.05 0.03 7.3 0.17
14 5 500 23.4 1.39 0.06 2.64 0.27 0.10 7.4 0.23
15
16 6 600 23.5 1.7 0.07 2.82 0.48 0.17 7.2 0.12
7 700 22.7 1.45 0.06 2.21 0.38 0.17 8.0 0.1
fS
17
18 8 800 21.4 1.48 0.07 2.18 0.91 0.42 7.1 0.09
19 9 900 25.2 0.44 0.02 3.27 0.48 0.15 8.2 0.18
20
tru
21
22
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43 Table 4. Data of strain at peak normalised stress
44
45 Temperature (oC) Strain corresponding to fcT/fc30 (%)
gi

46
47 7 day 28 day
48 100 0.32 0.49
ne

49 200 0.33 0.67

50 300 0.38 0.71
51
52
400 0.77 0.89
er

53 500 0.77 1.01

54 600 1.24 1.87
55 700 2.85 1.87
in

56
800 2.99 3.03
57
58 900 4.34 4.34
g

59
60
37
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 38 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
Table 5 Summary of existing studies
4
5
6 S. Author fc30 Aggregate Mix w/c Heat exposure
ur
7 No (MPa) type proportion
8 1. Abrams (1971) 27 Silicious 1:3.6:4.6 0.55 3-4 hrs
9
na
10
2. Faiyadh and Al- NA Gravel 1:1.55:3.0 0.55 1.5 hr (after
11 Ausi (1989) reaching target
12 temp)
13 3. Chan et al. (1999) 39 Granite 1:1.25:3.58 0.60 1 hr (after
lo
14 reaching target
15
temp)
16
4. Phan et al. (2001) 40.6 Limestone 1:2.3:2.27 0.22 @ 5oC/min
fS
17
18 5. Husem (2006) 34 Limestone NA 0.50 1 hr (after
19 reaching target
20 temp)
tru
21
22
6. Arioz (2007) 52 Limestone 1:1.43:1.43 0.5 2 hrs
23 7. Behnood and 62 Limestone 1:1.6:2.4 0.40 3 hr (after
24 Ghandehari reaching target
25 (2009) temp)
ct

26 8. Morsy et al. 47 Limestone 1:1.8:2.66 0.5 2 hr (after

27
28
(2010) reaching target
ur

29 temp)
30 9. Joseph (2013) 25 NA 1:2.3:2.27 0.6 2 hrs
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
38
Page 39 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
4
5
6
ur
7
8
9
na
10
11
12
13
lo
14
15
16
fS
17
18
19
20
tru
21
22
23
24 Fig. 1 View of furnace and spalled specimens
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36 Target Temperature
37 T
re

38
39
Temperature (oC)

40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46 100
47
48
ne

49
50
51
60
52
er

53
54
55 10 20 10 20 varies 60 Time (min)
in

56
57 Fig. 2 Typical temperature ramp for heating of cylinders
58
g

59
60
39
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 40 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
4
5
6
ur
7
8
9
na
10
11
12
13
lo
14
15
16
fS
17
18
19
20
tru
21
22
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29 Fig. 3 Representative sample of specimens tested in compression

30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57 Fig. 4 Surface cracks after heating at 900oC
58
g

59
60
40
Page 41 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
4
5
6
ur
7
8 28 day
9
na
10
7 day
11
12
13
lo
14
15
16
fS
17
18
19
20
tru
21
22 Fig. 5 Mass loss at elevated temperatures
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
41
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 42 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
4 300oC o
5 200 C (a)
6 o
ur
100 C
7 400oC 500oC
8
9
600oC
na
10
11
12
700oC
13 800oC
lo
14
15
16 900oC
fS
17
18
19
20
tru
21
22
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37 100oC
(b)
re

38 400oC
39
40 500oC
41 300oC
En

42 600oC
43 200oC o
700 C
44
45 800oC
gi

46
47
48
900oC
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57 Fig. 6 Relationship between normalized stress and strain: (a) 7 day; (b) 28 day
58
g

59
60
42
Page 43 of 44 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering

1
2
Jo
3
4
5
6
ur
7
8 7 day 7 day
9
na
10 28 day 28 day
11 28 day
12
13
lo
Compressive stress
14
15 Tensile stress
16 Elastic modulus
fS
17
18
19
20
tru
21 Fig. 7 Reduction coefficient of concrete strength and modulus at elevated temperatures
22
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57 Fig. 8 Relationship between normalized Poisson’s ratio and temperature
58
g

59
60
43
 Journal of Structural Fire Engineering Page 44 of 44

1
2
Jo
3
4
5
(a)
6
ur
7
8
9
na
10
11
12
13
lo
14
15
16
fS
17
18
19
20
tru
21
22
23
24
25
ct

26
27
28 (b)
ur

29
30
31
al

32
33
34
Fi

35
36
37
re

38
39
40
41
En

42
43
44
45
gi

46
47
48 Fig. 9 Comparison of residual strength: (a) compressive strength; (b) tensile strength
ne

49
50
51
52
er

53
54
55
in

56
57
58
g

59
60
44

View publication stats