REVIEWER IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY II
Intramolecular Forces
- are the chemical bonds holding the atoms together in
the molecules.
- are the attractive and repulsive forces that arise within
the molecules of a substance.
- The three major types of chemical bonds are the
metallic bond, the ionic bond, and the covalent bond.
Intermolecular Forces
- are the attractive and repulsive forces that arise
between the molecules of a substance.
- These forces mediate the interactions between
individual molecules of a substance.
- Intermolecular forces are responsible for most of the
physical and chemical properties of matter.
- The four major types of intermolecular forces are dipole-
dipole, London dispersion forces (Dispersion), Hydrogen
Bonding, and ion-dipole intermolecular forces.
Types of Intermolecular Forces:
Dipole-Dipole Force
- occur between molecules with permanent dipoles.
- are attractive forces between the positive end of one
polar molecule and the negative end of another polar
molecule.
London dispersion forces
- also called as Dispersion.
- is the weakest intermolecular force
- Dispersion forces are present between all molecules
(and atoms) and are typically greater for heavier, more
polarizable molecules and molecules with larger surface
areas.
- occurs between mainly non polar molecules and also
between noble gas atoms.
Hydrogen bonding
- is the strongest intermolecular force
- is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction between
molecules, not a covalent bond to a hydrogen atom.
- It results from the attractive force between a hydrogen
atom covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom
such as a N, O, or F atom and another very
electronegative atom.
Ion-Dipole Force
- is an attractive force that results from the electrostatic
attraction between an ion and a neutral molecule that
has a dipole.
- Most commonly found in solutions.
- Ion–dipole forces occur between ions and polar
molecules.
Matter
- is a substance made up of various types of particles that
occupies physical space and has inertia.
Phases of matter:
Solid
- is rigid particles tightly packed, vibrating about a fixed
position
- have a definite shape and definite volume
Liquid
- flows with particles' distance far apart enough to slide
over one another
- have a definite volume but with indefinite shape.
Gas
- takes both the shape and the volume of the container
with particles that are very far apart and move freely.
- gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite
volume.
Properties of Solid, Liquid, Gas:
Solid
• Solids have fixed shape and fixed volume. Size of
solids do not change and it occupies fixed
space.
• Particles of Solid are closely bound.
• Solids do not take shape of container like liquids.
• Solids do not flow like liquids.
• Particles of solid cannot be compressed easily.
Liquid
• Liquid has a fixed volume but no fixed shape.
• Liquids can be slightly compressed. large
pressure is required to compress them.
• Liquids have lesser densities than solids.
• Intermolecular forces of attraction is weaker than
solids.
• They have considerable space between the
particles.
Capillary Action
- It is defined as the movement of water within the
spaces of a porous material such as tube due to the
forces of adhesion, cohesion, and surface tension.
Cohesive Force
- is the force that attracts molecules of the same
substance.
Adhesive Force
- is the force that binds molecules of different substances
together.
Surface Tension
- The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to
resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of its
molecules that creates a thin like film outside the liquid.
Vapor Pressure
- is a measure of the tendency of a material to change
into the gaseous or vapor state, and it increases with
temperature.
Viscosity
- is the resistance of a liquid substance to flow.
- how thick a liquid is
Gas
• The molecules that make up a gas fly in all
directions at great speeds.
• Gas molecules are so far apart that the
attractive forces between then are insignificant
• they are easy to compress
• they expand to fill their containers
• they occupy far more space than the liquids or
solids from which they form
Compressibility
- Particles of gas have huge intermolecular spaces in the
midst of them.
- By the exertion of pressure, much of this space can be
diminished and the particles are brought closer.
- Thus, the volume of gas can be hugely reduced.
Expansibility whereas,
- When pressure is exerted on gas, it contracts. On the m = mass
other hand, when pressure is freed, the gas expands. C = specific heat
- When the temperature is augmented, the constituent ∆T = change in temperature
particles gain more energy, travel faster and move away
from each other. Consequently, the intermolecular pull Phase Changes
becomes less prominent. The gas’s volume increases. - transformation of matter from one phase to another
when heat is added/removed.
Diffusibility
- The molecules of the gas are in perpetual motion, at a Heat of Fusion
very high velocity. - the amount of heat needed to convert solid to liquid at
- When two gases are mixed, particles of one gas can the melting point.
effortlessly pass through the intermolecular space of the - also called as Latent Heat of Fusion
other gas.
- As an outcome both the gases get completely and Formula:
consistently mixed. Thus, a mixture of gases at all times
remains homogeneous. q = mHf

Low Density whereas,

- Since gases have large intermolecular spaces, they m = mass
have very large volumes when compared to their mass. Hf = Heat of Fusion
Therefore, they have less densities. q = Heat required

Exertion of Pressure Heat of vaporization

- Solids exert pressure only in the downward direction. - the amount of heat needed to convert the liquid to gas
Liquids apply pressure downward as well as to the sides. state at the boiling point.
But gases apply pressure in all directions (a good sample
is a balloon). Formula:
- This pressure is because of the bombardment of the
particles against the walls of the vessel q = mHv

whereas,
Kinetic Molecular Model m = mass
- explains the states of matter, and is based on the idea Hv = Heat of Vaporization
that matter is composed of tiny particles that are always q = Heat required
in motion.
- This theory helps explain observable properties and
behaviors of solids, liquids, and gases. Specific heat of H20

Five main postulates of Kinetic Molecular theory Solid:

• Molecules are point masses (they have no - 2.108/2.11 kJ/kgK
volume)
• Molecules exert no force on each other unless Liquid:
they collide - 4.187/4.19 kJ/kgK
• Collisions of molecules with each other of the
walls of the container do not decrease the Gas :
energy of the system (collisions of molecules are - 1.996/2.00 kJ/kgK
elastic)
• The molecules of a gas are in constant and
random motion
• The temperature of a gas depends on its
average kinetic energy avg(1/2mv^2)=3/2kT. In
other words, the energy of an ideal gas is entirely
kinetic.

Scientific Model
- Describes the phenomena
- is a physical and/or mathematical and/or conceptual
representation of a system of ideas, events or processes.
- Scientists seek to identify and understand patterns in our
world by drawing on their scientific knowledge to offer
explanations that enable the patterns to be predicted.

Scientific Theory
- Explains the phenomena
- is a structured explanation to explain a group of facts or
phenomena in the natural world that often incorporates
a scientific hypothesis and scientific laws.

Specific Heat
- The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of one gram of a substance by one Celsius degree.
- The units of specific heat are usually calories or joules
per gram per Celsius degree.

Formula:

Q= mC∆T
Diagrams of Phase
Change: