THERMAL PHYSICS

Unit 1. Simple Kinetic Theory of Matter

Three States of Matter

The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.

Solid

Solids have strong atomic bonding and high viscosity, resulting in high density, highly
incompressible and hence, an inflexible shape. The atoms/molecules in a solid are closely
packed together and occupy minimum space, usually in a regular pattern.

Due to strong intermolecular attractive and repulsive forces, motion is limited to random
vibrations of the particles about their mean closely packed lattice positions.

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Liquid

Liquids have a definite volume but no fixed shape. The particles of a liquid are arranged
in small clusters and condensed like those of a solid. These particles vibrate randomly
near their mean positions, but their low viscosity and cluster-form enables them to change
shape.

 When a liquid is poured into a container, it takes the shape of the container.
 The strong attractive forces between the particles are responsible for limiting the
liquid particles near the surface of the liquid from escaping.

Gas

Gas has no definite volume and shape. Gases consist of weakly-bonded particles with no
structure or long-range periodicity and they move vigorously and randomly at high
speeds.
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 Gases expand to fill any available space

 The particles in gases are far apart and have negligible attractive or repulsive
forces and therefore, are easily compressible.
The different state of matter has different properties. This difference could be explained
based on how individual atoms or molecules are held together in a matter.

Comparing the three states of matter – Solid,

Liquid & Gas
Solid Liquid Gas

Indefinite (Takes the shape and size

Volume Definite Definite
of container)

Definite (Takes the shape of Indefinite (Takes the shape of

Shape Definite
container) container)

Compressibility Not Compressible Not Compressible Compressible

– Closely packed – Closely packed in clusters of

together atoms or molecules
– Atoms or molecules are very far
apart and occupy any given space

Arrangement of
– Orderly – Atoms/molecules slightly
atoms/molecules
arrangement further apart compared to
particles – Negligible forces of attraction
between atoms/molecules
– Held together by
large forces – Held together by large forces

Density High (Usually) High Low

Forces between
Very Strong Strong Very Weak
atoms/molecules

Move in random manner

Movement of Can only vibrate Able to move pass each other and
independent of each other and at
atoms/molecules about fixed positions not confined to fixed positions
high speed
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Brownian Motion
Brownian motion is the random and irregular motion of gas and liquid molecules.
Brownian motion provides clear evidence for the kinetic molecular model of matter in that
matter is comprised of tiny particles that are in continuous random motion, with a range
of speeds and all directions and kinetic energies.
In the simulation above, it is seen that the particles are seen moving about in a random
manner.

Why does the particles move in a random manner?

 The observed irregular motion of the particles is due to the bombardment of air
molecules. The air molecules are too small to be seen. The particles are
continually bombarded unevenly on different sides by air molecules. This results
in the irregular movement of the smoke particles.
 The random motion of the particles demonstrates that air molecules move
randomly in all directions with a range of speeds and kinetic energies.
As temperature increase, the Brownian motion of the particles is more frantic. They will
move about more vigorously.

Pressure In Gases
A gas, made up of many particles called molecules that are in continuous random motion,
colliding with one another and with the walls of the container. As the gas molecules strike
and bounce off the walls, they exert a force on the walls. All these small forces add up so
that a large number of collisions produces a total average force on the walls that is
measurable. The force per unit area is the pressure. Hence, the pressure of a gas is due to
the collisions of gas molecules with the walls of the container.
The pressure of a gas depends on the frequency of collision with the container walls
and the size and number of molecules in the gas.

Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law states that the pressure of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to
the volume of the gas when the temperature is held constant.
P1V1=P2V2
, where
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P1, P2 are the initial and final pressures respectively,

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V1, V2 are the initial and final volumes respectively.

The graph shows that when the volume decreases, the pressure increases (inverse
relationship). However, if a graph of volume against 1P1P is plotted, it will be a straight
line, whereby the gradient of the straight line is the constant of proportionality, k.
P∝1/V
P=k/V
PV=k

We know that pressure is due to the collision of gas molecules with the walls of a container.

Hence,

 When the volume of the container is decreased to half, the number of gas
molecules per unit volume will be doubled.
 Since the number of gas molecules per unit volume is doubled, the number of
collisions of the gas molecules with the walls will also double.
 Hence, the pressure will be doubled.
Gas pressure increases when:

 number of molecules in the container increases

 speed of molecules increases
 molecules have larger mass

Relationship between Pressure, Volume and

Temperature
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The table below applies for a constant mass of gas.

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P V T Relationship

P1/T1=P2/T2
Increase Constant Increase
P is directly proportional to T

V1/T1=V2/T2
Constant Increase Increase
V is directly proportional to T

P1V1=P2V2
Increase Decrease Constant
P is inversely proportional to T

Explanation For The Relationship Between Pressure, Volume and

Temperature

P is directly proportional to T (Constant V)

When you heat a container containing gas, the gas particles will gain kinetic energy and
move faster. When the particles move faster, they will hit the walls of the container more
often and more force will be exerted on the walls per unit area. This increases the pressure.

V is directly proportional to T (Constant P)

When a gas is heated, the temperature of the gas will rises which causes the molecules to
move at higher speeds. When the particles move faster, they will hit the walls of the
container more often. In order to keep the pressure constant, the gas will expand and occupy
more volume.

P is inversely proportional to T (Constant V)

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Unit 2 Heat Capacity

Internal Energy
Internal Energy
 Every particle in a body has potential energy, due to their state and position, and,
kinetic energy, due to their motion. Collectively, the sum of these energies is
called the internal energy of the body.
 Potential energy of particles in a body tends to be small and does not change very
much, a change in internal energy is generally due to a change in kinetic energy.
 The temperature of an object gives a measure of how hot or cold it is, but it is not
a measure of how much internal energy the object contains.

Example: Consider a box resting on a horizontal surface. It contains internal energy due
to the molecules that make up the box having potential energy and kinetic energy. The
potential energy and kinetic energy referred to are both internal. You can visualize internal
potential energy as the energy to assemble the box and internal kinetic energy as the energy
the molecules possess (the molecules in the box are vibrating constantly due to thermal
energy).
When the box is pushed along the horizontal surface, the box acquires external kinetic
energy. This external kinetic energy has nothing to do with the internal kinetic energy.
In Work, energy and power, the kinetic energy that is referred to is the external kinetic
energy.

Thermal Energy
 When a body is heated, its associated atoms or molecules start to move faster.
(Their kinetic energy is increased) So, in microscopic level, heat energy is stored
in the form of kinetic energy in the atoms or molecules.
 The kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules is described as random thermal
energy, to avoid confusion with the kinetic energy of the body as a
whole. (Distinguish between internal kinetic energy and external kinetic energy)
 When the sum of kinetic energies in the particles increases, thermal energy, and
hence, internal energy increases, temperature being a gross measure of the state of
the body increases.
 To increase the internal energy (kinetic energy) of an object by a certain amount,
the amount of heat energy to be supplied depends on its type of material, rise in
temperature and mass. (capacity of absorbing or releasing heat varies from
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substance to substance.
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Heat Capacity
 Heat Capacity, C, of a body is defined as the amount of heat (Q) required to
raise its temperature (θ) by one degree, without going through a change of
state.
 Amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of an object depends on the mass
of the object.
 Heat capacity also depends on the material of the object. Some materials are
harder to heat up than others. The molecules in a liquid such as water require more
energy to move faster than copper atoms in a solid. So, in order to record 1°C
increase in temperature, liquids would require more heat energy than solids.
 SI. unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J K-1) or joule per degree Celsius (J °C-
1
).

C=Q/Δθ , where
C = heat capacity (JK-1, J°C-1)
Q = heat or thermal energy absorbed or released (J)

Δθ = change in temperature (K or °C)

Heat Capacity Time to cool down/heat up Reason

Need to lose more energy

High Longer (cooling) or absorb more energy
(heating)

Need to lose less energy (cooling)

Low Shorter
or absorb less energy (heating)

Specific Heat Capacity

 Specific heat capacity, c, of a body is defined as the amount of heat (Q)
required to raise the temperature (θ) of a unit mass of it by one degree,
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without going through a change in state.

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 When the mass of an object is greater, the object will contain more atoms or
molecules than a less massive object made up of the same material. Hence, when
the temperature of the objects are raised, the more massive object will require a
larger thermal energy than the less massive object. (Analogy: The more massive
object has more “mouths” to feed) It is thus more common to consider the heat
capacity per unit mass or specific heat capacity of the body.

SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg-1 K-1) or joule per
kilogram per degree Celsius (J kg-1 °C-1)

Q=mcΔθ,
where
c = specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1, J kg-1 °C-1)
m = mass of substance (kg)
Q = heat or thermal energy absorbed or released (J)
Δθ = change in temperature (K or °C)

Specific heat capacity of gases is higher than that of liquids and much higher than that of
liquids and much higher than that of solids. The substances with higher specific heat
capacity cool or warm very slowly compared to substances with lower specific heat
capacity.

With gases, the molar heat capacity (the heat capacity of one mole of a gas at constant
pressure or constant volume) is generally more useful than the specific heat capacity, which
is based on mass.

Unit 3. Melting & Boiling

Change Of State
When a pure solid is heated, its temperature rises until it starts to melt. At its melting point,
any additional heat supplied will not change its temperature. When the pure solid becomes
a pure liquid (a change in state), further heating will again raise the temperature of the
liquid until it starts to boil.
At its boiling point, any additional heat supplied causes boiling without any temperature
rise. When the pure liquid becomes a pure gas (a change in state), further heating will again
raise the temperature of the gas.
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Therefore, at particular temperatures, heating changes the state of the substance. Melting
and boiling are such processes. Similarly, at almost the same particular temperatures for
the same substance, cooling can also change its states. Condensing and freezing are such
processes.

The properties of the molecules of the substances vary with the amount of thermal energy
they possess.

Important: During the changing of state, the temperature of the gas/liquid/solid is

constant.

Melting and solidification

Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Melting of a pure substance occurs
at a particular constant temperature called melting point.
The change of state from a liquid to a solid is called solidification or freezing or casting.
A pure substance freezes at a temperature equal to its melting point.
In most of the substances, melting causes expansion and freezing causes contraction. Water
is an exception. Ice melts to water causes contraction and water freezes to ice causes
expansion. Density of water is highest at 4°C – water reaches minimum volume. This is
why ice floats on water.
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From the graph above,

 0C is the melting point of the solid.

 Temperature remains constant at 0C as the solid is melting.
 During the melting process, solid and liquid exist in equilibrium.
Step by step process of what happens during melting:
1. Heat energy is absorbed by the particles
2. Heat energy is converted to kinetic energy
3. The kinetic energy of the particles increases and the particles in the solid vibrate
faster
4. At melting point, the particles have gained enough energy to overcome the
attractive forces between particles
5. Particles starts to move away from their fixed position
6. Liquid is formed
Cause for constant temperature during melting: The absorbed heat energy during
melting is used to weaken the attractive forces between particles and not the kinetic energy
of the particles.

Factors That Affect Melting Point

Melting point is affected by purity of sample and pressure on the sample.

When impurities are mixed with a pure substance, the melting point is affected. This
change in the melting point has its usefulness:

 In cold countries, water in pipe lines tend to freeze in winter season, where the
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ambient temperature drops to below 0∘C. Freezing causes the water in the pipe to
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expand (recall that water expands when it freezes) and this might cause the pipe to

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burst. The common method to prevent this is to add antifreeze. With the addition
of antifreeze, the melting point of the water + antifreeze mixture will drop to
below 0∘C and hopefully, below the ambient temperature.
 Adding salt to water can reduce its melting point to as low as -18 °C. Salt is put
onto the roads in cold countries during the winter season.

Mostly substance increases their melting point when a pressure is applied in their solid
state.

 Normal solids such as iron, copper undergoes expansion when they melt. When
pressure is applied on the surface of a normal solid, the expansion is suppressed
and melting is delayed. Thus, the melting point of a normal solid is raised by the
application of pressure.
 Abnormal solids, like ice and bismuth, contract on melting into liquids. When
pressure is applied on the surface of such a solid, the change into the liquid is
assisted by the increase in pressure. Thus, the melting point of ice is lowered by
the application of pressure.
Even though the examples above are metals, the change in melting point due to application
of pressure occurs for non-metals as well. An example will be ice. With the addition of
pressure, the melting point of ice will be lowered.

Note: Freezing point of pure water is 0 °C at standard atmospheric pressure. (Melting point
of a substance must be stated together with its purity and surrounding pressure.)

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Boiling and condensation

Boiling is the change of state from a liquid to a gas. Boiling of a pure substance occurs at
a particular constant temperature called boiling point.
The change of state from a gas to a liquid is called condensation. A pure substance
condenses at a temperature equal to its boiling point.

From the graph above,

 100∘C is the boiling point of the liquid

 Temperature remains constant at 100∘C as the liquid is boiling
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 During the boiling process, liquid and gas exist in equilibrium.

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Step by step of what happens during boiling:

1. Heat energy is absorbed by the particles
2. The kinetic energy of the particles increases
3. At boiling point, the particles have enough energy to overcome the attractive
forces between the particles and move away from one another.
4. The particles escape from the liquid to form gas

Cause for constant temperature during boiling: The absorbed heat energy is used to
overcome the attractive forces between the particles and not the kinetic energy.

Factors That Affect Boiling Point

Adding impurities to a liquid affect its boiling point. E.g. By adding a 100 g of salt to 1000
g of water increases its boiling point by 1∘C
When the liquid vaporizes, volume of the liquid expands. High pressure applied to liquid
will oppose its expansion into gas and thus, opposes boiling. Therefore, the boiling point
of the liquids increases with increasing pressure. A reduction in pressure lowers the boiling
point.
 In mountains, water boils at lower temperatures as the atmospheric pressure
decreases with the elevation.
 Evaporated milk is produced by boiling the milk under reduced pressure. Boiling
under reduced pressure saves energy required to boil and the lowered temperature
preserves the vitamins in the milk better.
 In pressure cookers, when the cooking pressure increases and the boiling point of
water inside the cooker increases. Therefore, higher temperature can be achieved
and the food can be cooked more quickly.

Note: The boiling point of pure water is 100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure.

Evaporation
The process in which liquid change into vapor without boiling is called evaporation. It
occurs at all temperatures.
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In liquid, the speeds of molecules in random motion are different and keep changing due
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to the intermolecular bombardments. When a molecule near the surface of the liquid gets

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sufficient speed or energy, it escapes from the liquid surface and leaves behind a liquid
with a lower energy content (= lower temperature).

Evaporation could occur at any temperatures. At higher temperatures, the process speeds
up.

Rate if evaporation increases with temperature, area of the exposed surface and wind; and,
decreases with humidity of the atmosphere, pressure and boiling point of the liquid.

 At home, wet clothes are dried by evaporation. The water in the clothes is unlikely
to reach its boiling point even though the clothes are hung under the hot sun. The
drying of clothes is only by the evaporation process.

Difference between boiling and

evaporation:
The table below illustrates the differences between boiling and evaporation.
Boiling Evaporation

A process in which a substance changes A process in which a substance changes its state
its state from the liquid state to the from the liquid state to the gaseous state without
gaseous state boiling

Fast Slow

Bubbles are formed No bubbles formed

Takes place only from the exposed surface of the

Occurs throughout the liquid
liquid

Occurs at a definite temperature –

Occurs at all temperature
Boiling point

Source of energy needed Energy supplied by surroundings

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Specific latent heat

Latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy absorbed or released by the substance
during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its temperature.
 SI unit of latent heat is the joule (J).
 The latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the
latent heat of fusion (Lf); that associated with vaporizing a liquid or a solid or
condensing a vapor is called the latent heat of vaporization (Lv).

Specific latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat of fusion, lf, of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to
change a unit mass of the substance from solid to liquid state, without any change in the
temperature.
 SI unit of specific latent heat of fusion, lf, is joule per kilogram (Jkg-1)
 Q=mlf where
Q = amount of thermal energy absorbed or released
m = mass of substance
lf = specific latent heat of fusion.

Specific latent heat of vaporization

Specific latent heat of vaporization, lv, of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to change unit mass of the substance from liquid state to gas state without a
temperature change.
 SI unit of specific latent heat of vaporization, lv, of a substance is joule per
kilogram (Jkg-1)
 Q=mlv , where
Q = amount of thermal energy absorbed or released
m = mass of substance
lf = specific latent heat of vaporization.

Latent heat in terms of molecular behavior

Latent heat energy is absorbed or given out while a substance undergoes state change. The
average kinetic energy of the molecules does not change so that the temperature remains
constant.

 During melting, heat absorbed by the solid is used to break the inter-molecular
bonds between the molecules of solid substance.
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 During vaporization, heat absorbed by the liquid is used to break the inter-
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molecular bonds completely between the molecules of liquid substance.

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Unit 4. Transfer Of Thermal Energy

Temperature
Thermal energy is a form of internal energy. Thermal energy is possessed by all material
matter and manifest as the random motion of atoms and small particles. The amount of
thermal energy depends on the temperature of the matter.
A simplified definition for temperature:

Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

Thermal energy may be transferred from one region to another as a result of a difference
in temperature via thermal conduction, convection and radiation. (Will elaborate more on
these 3 mechanisms later) Thermal energy flows from a higher temperature object to a
lower temperature object. However, this heat exchange will cease when both objects reach
thermal equilibrium (same temperature).
Temperature is not the equivalent of the total energy contained in a body. The total energy
contained in a body is comprised of other forms of energy as well.

Thermal Equilibrium
Two objects, in thermal contact, are said to be in thermal equilibrium with each other if
there is no net heat flow between them.
 In thermal contact, the hotter body becomes cooler while the cooler body becomes
hotter until a point is reached where no more change occurs.
 The two objects are said to be at the same temperature if they are in thermal
equilibrium.

Note: Objects does not have to be touching one another to be in thermal contact! Two
objects are said to be in thermal contact when they can exchange heat energy between
them. For instance, Earth is in thermal contact with the Sun, even though the Earth is
obviously not touching the surface of the Sun. Hence, real systems (not idealized)
are always in thermal contact.
Thermal contact does not mean thermal equilibrium. The Earth is in thermal contact with
the Sun, but is definitely not in thermal equilibrium.

Conduction
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Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another without any flow
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of the material medium.

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 Metals are good thermal conductors. Non-metals (plastics) are poor thermal
conductors. (they are thermal insulators)
Conduction typically requires the objects to be in physical contact with one another.

Mechanisms of conduction:
1. Atomic Collisions

 In solids, atoms or molecules vibrate about their fixed position. In a hotter region,
atoms or molecules vibrate more vigorously or have more kinetic energy than
those in the colder region.
 These molecules collide with their neighbors and transfer some of their kinetic
energy to them. The neighbors collide with their neighbors. In this way, heat is
conducted to colder regions and raised the temperature.
 This is a very slow process.
 Solids conduct heat better than liquids and gases due to their closely packed
molecules.
2. Free Electron Diffusion

 On top of atomic collisions, most metals are known as thermal conductors due to
their huge number of free electrons available for thermal conduction. The
migration of fast-moving electrons is known as free electron diffusion.
 In solid thermal insulators, the absence of free electrons restricts thermal
conduction to the vibrations of atoms and molecules within the crystal lattices.
 This is a very quick process.
Applications of conduction:
 Cooking pans are often made with metals because of their good thermal conduction
property. In contrast, the handles of the cooking utensils are made up of insulators
to protect the hands from scalding.

 Sawdust is used to cover the ice cubes from melting.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by means of bulk
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fluid movement in the material medium.

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In fluids, thermal energy transfer is mainly through thermal convection. In solids, since its
substance cannot flow, there can be no thermal convection.

Mechanism:
In convection, the movement occurs as a result of gravity. The hot part of the fluid expands,
becomes less dense and rises. It is displaced by the colder, denser part of the fluid, which
in turn is heated up. This fluid movement or convection current allows heat to be
transported.

Applications Of Convection:
In a refrigerator, convection is used to circulate cold air around the food. Air is cooled by
freezer compartment at the top of refrigerator. As it sinks, it is replaced by warmer air rising
from below. The circulating air carries away heat energy from all the food in the fridge.

Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by means
of electromagnetic radiation, without the need of an intervening material medium.
All matter radiate thermal energy in all directions in amounts determined by their
temperature, where the energy is carried by photons, such as the infrared, visible and X-
ray portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. These photons warm up anything that
absorbs them.
Radiation is the only process that does not need a medium to transfer the energy.

Factors affecting the rate of radiation:

Color and texture of surface

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Black, matt surfaces are good in both absorbing and emitting radiation.
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Shiny or polished white surfaces are poor absorbers because they act better as reflectors,
and hence, poor emitters.

Surface temperature
The hotter the object, the more energy it radiates

Surface area
The grater the area, the more energy it radiates.

Applications of radiation
The greenhouse effect provides a means to grow plants that need a warm environment in
cold countries. Short infrared radiation from the sun passes easily though the glass panels
of a greenhouse, and is absorbed by the plants and soil inside. The plants in turn also radiate
energy, but with a much longer wavelength. This radiation is reflected by the glass panels.
Thus, the temperature inside the greenhouse increases until it reaches a thermal equilibrium
suitable for plants to grow.

A layer of aluminum sheet is placed below the roof tiles to keep the air temperature inside
the building steady. In the day, the aluminum sheet reflects the radiation and keeps the
building cooler. In the night, it reduces emitting radiation from the inside and keeps the
interior warm.

Vacuum Flask

Vacuum flask can store and maintain temperature (either hot or cold) of the contents in the
flask by reducing heat transfer in or out through conduction, convection and radiation.

Type of heat transfer How heat transfer is reduced

Convection Vacuum between the double glass walls

Vacuum between the double glass walls.

Conduction
Insulated cover and stopper
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Radiation Shiny silvered inner surface of the glass walls

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Unit 5 Measurement Of Temperature

Thermometry
Thermometry (temperature measurement) is essential to a wide range of activities,
including manufacturing, scientific research, and medical practice. The ability to measure
temperature accurately was only developed recently.

 Temperature (like mass, length, time) is a chosen fundamental quantity. Therefore,

arbitrarily chosen units (such as degrees Celsius, degrees Fahrenheit or Kelvin) are
used to measure temperature.
 Temperature is measured quantitatively by constructing a thermometer which
makes use of a physical property of matter that varies continuously with
temperature – thermometric property.

Fun Fact:
Galileo invented the first thermometer. In his instrument, the changing temperature of an
inverted glass vessel produced the expansion or contraction of the air within it, which in
turn changed the level of the liquid with which the vessel’s long, open-mouthed neck was
partially filled. This general principle was perfected in succeeding years by
experimenting with liquids such as mercury and by providing a scale to measure the
expansion and contraction brought about in such liquids by rising and falling
temperature.

Thermometric Property
An instrument, a thermometer, is required to measure temperature objectively. The
thermometer makes use of a physical property of a thermometric substance which changes
continuously with temperature. The physical property is referred to as thermometric
property.

Thermometric Properties Used In Various

Thermometers
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The following table shows some of the thermometric properties of matter that are used in
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the various thermometers:

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Thermometric Property Thermometer

Volume expansion of a gas Gas thermometer

Volume expansion of a liquid Laboratory or clinical thermometer

Volume expansion of a solid Bi-metallic strip thermometer

Pressure change of a fixed mass of gas Constant – volume gas thermometer

Changes in e.m.f. Thermocouple

Changes in electrical resistance Resistance thermometer or thermistor

Note: You can visit UY1: Measurement Of Temperature for a in-depth review of the
different types of thermometers.
A good thermometric property of matter should vary:

 continuously with temperature

 uniquely over the the range of temperature to be measured
 its variation should be measurable.

Volume As Thermometric Property

Most solids or liquids or gases expand and contract their volume when the temperature
around them changes.

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Mercury is the only elemental metal that is liquid at ordinary temperatures. Mercury is
silvery white and freezes into a soft solid like tin or lead at about -39 °C. Mercury does not
wet glass or cling to it, and this property, coupled with its uniform volume expansion
throughout its liquid range, makes it useful in liquid-in-glass thermometers.

Gases such as nitrogen or simply air are also suitable substances for use in volumetric gas
thermometers. Typically, these gas thermometers work best at measuring very low
temperatures.
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Bimetallic strip
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Solid strips of different materials such as copper and aluminum can be made to stick
together (bi-metallic strip). When the temperature of its surroundings changes, the different
materials expand at different amounts, causing the bimetallic strip to bend, providing an
indication to the change in temperature.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Mercury as thermometric substance

Advantages Disadvantages

It is a good conductor of heat (High thermal

Poisonous
conductivity)

Does not wet (cling to the sides) of the tube Small thermal expansion

High boiling point (357∘C) Expensive

High freezing point, −39∘C (Cannot be used in places that are very
Uniform expansion
cold)

Respond quickly to temperature changes

Visible meniscus

Advantages & Disadvantages of Alcohol as thermometric substance

Advantages Disadvantages

Safe liquid Wets the tube

Low freezing point (−115∘C) Low boiling point (78∘C)

Large expansivity Does not react quickly to temperature changes

Cheap Needs to be dyed since it is colorless

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Non-uniform expansion
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Advantages & Disadvantages Of Using Mercury Or Alcohol In

Thermometers

Mercury Alcohol

Silver Colorless, usually dyed red

High thermal conductivity Low thermal conductivity

(Can respond very quickly to (Takes a longer time to reach its
temperature changes) surrounding temperature)

Uniform expansion Non-uniform expansion

Does not wet glass Wets glass

Poisonous liquid Safe liquid

Expensive Cheap

Very dense liquid Less dense liquid

Small thermal expansion

Large thermal expansion
(Scale markings on stem are
(Scale marking on stem are far apart
very close to one another
Easy to read)
Hard to read)

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Defining A Temperature Scale

A thermometer is useless without a temperature scale (the markings on the thermometer).
In order to define a temperature scale, the following steps are required:

1. Choose a thermometric substance with a suitable thermometric properties.

2. Select two fixed points which are easily obtainable and reproducible. (Fixed
points are explained in more details below.)
3. Divide the temperature range between the two fixed points into equal divisions.
Fixed Points

 Fixed points are used in calibrating thermometers. To calibrate a thermometer is to

mark a thermometer so that you can use it to measure temperature accurately. A
fixed point is a standard degree of hotness or coldness such as the melting point of
ice or boiling point of water.
 This method of using two fixed points to calibrate a thermometer assumes that
temperature changes linearly with the thermometric property. This means that the
physical property (that is chosen) changes evenly and regularly with temperature
and if we draw a graph of temperature against the thermometric property, we
should get a straight-line graph.
Centigrade scale

Centigrade Scale
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The two fixed points used in the Centigrade scale are:

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 Steam point (upper fixed point) – The temperature at which pure water boils at
one atmospheric pressure and is assigned the value of 100 °C.
 Ice point (lower fixed point) – The temperature at which pure ice melts at one
atmospheric pressure and is assigned the value of 0 °C.

Determination of ice point

1. The bulb of the thermometer is immersed into a container filled with pure melting
ice. In order to ensure that the contact between the bulb and ice is good, ice
shavings can be used.
2. When the level indicated by the thermometric substance remains steady after some
time, a mark will be made at that point. This mark will correspond to the ice point
(lower fixed point) and is assigned the value of 0 °C.
Determination of steam point
1. The bulb of the thermometer should be placed into a container filled with pure
boiling water OR placed just above the container (such that it is in contact with the
emerging steam). It is important to ensure that the pressure of the
environment/room is the same as the atmospheric pressure outside of the
environment/room. Different atmospheric conditions will result in the
thermometer showing different/wrong temperature readings.
2. When the level indicated by the thermometric substance remains steady after some
time, a mark will be made at that point. This mark will correspond to the
steam point (upper fixed point) and is assigned the value of 100 °C.
For the Centigrade scale, the distance between the ice point and the steam point is divided
into 100 equal parts. Each mark on the thermometer is a measure of 1 °C.

Calculation of temperature on Centigrade scale:

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 Use an unmarked mercury thermometer

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 Place the thermometer just above pure boiling water (upper fixed point) and record
its length of mercury thread, l100°, from a reference level (such as base of the
reservoir). Repeat the same for the pure melting ice (lower fixed point) and record
its length of mercury thread, l0°.
 Now place the same thermometer in an unknown temperature, θ°C and record its
length of mercury thread, lθ°.
 The temperature θ°C can be calculated by simple proportion

 Note: X is the thermometric property which varies uniformly with temperature. In

the case of a laboratory thermometer or clinical thermometer, X will be the length
of the mercury thread.
Kelvin (Absolute) Scale

The figure above shows the comparison between the Celsius scale (centigrade scale) and
the Kelvin scale.

The unit for the Kelvin Scale is the Kelvin (K), which is the SI unit for temperature. 1 K
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is defined as the 1273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point
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of water is the temperature at which saturated water vapor, pure water and ice all coexist
in equilibrium (at 0.01 °C).
The intervals on both Kelvin and Celsius scales are the same, such that a difference of 1 K
is equivalent to a difference of 1 °C.

You can convert temperature from Celsius scale (centigrade scale) to Kelvin scale and vice
versa by using:

θ/∘C=T/K−273.15
Temperature Kelvin Scale Celsius Scale

Absolute Zero 0K −273∘C

Ice Point 273 K 0∘C

Steam Point 373 K 100∘C

Note that absolute zero is defined as the coldest possible temperature whereby all the
particle motion stops.

Laboratory thermometer

Structure:
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 The thermometer is made relatively small so that it is portable and cheap.

 The liquid is contained in a thin-walled glass bulb. The bulb is made relatively
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larger than its bore to contain more of the liquid, so as to improve sensitivity.

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 The narrow bore of the capillary tube is uniform. The round glass stem around the
capillary tube is made thick. It acts as a magnifying glass.

Sensitivity:

 Small expansion of the liquid in the liquid bulb will cause a big change in the
length of the liquid thread in the capillary tube as it is made narrow. The narrower
the bore, the higher the sensitivity.
Range:

 The range is limited by the freezing and boiling points of liquid.

For mercury thermometer: -39 to 357°C
For alcohol-in-glass thermometer: -115 to 78°C
 In colder countries, most of its liquid-in-glass thermometers use alcohol and not
mercury.
 The range can be increased by lengthening the bore.
 Range is the converse of sensitivity, i.e., the longer the range, the lower is its
sensitivity. Factors that increase range would at the same time reduce its
sensitivity.
Linearity:

 Mercury expands quite uniformly over a good range of temperatures.

 Alcohol expands non-linearly over different range of temperatures.
Responsiveness:

 As the liquid is contained in a thin-walled, small glass bulb, it will be more

responsive (faster response) to heat.
 Mercury reacts quickly to the temperature changes whereas alcohol reacts slowly.
 It takes several tens of seconds to record one reading.

Clinical Thermometer
Clinical thermometer is a slight modification of mercury thermometer. It is specially
designed to measure the human body temperature.
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Structure:

 It is smaller in size than the laboratory thermometer.

 It has a constriction in the fine capillary tube. This constriction prevents the
mercury from contracting and flowing back when it is removed from human body
(temperature of surroundings being lower). This enables the recording of the
maximum temperature of the body without need for haste.
 The mercury thread needs to be shaken back into the bulb before the thermometer
is used again.
Sensitivity, Linearity, Responsiveness of clinical thermometers are the same
as that of laboratory thermometers.

Range:
 The scale ranges between 35°C to 42°C.
 This range is centered around the normal body temperature of 36.9°C.
 Short range enables the scale to be divided into smaller intervals for greater
accuracy (0.1°C).

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Maximum Thermometer

Maximum and minimum thermometer

It measures the maximum temperature in a day. Mercury is used as thermometric liquid.

 There is a steel index inserted inside the capillary tube. Spring connected to the
index prevents it from moving back to the bulb.
 With increasing temperature, mercury expands and pushes the steel index along
the capillary tube. The index will be left at the furthest position to which mercury
has expanded. Lowest point of the index (convex meniscus of mercury) reads the
highest temperature within the day.
 The index can be reset using a magnet.

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Minimum Thermometer

Maximum and minimum thermometer

It measures the minimum temperature in a day. Alcohol is used as thermometric liquid.

 There is a steel index inserted inside the capillary tube. Spring connected to the
index prevents it from moving forward freely.
 With decreasing temperature, alcohol contracts and pulls the steel index along the
capillary tube. The index will be left at the lowest position to which alcohol has
contracted. Highest point of the index (concave meniscus of alcohol) reads the
lowest temperature within the day.
 The index can be reset using a magnet.

Both the indicators are reset every 24-hour reading. It is commonly used by meteorological
station to track daily fluctuations of temperature in a geographical area.

Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of metals, joined
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together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a voltage is created that can be
correlated back to the temperature. A thermocouple is a simple, robust and cost-effective temperature sensor
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used in a wide range of temperature measurement processes.

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Thermocouples are manufactured in a variety of styles, such as thermocouple probes, thermocouple probes
with connectors, transition joint thermocouple probes, infrared thermocouples, bare wire thermocouple or even
just thermocouple wire.

Thermocouples are commonly used in a wide range of applications. Due to their wide range of models and
technical specifications, but it is extremely important to understand its basic structure, functionality, ranges as
to better determine the right thermocouple type and material of thermocouple for an application.

Working principle of thermocouples

When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated,
there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. If this circuit is broken at the
center, the net open circuit voltage (the See beck voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the
composition of the two metals. Which means that when the junction of the two metals is heated, or
cooled, a voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the temperature.
Formula to calculate temperature

Ɛ α Δθ
Ɛ= e.m.f
Δθ= change in temperature
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