Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408

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Aerospace Science and Technology

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Coupled simulation of heat transfer and temperature of the composite rocket

nozzle wall
Zhang Xiaoying ∗
College of Electric Power, South China University of Technology, Wu Shan, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Simulation of the temperature distribution on the rocket nozzle wall in high temperature environment is
Received 23 July 2008 most important for assessing safety and reliability of the nozzle. For that purpose, the coupling simulation
Received in revised form 7 May 2010 of heat transfer and transient temperature of the rocket nozzle wall is carried out in this paper. Equations
Accepted 16 September 2010
of radiative heat flux on surfaces in an enclosure with inhomogeneous, participating media is developed
Available online 29 September 2010
to compute the radiative heat flux. The convective heat transfer considering ablation of the C/C material
Keywords: has been studied. And radiative transfer between the plume and nozzle wall has been analyzed with the
Coupled computation net radiation computing method in one enclosure. Also the differential equation for two-dimensional
Rocket engines transient conduction in the cylindrical coordinate has been established, discretized and solved. The
Nozzle convection and radiation heat fluxes, also the transient temperature along the wall length and thickness
Heat transfer simulation of the composite nozzle wall after startup of the engine are investigated. Two benchmark problems have
Wall temperature been taken, one is the nozzle of an experimental rocket engine fabricated with stainless substrate and
a ZrO2 coating, the other is constructed with multi-layer composite materials. The computing results
show that: plume heating on the throat section is most serious and wall temperature in that place is
much higher than the average temperature, and heat insulation of the throat is very important for rocket
nozzle. The typical character of transient temperature is steady increase with time after startup of the
rocket engine, both on the internal and outside walls of the rocket nozzle while the former increases
rapidly. On the same section, the temperature decreases along the thickness from internal to outside
of the wall, the difference is over 1000 K due to the heat insulating layer in the nozzle material. The
coupled simulation method and related results in the present study can be best used to predict the safety
performance of the rocket nozzle in startup stage. Results of coupling simulation method are compared
with available results in references which show reasonable agreement.
© 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ceramic coatings among others. Internal convection depends upon

As the equipment of converting energy and producing thrust
force for rocket, the nozzle converts the thermal energy of gases
into the kinetic energy. There are hot gases flowing inside the noz-
zle with high velocity, temperature of the gases exceeds 3000 K
for most cases. Heat transfer between the hot gases and the noz-
zle, by means of convection and radiation, caused the temperature
of the nozzle goes up to 2000 K. Working in high temperature per-
manently promotes great challenge for the safety and reliability of
the nozzle. Numerical analysis of heat transfer and wall tempera-
ture of rocket nozzle is very important for evaluating its safety and
reliability.
Important research areas related to heat transfer of rocket noz-
zle include the internal and external heat transfer coefficient pre-
dictions, metal temperature distribution, wall cooling methods, and
* Tel.: +86 20 22236600.
E-mail address: zxy1119@scut.edu.cn.
flowing velocity and temperature of the gases, which is a com-
plex phenomenon, and there is considerable uncertainty associated
with both numerical predictions and experimental measurements.
Life extension of the nozzle, which consists of an expensive su-
per alloy, is very effective for reduction of the running costs of a
power generation plant. Accordingly, it is very important for the
life assessment of the nozzle to predict the operating conditions
and to establish a basis for the criteria of repair. In order to assess
the life of the nozzle accurately, it is necessary to estimate its tem-
perature distribution by prediction of the thermal environment.
This issue must be concerned with the three-dimensional behavior
of the metal temperature distribution of the nozzle, which is in-
fluenced by inlet gas flow conditions, internal cooling conditions,
dilution of hot gas with coolant, aerotransient mixing losses and
others.
Early from 1980, some authors have explored experiments or
conjugate calculations of heat transfer around the nozzle and heat
conduction within its solid body. Z. Mazur et al. analyzed the con-
jugate heat transfer of a gas turbine first stage nozzle [11]. John

1270-9638/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ast.2010.09.006
 X. Zhang / Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408 403

Nomenclature

T temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K F configuration factor

t time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s λ wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . μm
ρ density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kg/m3 N the number of surfaces
cp specific heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J/(kg K) δkj Kronecher delta
x axial coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m R0 radius of the nozzle inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m
r radial coordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m L length of the nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m
λ conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w/(m K)
Superscripts
a coefficients in Eq. (4)
b the source term in Eq. (4) 0 value of last time
q heat flux on the nozzle wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w/m2 + upside of the interface
h convective heat transfer coefficient, - downside of the interface
A area of the cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m2 – averaged quantity
D diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m ∗ stagnation parameter
Pr Prandtl number
Subscripts
σ transformation coefficient
Mr relative molecular weight P , W , E, S, N the center volume and the neighbored volume
Ma Mach number w, e, s, n the interface of center volume with the neighbored
k adiabatic index, specific heat volume
ε emissivity of the surface w parameters on the nozzle wall
e blackbody emissive power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w/(m2 μm) 0 parameters of surrounding
s line intensity j, k surface label
S radiation beam length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m μ spectral quantity
τ transmissivity b quantity of the black body
α absorbance r radiative
θ angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . degree t throat

W. Edwards discussed the problems of heat transfer in ASRM noz- the precision limits. Relatively small errors in the determination of
zle design and development [8]. P.F. Melia made a detailed thermal the temperature distribution significantly affect.
analysis of a large scaled propellant rocket nozzle [12]. Z.J. Weng The main objective of the present paper is to predict the tem-
measured the instantaneous temperature inside the nozzle wall perature behavior of the composite walled nozzle of rocket engine.
of one mini type solid rocket [16]. X.L. Hou and T.M. Cai inves- Coupling simulation of the conjugate heat transfer and transient
tigated the temperature prediction for composite nozzle of solid temperature on the rocket nozzle wall is investigated. The equa-
rocket motor under ablation [7]. In 90s, J.F. Maw and R.L. But- tion of radiative heat flux on surfaces of an enclosure filled with
tars explored the thermal analysis of ASRM nozzle [10], Ahmed inhomogeneous, participating media is established to compute the
K. Noor and Scott Burton investigated the accuracy of critical- radiative heat flux, the Bazi equation is used to compute the con-
vective heat transfer at the nozzle wall from the hot gases, the
temperature sensitivity coefficients predicted by multilayered com-
differential equation of 2D transient conduction in cylindrical co-
posite plate theories [13], Michel Berdoyes summarized the SRM
ordinate is established and discretized with the reclusion form.
nozzle design breakthroughs with advanced composite material
The transient temperatures of two composite walled nozzles are
in that times [1], J.F. Sun et al. explored the theoretical calcu-
computed as example. The simulation method and the computed
lation of complex nozzle’s temperature profile and stress profile
results are tested by comparing the computed results with avail-
in solid rocket motor [14]. Up to date, research report is still able results in references.
emerging. Andrew M. Brown explored the temperature dependent
modal test/analysis correlation of one composite rocket nozzle [2], 2. Geometry structure and material properties
J. Zhang and H.L. Wu simulated the thermal barring coating on
high temperature engine nozzles [17], A. Campo and F. Alhama The sketch of the composite walled nozzle is shown in Fig. 1.
simulated the rapid temperature changes in the composite noz- The structure parameters and material properties are listed in Ta-
zle wall of an experimental rocket engine during a ground firing ble 1 [6].
test with network [3].
Coupling simulation of the conjugate heat transfer and the tem- 3. Numerical methods
perature distribution of rocket nozzle are highly difficult with ra-
3.1. The governing equation of conduction inside the nozzle wall
diation of inhomogeneous gases inside. For gas radiation is con-
trolled by RTE which is an integration/differential equation, deter-
With axial symmetry of nozzle form, conduction inside the noz-
mination of the radiative heat flux on the nozzle wall is compli-
zle wall can be simplified as a 2D transient conduction in cylindri-
cated. Previous researches commonly assumed the gases as homo-
cal coordinate. The differential equation for transient conduction in
geneous and grey, presented steady state and transient conjugate cylindrical coordinate without internal heat source can be written
heat transfer and predicted the temperature distribution of the as,
rocket nozzle for the single condition, and seldom concerned the    
∂T ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
coupling simulation of the conjugate heat transfer and the temper- ρc = λ + rλ (1)
ature distribution. There is a great demand for providing reliable ∂t ∂x ∂x r ∂r ∂r
numerical tools for the determination of the temperatures on the In order to discretize the differential equation, the domain in-
nozzle surface and in the complete solid body of the nozzle within cluded in one solid angle is taken as a control volume to study.
404 X. Zhang / Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408

Table 1
Material properties of the nozzle.

Position Material Thickness Density Specific heat Thermal conductivity

(mm) (kg/m3 ) (J/(kg K)) (w/(m K))

Converg. section Asbestos 5.4 1730 1796 0.61

Silica cloth 25 1450 1005 346

Throat Asbestos 5.4 1730 1796 0.61

C/C compositea 10 1450 1289 31
Pyroly. graphite 18 2200 921 346

Diverging section Forep. Asbestos 5.4 1730 1796 0.61

Silica cloth 25 1450 1005 346
Rearp. Asbestos 25 1730 1796 0.61
a
C/C composite means carbon/carbon composite.

a P = a E + a W + a N + a S + a0P ,
(ρ c ) P x r
a0P = , b = a0P T P0
t
The equivalent conductivity at the interface of different material is
calculated with harmonically average [15].
(δ xe ) (δ x)e− (δ x)e+
= + (5)
λe λP λE
At the initial time, the temperature at every position of the nozzle
wall is equal to the temperature of surroundings, which is 300 K.
Solving Eq. (4) needs also to discretize the boundary condition.
For the areas in middle of the nozzle, the boundary condition can
be described as in Ref. [15]:
0
TW − T P0 T P − T P0 x T E0 − T P0
λ r+λ +λ r+ rq w = 0 (6)
x r 2 x
For the areas at the front or rear end of the nozzle, the boundary
condition can be described as

(E) − T P
0 0
TW T P − T P0 x
Fig. 1. Sketch of composite walled nozzle. λ r+λ + rq w = 0 (7)
x r 2
where q w is the total heat flux at the surface area, which is the
Assuming the ρ c don’t change with time, and the flux rate on
sum of convective and radiative heat flux. The computation of the
each section of control volume be uniform, integration of Eq. (1)
convective and radiative heat fluxes is to be discussed in following
is taken on the control volume. The integration of unsteady part at
text.
left of Eq. (1) would be,

n e t+ t 3.2. Convective heat transfer at the internal wall of the nozzle
∂T  
ρ c dx dr dt = (ρ c ) P T P − T P0 x r (2)
∂t As to the convective heat transfer inside the nozzle, the convec-
s w t tive heat transfer coefficient at the internal face is calculated with
The integration of diffusion terms would be, Bazi equation [5].
   0 .8  0.9
t
+ tn e  t
+ te n   0.026 μ0.2 c p p c∗ At
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T hc = σ (8)
λ dx dr dt + λ dr dx dt D t0.2 Pr0.6 c∗ A
∂x ∂x ∂r ∂r
t s w t w s where A t and A are cross sectional areas of the throat and calcu-
  lating section separately. The viscosity coefficient, μ, the constant
TE − TP TP − TW
= λe − λw r t pressure specific heat, c p , and the Prandtl number, Pr, are all de-
(δ x)e (δ x) w
  fined at the stagnation temperature, T ∗ , of the gas. Pr and μ can
TN − TP TP − TS be approximately calculated as,
+ λn − λs x t (3)
(δr )n (δr )s
Pr ≈ 4k/(9k − 5) (9)
Incorporating Eqs. (2) and (3), one can get the discretion form of −7
Eq. (1). μ ≈ 1.184 × 10 M r0.5 T 0.6 (10)
where M r is the relative molecular weight, σ is the transformation
a P T P = a E T E + aW T W + aN T N + a S T S + b (4)
coefficient of qualitative temperature.
where    −0.68
Tw k−1 2
r r σ = 0.5 1+ Ma + 0.5
aE = , aW = , T∗ 2
(δ x)e /λe (δ x) w /λ w  −0.12
k−1
x x × 1+ Ma2 (11)
aN = , aS = , 2
(δr )n /λn (δr )s /λs
 X. Zhang / Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408 405

3.3. Steady ablation model of C/C throat insert

As have been studied in many literatures that the temperature

at the surface of the C/C throat insert is very high, the ablation
must be considered in computing wall temperature of the nozzle
throat. The ablation rate of the throat insert is mainly controlled
by diffusion rate. Then the thermo-chemical steady ablation rate
controlled by the diffusion rate at the nozzle throat can be com-
puted with model in Ref. [4]:
  0 .1
3.12 × 10−4 Dt
rt = Pr00.4
c p ρc D t0.2 rc
   0.8  0.12
μ0.2 c p p0 2
× × β, (12)
Pr0.6 0 c ∗ k+1
β = nH2 O + nCO2 + 2nO2 + nO + nOH + 2nH2 (13)
where k is specific heat of gas, ρc is density of the C-based mate- Fig. 2. Sketch of the experimental rocket engine [3].
rial, ni is mole number of the i component per kilogram gas. With
heating by the high temperature gases, the throat insert is ablated whole waveband, the set of equations must be solved in a number
from the internal face towards the exterior face, and the carburiza- of wavelength intervals and integration of spectral quantities must
tion zone develops in the insert material gradually. To consider the be performed over whole waveband.
moving boundary in solving heat conduction of throat insert, one
can specify the material property with thickness of carburization 3.5. Heat transfer at the exterior face of the nozzle
zone.
The convective heat transfer outside the nozzle is considered as
3.4. Radiative heat transfer on internal face of the nozzle free convective heat transfer. One can find the equations of free
convective heat transfer coefficient in many reference, which are
To compute the radiative heat transfer inside the nozzle, the not listed here.
enclosure is established and the Zone method is also adopted to As to the radiative heat transfer on exterior face of the noz-
divide the calculating domain [9]. The nozzle and the gases are as- zle, the nozzle is looked as encapsulated within a black envelope
sumed as an enclosure filled with inhomogeneous radiative gases. with temperature of the surrounding. For the huge volume, the
The surface of the nozzle is divided into small areas with uniform surrounding gas can be looked as optical thick whose emissivity
temperature, and the gases field is divided into small volumes with would be 1. On that assumption, the radiative heat flux on exterior
uniform temperature. The temperature of each area and volume is face of the nozzle can be expressed as
assumed do not vary with heat gain or loss. 4
qr = εσ T w − σ T 04 (17)
On above basis, the equation of radiative heat flux, relating to
the temperature, on surfaces of an enclosure filled with inhomo-
geneous, participating media can be developed from the radiative 4. Results and discussion
transfer equation:
  The first test case is to compute the rapid temperature changes
N
δkj 1 − εj in the composite nozzle wall of an experimental rocket engine dur-
− F k− j τ̄λ,k− j qλ, j ing a ground firing test [3]. Fig. 2 is a sketch of the cross-section
j =1
εj εj
of the nozzle wall. In principle, the composite nozzle wall con-
N sists of three concentric annular layers of materials with dissimilar
= (δkj − F k− j τ̄λ,k− j )e λb, j − F k− j ᾱλ,k− j ē λb (14) mechanical and thermal properties. It is made from stainless steel
j =1 AISI304 with a diameter D = 0.50 m and a thickness L 2 = 25 mm.
For purposes of thermal protection, a coating of ZrO2 with a thick-
where δ is the Kronecker operator, δkj = 1 when k = j, and δkj = 0 ness L 1 = 10 mm is sprayed on the inner surface of the nozzle
when k = j. The τ̄λ, j −k and ᾱλ, j −k are spectral transmission factor wall to create a beneficial thermal barrier. The outer surface of the
and spectral absorption factor separately, defined as nozzle wall is wrapped with a thick layer of high performance in-
  sulation insuring that the heat losses to the air are small over a
1 τλ ( S ) cos θk cos θ j d Ak d A j
F j −k τ̄λ, j −k = , (15) short period of time.
Aj π S2 During the ground firing test, the inner surface of the zirco-
A J Ak
nia suddenly enters in contact with a stream of hot turbulent
  n
1 e λb,l combustion gases at an ultra-high temperature T = 2300 K. The
F j −k ᾱλ, j −k = αλ ( S l + S ) − τλ ( S l )
Aj e ∗λb gas stream is characterized by a total heat transfer coefficient
A J Ak l =1 ht = hc + hr = 5000 W/(m2 K). Prior to firing, the rocket engine
is in thermal equilibrium with the air at a room temperature of
d A k d A j cos θk cos θ j
× dλ (16) T 0 = 25 ◦ C. The temperature changes of the exposed surface of zir-
π S2 conia are computed and compared with that from Ref. [3] in Fig. 3,
Writing out Eq. (14) for N areas at the internal face of the nozzle and shows good agreement between two sets of results.
at one waveband, we can get an equations set including N un- The second test case here is to compute the conjugate heat
known radiative fluxes in that waveband, qλ, j , j = 1, . . . , N. Solving transfer and transient temperature distribution in one compos-
the equations set will give distribution of the spectral radiative flux ite nozzle wall of a rocket engine after startup. The temperature
at the internal face of the nozzle. To compute the radiative flux in and pressure of the gases inside the nozzle are shown in Figs. 4
406 X. Zhang / Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408
Fig. 3. Temperature–time curve of the exposed surface of zirconia.
Fig. 4. The temperature of the gas, K.
Fig. 5. The pressure of the gases 103 Pa.
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution on internal face of nozzle.
and 5 respectively. The axial and radial coordinates are nondi-
mensioned by Z = z/ R 0 and X = x/ L, where R 0 is the radius of
the nozzle inlet and L is the length of the nozzle. The radiative
property of the nozzle surface is considered as diffuse-gray radia-
tor with emissivity, ε = 0.8. The radiative properties of the entry
and outlet of the nozzle are considered as black bodies with tem-
perature of 0 K. The participation components in gases and their
mole fractions are constant in whole domain: FH2 O = 7.7686E–2,
FCO2 = 2.1287E–2, FCO = 2.7099E–1, FHCL = 1.6063E–1. Prior to
firing, the rocket engine is in thermal equilibrium with the sur-
rounding, whose temperature is T 0 = 300 K. In steady working
condition, the parameters of the gases, including the temperature,
pressure, velocity and concentration, can be looked as invariable
with time.
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution on extension face on nozzle.
Fig. 8. Variation of heat flux with time on internal of nozzle.
Fig. 9. Variation of heat flux with time on exterior face of nozzle.
Changing of temperature with time at the internal and exte-
rior face of the nozzle is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. One can see that
temperature at both side of the nozzle grows up with time. That
is reasonable because the initial temperature of the nozzle is far
lower than the gases flowing inside, heat flux is transferred from
the hot gases to the internal face of the nozzle by convection and
radiation, which is also transferred through the whole thickness,
causes the temperature of the nozzle growing up with time. The
temperature at the internal face of the nozzle increases with the X
coordinate before the throat and reaches maximum at the throat,
while decreases with the X coordinate after the throat. It’s shown
that plume heating on the throat section is most serious and wall
temperature in that place is much higher than the average tem-
perature, and heat insulation of the throat is very important for
rocket nozzle. Comparing Fig. 6 with Fig. 7 shows that the ten-
dency of temperature variation with X at the exterior face of the
nozzle is similar with that at the internal face, but variation am-
plitude of the exterior face appears slight than that of the internal
face.
Variations of heat fluxes with time on internal and exterior face
of the nozzle are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Here, the heat flux means
the sum of the convective and radiative heat flux. Gaining heat flux
for the nozzle is defined positive. The results on 5 sections along
the nozzle length are presented on two figures. One can see from
Fig. 8 that the internal face of the nozzle is gaining heat all the
time, but the heat flux drops down to a lower level shortly af-
 X. Zhang / Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408
Fig. 10. Variation of temperature with time inside the wall material at the section
X = 0.
Fig. 11. Variation of temperature with time inside the wall material at the section
X = 0.2.
Fig. 12. Variation of temperature with time on internal nozzle wall at the section
X = 0.4.
ter start up of the rocket engine. As directly heated by the hot
gases, the temperature on internal face of the nozzle grows up
rapidly when the hot gases begin flowing in the nozzle, so the
heat flux drops down quickly. Fig. 9 shows that the exterior face
of the nozzle is losing heat all the time, which is transferred to
the surrounding, and the negative heat flux rises up gradually af-
ter start up of the rocket engine. For accumulation of heat inside
the wall material, the temperature on exterior face of the nozzle
grows up slowly, so the heat transfer with the surrounding grows
strong gradually.
Figs. 10–14 show variation of temperature inside the nozzle
at sections X = 0, X = 0.2, X = 0.4, X = 0.6 and X = 0.8 with
time. The Y in the figures stands for radial coordinate which is
nondimensionalized with Y = y /δ , where δ is the thickness of the
nozzle wall. It’s showed that the temperature on different radial
coordinate grows up with time, while the temperature grows up
more rapidly when the radial coordinate gets smaller. Because in
the process of transient heat transfer, heat accumulation is needed
before the temperature begin to grows up, heat accumulation be-
407
Fig. 13. Variation of temperature with time on internal nozzle wall at the section
X = 0.6.
Fig. 14. Variation of temperature with time on internal nozzle wall at the section
X = 0.8.
come faster when the considered position gets closer to the in-
ternal face of the nozzle. Ref. [14] had explored the theoretical
calculation of complex nozzle’s temperature profile also, the ten-
dency of variation in Figs. 10–14 comes in accord with Figs. 2
and 3 in Ref. [14].
5. Conclusion
The coupling simulation of the conjugate heat transfer and
transient temperature in the composite nozzle of the rocket en-
gine has been conducted to study heating condition and safety of
nozzles after the startup. The two-+dimensional transient conduc-
tive equation in cylindrical coordinate is solved to give temperature
of the nozzle. Steady ablation of C/C material and complex radia-
tive transfer between the plume and nozzle have been included
in computation. Two composite walled nozzles are used as bench-
mark, one is working during ground firing test and the other is
working after startup.
It’s found that plume heating at throat section of nozzle is most
serious and wall temperature in that place is much higher than the
average temperature, so heat insulation of the throat is very impor-
tant for rocket nozzle. And temperature of the composite nozzle
wall keeps going up during the computing time after startup of
the rocket. On the same cross section, the temperature decreases
along the thickness from internal to exterior side of the wall, the
difference is over 1000 K. As to the heat flux of the nozzle, the
internal wall will be gaining heat during the computing time, but
that will drop down to a lower level shortly after start up of the
rocket engine. While the exterior wall of the nozzle will be losing
heat during the same time.
The present study made it possible to assess the safety and
remaining life of the nozzle based on the evaluation of the tem-
perature.
408 X. Zhang / Aerospace Science and Technology 15 (2011) 402–408
Acknowledgement
The author thanks the financial support from the National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China (Project No. 10702020) grant.
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