Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids 3.
Ion-dipole forces
Solids
• Are slightly compressible because of strong IMF
• Low diffusion because of its particles are held
together by a strong force of attraction called bonds
• The particles vibrate to and fro near their fixed
location and never come into contact with any
particles other than their immediate neighbor
• Have definite shape, volume, and melting point and
high density, incompressible, and low rate of diffusion.
Liquids
• Have disordered, slightly dense but definite volume
• The attractive forces in liquids are not strong enough
to keep the molecules from moving past from one
another
o this is why liquids can be poured, and it can
fill any shape.
• They are also called fluid
o Fluids have loosely packed molecules.
o They vibrate vigorously that the attraction
cannot hold them in a fixed position.
• Hence, liquids are almost incompressible, have fixed
volume but no fixed shape, it readily flows, and have
boiling point above room temperature
Intermolecular forces
• weak attractive forces that exist between molecules or
atoms in close proximity to each other
• caused by temporary fluctuations in the electron
density of the atoms or molecules.
1. London dispersion forces:
a. the weakest of the three types of Van der
Waals forces
b. and arise due to temporary shifts in the
electron cloud of an atom or molecule,
causing temporary dipoles that can interact
with other temporary dipoles in nearby atoms
or molecules.
c. These forces are present in all atoms and
molecules and increase with increasing
molecular size
2. Dipole-dipole interactions:
a. occur between molecules that have
permanent dipoles, where the positively
charged end of one molecule attracts the
negatively charged end of another.
b. stronger than London dispersion forces and
increase with increasing dipole moment
a. Not really an intermolecular force
b. are attractive interactions between an ion
and a polar molecule.
c. These forces arise due to the electrostatic
attraction between the charged ion and the
partial charges on the polar molecule.
d. stronger than other forces because they
involve the interaction between a full charge
(from an ion) and a partial charge (from a
polar molecule).
4. Hydrogen bonding:
a. This is a specific type of dipole-dipole
interaction that occurs between molecules
where a hydrogen atom is bonded to an
electronegative atom such as nitrogen,
oxygen or fluorine.
b. The hydrogen atom has a partial positive
charge and can form a strong electrostatic
interaction with the lone pair of electrons on
the electronegative atom in another
molecule.
Q: Which type of intermolecular forces exist in: a) gases, b)
liquids, and c) solids?
A: In gases, the primary type of Van der Waals force that exists
is the London dispersion force. Other forces are generally
weaker or nonexistent in gases because the molecules are too
far apart for these forces to have a significant effect.
In solids and liquids, Van der Waals forces that exist include
dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, and,
in the case of liquids, hydrogen bonding.
IMF play an important role in determining the physical
properties of materials such as melting and boiling points, as
well as influencing intermolecular interactions in biological
systems.
Properties of Liquids
Surface Tension
• Liquids like water “beads up” forming distorted
spheres when placed on a waxy surface (due to
imbalance of intermolecular forces at the surface of
the liquid)
• Measure of the tendency of a liquid to maintain a
minimum surface area
• IMF ↑ = Surface Tension ↑
• Example, water has a strong surface tension because
of its strong hydrogen bonds.
Viscosity
• resistance of the liquid to flow
• High visosity = slow flow rate
• Viscosity is related to the ease with which individual
molecules of the liquid can move with respect to one
another.
• IMF ↑ = Viscosity ↑
Vapor Pressure
• Molecules can escape from the surface of a liquid into
a gas phase by vaporization or evaporation.
• Liquid possesses sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome the attractive forces of their neighbors and
escape into the gas phase.
• The weaker the attractive forces, the larger is the
number of molecules that are able to escape, and the
higher the vapor pressure.
• IMF ↑ = Vapor Pressure ↓
• The vapor pressure of a liquid measures the tendency
of the liquid to evaporate.
Boiling Point
• the temperature at which the liquid converts into a
gas.
• Example, liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals
the external pressure acting on the surface of the
liquid. At this point, bubbles of vapor are able to form
within the interior of the liquid.
• The temperature of boiling substance increases with
increasing external pressure. The boiling point of a
liquid at 1 atm pressure is called its normal boiling
point.
• The boiling points of substances often reflect the
strength of the intermolecular forces operating among
the molecules.
• At the boiling point, enough energy must be supplied
to overcome the attractive forces among molecules
before they can enter the vapor phase.
• IMF ↑ = Boiling Point ↑
Molar Heat of Vaporization
• Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a
liquid at a given temperature
• may be considered a measure of the strength of
intermolecular forces in a liquid. If the intermolecular
attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free the
molecules from the liquid phase and the heat of
vaporization will be high. IMF↑ = ΔHvap↑
• It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower ΔH vap) than
water (higher ΔHvap) at a given temperature, and more
acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given
temperature.
• Acetone is a polar substance but has no H-bonding. It
has weaker intermolecular forces than water, and
therefore acetone molecules are held less tightly to
one another in the liquid phase.
Phase Diagram:
• Graph graph that shows the conditions (pressure and
temperature) under which different phases (solid,
liquid, or gas) of a substance exist.
• A map that helps us understand the behavior of a
substance under different conditions, and it is a useful
tool for predicting the behavior of substances during
various processes such as melting, freezing, boiling,
and condensation.
Heating Curve:
• graph that shows the temperature of a substance as it
is heated over time, while keeping the pressure
constant.
• shows the changes in the physical state of the
substance as it absorbs heat.
• The heating curve typically shows the solid, liquid,
and gas phases of a substance, and the energy
required to change the substance from one phase to
another.
• For example, when ice is heated, it melts into water,
and the temperature remains constant until all the ice
has melted. Once all the ice has melted, the
temperature of the water will start to rise again.
Cooling Curve:
• graph that shows the temperature of a substance as it
is cooled over time, while keeping the pressure
constant.
• It shows the changes in the physical state of the
substance as it releases heat.
• The cooling curve typically shows the gas, liquid, and
solid phases of a substance, and the energy released
as the substance changes from one phase to another.
• For example, when water is cooled, it turns into ice,
and the temperature remains constant until all the
water has frozen. Once all the water has frozen, the
temperature of the ice will start to decrease again.
 The Unique Properties of Water The Unusual Density of Solid water
Water is a good solvent • Unlike all other liquids, the molecules in solid water
are actually farther apart than they are in liquid water.
• One of the unique properties of water is its ability to
When solid water forms, the hydrogen bonds result in
dissolve a large variety of chemical substances.
a very open structure with unoccupied spaces
• Water dissolves salts and other ionic compounds, causing the solid to occupy a larger volume than the
including polar covalent compounds like alcohols and liquid.
organic substances that has the ability to form
• This makes ice less dense than liquid water, causing
hydrogen and bond with water.
ice to float on water.
• For example, oxygen dissolved in water are needed
by animals like fish that are provided by plants while
plants need carbon dioxide.
Structure of Solids
• This is the reason why water is sometimes called the
universal solvent because it can dissolve so many Crystalline solids
things.
• form a regular repeating three-dimensional structure
Water has a high specific heat called a crystal lattice
• are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices.
• The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/goC (4.18
• Examples of crystalline solids are
J/goC).
o ice and sodium chloride (NaCl),
• Among the many liquids, water has the highest
o copper sulfate (CuSO4),
specific heat.
o diamond,
• Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy needed
o graphite, and
to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance
o sugar (C12H22O11).
by 1°C.
• The ordered arrangement of their units maximizes the
• If the temperature of water rises slightly, water can
space they occupy and are essentially
absorb a large amount of heat. But in order to raise
incompressible.
the temperature of water, the intermolecular hydrogen
• More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially
bonds should break. On the contrary, it is also true
prepared solids
that water can give off much heat with only a slight
• The repetition of structural units of the substance over
decrease in its temperature. This allows large bodies
long atomic distances is referred to as long-range
of water to help moderate the temperature on earth.
order
The boiling point of water is unusually high
Amorphous solids
• Many compounds similar in mass to water have much
• from the Greek word ámorphos, meaning “shapeless”
lower boiling points.
• no particular long-range order
• The strong intermolecular forces in water permit it to
be a liquid at a large range of temperatures • random orientation of particles.
• Examples of amorphous solids are glass, plastic,
Surface Properties of water coal, and rubber.
• They are considered super-cooled liquids where
• Hydrogen bonding is also responsible for water’s high
molecules are arranged in a random manner similar
surface tension and high capillarity.
to the liquid state.
• Except for some molten metals and salts, water has
the highest surface tension among any liquids. It is Behavior of Solids when Heated
the reason for a spherical shape of water droplets the presence/absence of long-range order results in different
when placed on a waxy surface or plastic sheets. behaviour when heated
• It keeps plant debris resting on a pond surface,
Crystalline
providing shelter and nutrients for fish and insects.
• High capillarity means water rises through the tiny • The surroundings of particles in the structure are
spaces between soil particles, so plant roots can uniform, and the attractive forces experienced by the
absorb deep groundwater during dry periods. particles are of similar types and strength.
 • These attractive forces are broken by the same
amount of energy, and thus, crystalline solids become
liquids at a specific temperature (i.e. the melting
point).
• At this temperature, physical properties of the
crystalline solids change sharply.
Amorphous solids

• soften gradually when they are heated.

• They tend to melt over a wide range of temperature.
• This behavior is a result of the variation in the
arrangement of particles in their structures, causing
some parts of the solid to melt ahead of other parts.