GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 (MA’AM ALYN ACLO) Properties of Matter Molecular Behavior

Gas Liquid Solid

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Volume / Shape Assumes volume and Fixed Volume; Fixed Volume; Fixed
Dispersion All molecules and atoms shape of the Assumes shape of shape (regardless of
container occupied part of size and shape of
Dipole – Dipole Polar Molecules
container container)
Hydrogen Bonding Molecules containing H bonded to F, O, or N Density Low High High
Ion – Dipole Mixtures of ionic compounds and polar Compressibility Easy to compress Cannot be Cannot be
compounds appreciably appreciably
compressed compressed
Motion of Molecules Random, Fast, Cover Random, Medium Vibration in place
a) London Dispersion Forces large distances Speed, Limited
 Intermolecular Attractive Forces that operate between all molecules. distances
b) Dipole – Dipole
 Intermolecular Attractive Forces that operate only between polar molecules Gas
c) Hydrogen Bonding
 Intermolecular Attractive Forces that operate only between hydrogen atom of a  Total Disorder; much empty space; particles have complete freedom of motion; particles
polar bond and a nearby small electronegative atom. far apart.

Liquid

Polarizability  Disorder: particles or clusters of particles are free to move relative to each other; particles
close together.
o is the ease with which the charge distribution in a molecule can be distorted to produce a
transient dipole. Solid
o In London Dispersion Forces, the boiling point of molecule increases as polarizability
 Ordered arrangement; particles are essentially in fixed position; particles close together.
increases.

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

o Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion. As melting occurs, the motion of atoms relative to
1) Gases consists of large numbers of molecules (atoms) that are continuous, random
each other increases.
motion.
2) The volume of all molecules of the gas is negligible compared to the volume in which
o The density of liquid lead is less than the density of solid lead. The smaller density means
the is contained.
a greater sample volume and average distance between atoms in three dimensions.
3) Attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules are negligible.
4) Energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions, but the average KE of
 the molecules does not change with time as long as the temperature of the gas Type of IMFA Involves Occurs between… Strength of Attraction
remains constant.
London / Dispersion Temporary Dipoles Non – polar Low
5) The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the Kelvin temperature. At
any given temperature the molecules of all gases have the same average KE. molecules
Dipole – Dipole Permanent Dipoles Polar molecules Medium

 All matter is made of tiny particles.
 These particles are in constant motion.
 The speed of particles is proportional to temperature.
 Increases temperature means greater speed.
 Solids, Liquids, and Gases differ in distance between particles, in the freedom of motion
of particles, and in the extent to which the particles interact.
Kinetic Theory
Macroscopic Properties
Solid Low KE levels
Retains its own shape
Highly compressible
Liquid Higher KE levels
Takes shape of its container
Slightly compressible
Gas High KE level
Takes shape of its container
Highly compressible
Properties of Liquid (Module 1.B)
Hydrogen Bonds
Ion – Dipole
Microscopic Properties
Slow – moving molecules
Very strong molecular bonds
Small intermolecular spacing
Faster moving molecules
Weak intermolecular bonds
Larger intermolecular spacing
Very fast - moving molecules
No intermolecular bonds
Very large intermolecular
spacing
Permanent Dipoles Polar molecules Medium – high
between H & F, O, N
Full Ion and Dipole Polar molecules High
a) Surface Tension
 It is the elastic force in the surface of liquid.
 The amount of energy required to increase or stretch the surface of a liquid by
unit area.
 Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
b) Capillary Action
 The tendency of a liquid to rise in a narrow tube or to be drawn to a small
opening.
 Because adhesive > cohesive, H2O molecules touching glass adhere to the wall
more than to each other, forming concave surface.
 Because cohesive > adhesive, Hg molecules touching glass adhere to the wall
less then to each other, forming convex surface.
c) Viscosity
 A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
 High viscosity = Low temperature
 Low viscosity = High temperature
 Low viscosity = More flow
 High viscosity = Less flow
 d) Vapor Pressure What is a solid?
 The pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed
- A solid is a state of matter with fixed shape and volume.
container. It is the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid.
- Particles are closed – packed so they can vibrate, but not flow.
e) Boiling Point
- Solids are rigid.
 The temperature at which its vapor pressure, acting on the liquid surface, equals
- They cannot be compressed easily.
the external pressure.
 The boiling point is the temperature where vapor pressure equals atmospheric Types of Solids
pressure.
1) Crystalline Solid – highly regular arrangement of their component
f) Molar Heat of Vaporization
2) Amorphous Solid – considerable disorder in their structure (glass, plastic, etc.)
 The energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature.
Difference
Crystalline Solid Amorphous Solids
Others:  Definite geometrical shape  Irregular shape
 Flat shape edges when cut  Irregular edges when cut
o Surface tension – the stronger the intermolecular forces the greater the surface tension
 Definite heat of fusion  No definite heat of fusion
o Viscosity – the stronger the intermolecular forces the higher the viscosity
 True solid  Pseudo solid
o Vapor pressure – the weaker its intermolecular forces the higher its vapor pressure
 Long rage order  Short range order
o Boiling point – the stronger the intermolecular forces the higher the boiling point
o Molar Heat of Vaporization – the stronger the intermolecular forces the higher its molar
heat of vaporization 1) Metallic Solids
 Extended network of atoms held together by metallic bonding (Cu, Fe)
2) Ionic Solids
 Extended network of ions held together by ion – ion interactions (NaCl, MgO)
3) Covalent – Network Solids
 Extended network of atoms held together by covalent bonds (C, Si)

4) Molecular Solids
Nature of Crystals (Module 1.C)
  Discrete molecules held together by intermolecular forces (HBr, H2O) electrical
conduction,
Type of Solid Form of Unit Forces between Properties Examples
malleable and
Particles Particles
ductile
Molecular Atoms or London Fairly soft, low to Argon, Ar;
molecule Dispersion moderately high
Forces, Dipole – melting point, Crystalline Solids
Dipole Forces, poor thermal
o Define by the repetition of atoms in a specific pattern.
and Hydrogen and electrical
o The simplest repeating arrangement of particles, such as atoms, molecules, or ions within
Bonds. conduction
an ordered crystal is unit cell.
Covalent Atoms Covalent bonds Very hard, very Diamond
o Simple cubic cell (6), Body centered cubic cell (8), and Face centered cubic cell (12).
Network connected in a high melting
o Simple cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Rhombohedral, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal
network of point, often poor
covalent bonds thermal and Crystal Systems
electrical
- Isometric (Fluorite)
conduction
- Tetragonal (Wulfenite)
Ionic Positive and Electrostatic Hard and brittle, Typical salts
- Orthorhombic (Tanzanite)
Negative Ions attractions high melting
- Monoclinic (Azurite)
point, poor
- Triclinic (Amazonite)
thermal and
- Hexagonal (Emerald)
electrical
- Trigonal (Rhodochrosite)
conduction
Metallic Atoms Metallic bonding Soft to very All metallic
hard, low to very elements such
high melting as Cu, Fe, Al, Pt
point, excellent
thermal and
Amorphous Solid
 o These solids do not melt at a specific temperature. They soften gradually over a Deposition Gas to Liquid
range of temperatures.
o Examples of amorphous solids include rubber, plastic, asphalt, chocolate, taffy, wax,
Concentration of Units (Module 2.2)
glass, etc.
Solute + Solvent = Solution

Solubility
Phase Change (Module 2.1)
 The maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a
Solids
specified temperature.
- The molecules that make up a solid are arranged in regular, repeating patterns. They are
Unsaturated
held firmly in place but can vibrate within a limited area.
 Dissolved solute is below saturated point; more can dissolve.
Liquid
Saturated
- The molecules that make up a liquid flow easily around one another. They are kept from
flying apart by attractive forces between them. Liquids assume the shape of their  Dissolved solute is at saturation point; no more can dissolve.
containers.
Supersaturated
Gas
 Dissolved solute is above saturated point; additional solute gathers at the bottom.
- The molecules that make up a gas fly in all directions at great speed. They are so far
Concentration
apart that the attractive forces between them are insignificant.
 The among of solute present in a given amount of solution.
Phase Changes of Matter
Melting Solid to Liquid
Freezing Liquid to Solid
Vaporization Liquid to Gas
Condensation Gas to Liquid
Sublimation Solid to Gas Types of Concentration
 KEY EQUATIONS
Percent by Mass mass of solution
x 100 % d) Molarity
mass of solution ( mass of solute+mass of solvent )
 Defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 L of solution.
Molarity moles of solute  The unit of molarity is mol/L
liters of solution e) Molality
Mole Fraction moles of A  The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg (1000 g) of solvent.
∑ of moles of all components  The unit of molality is mol/kg
Molality moles of solute f) Mole Fraction
mass of solvent ( kg )  It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a particular component in a
Percent by Volume volume of solute mixture to the total number of moles of all components in the mixture.
x 100 %
volume of solution
Part per Million 1 mg solute
1 ppm= Module 7. Colligative Property
1 L solution
Colligative Property

a) Percent by Mass
 The percent by mass (also called percent by weight or weight (w/w) percent) is
the ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100
percent.
b) Percent by Volume
 A unit of concentration used to express the amount of solute in a solution as a
percentage of the volume of the solution.
c) Parts per Million
 It represents the number of parts of a substance per million parts of the solution.
 For example, if a chemical compound is present in a concentration of 5 ppm, it
means that there are 5 parts of the compound for 1,000,000 parts of the solution.
 It refers to the properties of solution that depends on the collective effect of the
concentration of solute particles present in the solution.
 Are characteristics of a solution that depend on the ratio of the number of solute
particles to solvent particles.
a) Freezing Point Depression
o A colligative property that describes the phenomenon of the lowering of the freezing
point of a solvent when a solute is added to it.
o Physical properties of solution that depend only on the number of solute particles in a
given amount of solvent, not on the identity of the solute particles themselves.
 o Freezing point depression occurs when a solute is added to a solvent, causing the
freezing point of the solution to be lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
This happens because the presence of solute particles disrupts the formation of the
crystal lattice that usually forms when a pure solvent freezes.
o This property has many practical
applications in fields such as automotive
engineering and food sciences.

required for the vapor pressure to equal the external pressure and for the solvent
to boil.
o It is a useful property with practical applications in various fields.

Kf – is the molal freezing point depression constant, a constant that is equal to the change in the
freezing point for a 1 molal solution of a nonvolatile molecular solute.

Tf – freezing point depression

M – molality of solute

b) Boiling Point of Elevation

o A colligative property that describes the phenomenon of the raising of the boiling
point of a solvent when a solute is added to it.
o The boiling point of a solvent is defined as the temperature at which its vapor c) Vapor Pressure Lowering

pressure equals the external pressure. When a solute is added to a solvent, the  A colligative property that describes the phenomenon of the decrease in the

vapor pressure of the solvent is lowered, which means higher temperature is vapor pressure of a solvent when a solute is added to it.
 Vapor pressure is
the pressure
d) Osmotic
exerted by the
Pressure
vapor of a

substance in
Describes the
equilibrium with its
liquid or solid state. pressure required to prevent the flow of solvent into a solution across a
In a closed semipermeable membrane.
container, the vapor  Osmosis is the process of a solvent (usually water) passing through a
pressure of a pure solvent is determined solely by its temperature, and it semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region
increases the temperature increases. of high solute concentration.
 However, when a nonvolatile solute is added to the solvent, the vapor pressure of  When a solute is separated from its pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane,
the solution is lower than that of the pure solvent. osmosis occurs until the pressure of the solution is equal to the osmotic pressure
 It has many practical applications in industries such as automotive and of the solution.
pharmaceuticals.  An application of osmotic pressure is in the production of artificial kidneys. In this
 By understanding the relationship between solute concentration and vapor case, the semipermeable membrane is used to filter out waste product from the
pressure and vapor pressure lowering, scientists can develop new solutions with blood while retaining the essential blood components.
tailored properties to suit specific applications.
  Depending on the subject, you may be asked to classify people, organisms,
things, or ideas.
 Sorting materials or ideas into major categories so that connections can be made
between things that might otherwise seem unrelated.
 It is used to find a distinctive way to break down a larger idea or concept into
different parts.
 It uses transitional words and phrases like can be divided, can be classified, can
be categorized, the first/second/third type, the first/second/third category.
 The topic sentence identifies what is to be classified and the categories used.
 A classification paragraph begins with a main idea and discusses the
subcategories of that topic.
 Emphasizes the superordinate (name of the larger group) ideas and subordinate
(subcategories) ideas.

Signal Words

Another Another kind

Classified as Final type
One kind The first category
The last group The next part

 Classification paragraphs can be written on almost any subject where there are
different categories, groups, or genres.
READING AND WRITING SKILLS (MA’AM FE PABLICO) b) Paragraph by Description

a) Paragraph by Classification  A descriptive paragraph is a paragraph that describes a person, place, or thing.

 In this paragraph development, separate items are grouped into categories  It allows the reader to create vivid images in the reader’s mind of whatever is

according to shared characteristics. being described.

  Writers uses sensory details such as sights, sounds, smells, taste, feelings, and Against Behind Down Near Over
textures. Along Below Farther Off Throughout
 Most important elements of description paragraph are the types of description Alongside Beneath Here On To the right
used. Amidst Beside In On top of Under
 Informational or Evocative
 Spatial or Sensory
c) Paragraph by Definition
 Writer uses spatial in order to create a visual image.
 It explains what a term is.
 Location and arrangement in spatial order are from top to bottom, bottom to top, right to
 When you want your readers to know exactly how you are using a certain term or
left, left to right, near to far, far to near, inside to outside, or outside to inside.
 Uses descriptive transitional signal words. unfamiliar concept.

 The arrangement in space of a person, place, object, or scene. Types of Definition

 The starting point from which the writer chooses to begin the description.
1) Formal Definition
 The time frame is as relevant to description.
 Provided in dictionaries, which include three terms:
Kinds of Descriptive Paragraph  Term - the word being defined

1) Objective Description  Class – the big group to which the term belongs

o Describes something without conveying the writer’s own emotions.  Differentiating Features – a word or phrase that makes it different with

o This kind of description is usually used in technical or scientific writing. the others from the same class

2) Subjective Description 2) Informal Definition

o This conveys feelings and emotions about a person, place, or thing.  There are three common informal definitions:
 Operational Definition
o It also contains specific details just as the objective perspective do.
 Synonyms
 Denotations / Connotations
Signal words for Spatial Pattern or Visual Description i. Operational Definition
Above Around Between In front of Onto  Is a result of the process of operationalization and is used to define something
Across Away from Beyond Inside Opposite to (e.g. a variable, term, of object) in terms of a process.
Adjacent to Back of By Into Outside  It defines concept by the way they are measured.
 ii. Synonyms  Consider the following
 Words that mean the same as another word  For example
iii. Denotation  For instance
 Exact meaning of the word, the dictionary meaning.  In other words
iv. Connotation  In particular
 An idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or thing.  In short
 Namely
Definition Paragraph – is a definition sentence which is extended into a paragraph by adding
 Put another way
meanings, descriptions, narrations, and other kinds of paragraph development to make clear the
 Specifically
term being defined.
 Stated differently
Types of Definition – the paragraph starts with a definition sentence which is used as the topic
sentence. Then, each group / class in the definition is developed into supporting sentences and
concluding statement. 4) Cause and Effect Paragraph
 Organizes details based on the cause, the reason, and the result or
3) Paragraph by Exemplification
consequences of a certain phenomenon.
 An exemplification pattern presents the general statement and then provide
 May discuss both the causes and effects, the causes only, of the effects only.
specific and concrete examples to expound the main idea.
 In short, this pattern is used to provide examples of something. What is the Purpose?
 Pay attention to the main idea and the specific examples, as these are the most
- To discuss the reasons why something occurs.
important part of this pattern.
- To discuss the result of an event, feeling, or action.
 The following signal words will also help you in identifying exemplification.
Why do we write these type of paragraph?

- To understand a situation
- To solve a problem
Signal Words for Exemplification - To predict an outcome
- To entertain
 After all
- To persuade
 As an example
 i. Purpose of the text  since  Hence
ii. The relationship between causes and effects  So that
iii. Potential causal fallacies or illogical arguments

Achieving Unity 5) Paragraph by Comparison and Contrast

 Comparison tells how two things are similar.
o Unity is achieved in a paragraph by deciding if causes or effects will be the focus.
 Contrast tells how two things are different.
o Create a topic sentence that focuses on central event, feeling, or action.
 Comparison and Contrast can do both in a paragraph.
Enhancing Coherence
Methods in Writing a Comparison and Contrast Paragraph
o To increase coherence, limit the number of causes and effects.
a) Subject by Subject Paragraph
o Decide if there is a chain reaction or individual causes / effects.
o Present all the facts and supporting details about one (Subject A).
o Use transitional words that focus the purpose of the paragraph.
o Give all the facts and supporting details about the other topic (Subject B).
o Use support sentences to identify the cause or effects.
b) Point by Point Paragraph

Useful vocabulary o Discuss each point for both subject (A and B) before going on to the next point.

Cause Effect
Signal Words
 For  So
 Because  But Comparing Contrast

 Since  For this reason  Also  Although

 Due to  As a result  As  And yet
 For the reason that  Consequently  Both  As opposed to
 In that  Otherwise  Equally  But
 In view of  Therefore  In similar fashion  Conversely
 In as much as  Thus  In comparison  Counter to
 One reason  Accordingly  In the same way  Despite
 Owing to  As a consequence  Like  Even so
 Seeing that  Because of  Likewise  Even though
  Similarly  In contrast  First
 To compare  In spite of  Second
 In the meantime  One way is
 Instead  Nonetheless
 However  The problem
 nevertheless  One reason for the
 The solution

6) Paragraph by Problem and Solution

7) Paragraph by Persuasion
 Organizes ideas into problems and proposed solutions.
 This pattern organizes ideas to show how a set of evidence leads to a logical
 The problem section usually includes the what, who, when, where, why, and how
conclusions or arguments.
of the problems.
 Presents the issue, the position, and the supporting evidence that supports the
 The other part then presents the major effects of the problem and the possible
position.
solutions to address it, as well as the steps in implementing the solution.
Signal Words for Emphasizing a Point
What is a Problem – Solution Graphic Organizer?
Again In that case To emphasize Truly
 It is graphical representation of a problem – solving solution. For this reason Indeed To repeat With this in mind
 The diagram involves writing the essence of the problem in the beginning, then In fact
suggesting steps for resolving it, and finally producing a solution.
 By using these diagrams, it becomes easy for a person or team to organize the
relevant information into an easily perusable and understandable form. Signal Words for Concluding and Summarizing
Accordingly Consequently In brief Inevitably
In a nutshell All in all Due to In conclusion
On the whole Therefore As a result Finally
In short Since Thus As I have said
Signal Words for Problem – Solution
In any event In essence To sum up
 But
 One solution is
 Signal Words for Conceding a Point iii. Structure
Admittedly It is true that Obviously True  Provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It includes the following
Assuredly Needless to say Of course Undoubtedly parts: a) Beginning – introduction, thesis statements, hook; b) Middle –

Certainly No doubt To be sure Unquestionably supporting details; and 3) End – conclusion, summary, final message.

Granted TIPS ON TEXT ORGANIZATION

 Make a text easy to read.

Properties of a Well – Written test  Prevent the reader from becoming confused by a jumble of words, sentence, and
paragraphs that are in no particular order.
a) Organization
 Achieve through physical format, signal words, and structure.
 also known as arrangement, is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately
arranged with focus on the arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidences or details
in a definite order in a paragraph, essay, or speech.
b) Coherence and Cohesion in Writing
 It can be done with a recognizable plan that defines one sentence connection to
 Coherence refers to the overall sense of unity in a passage, including both the
the other sentence and paragraph to the other paragraph.
main point of sentences and the main point of each paragraph. A coherent
ORGANIZATION TECHNIQUES passage focuses the reader’s attention on the main ideas and specific people,
things, and events you are writing about.
i. Physical Format
 Is an aspect of the organization that is immeditely apparent to the reader. It is  Coherence is the relationship of ideas between sentences.

seen on how the text physically appears like headings and subheadings, bullet  Cohesion is also a very important aspect of academic writing because it

points or font emphasis. However, do not overuse this technique as improper or immediately affects the tone of your writing. Cohesive writing does not mean just

superfluous formatting can be confusing. “grammatically correct” sentences; cohesive writing refers to the connection of

ii. Signal Words your ideas both at the sentence level and at the paragraph level.

 Are textual clues that readers can use to follow a text. Moreover, signal words  Cohesion is the connection of ideas to the central concept of a text.
can “signal” the transition from one point to another, the ordering of events and
concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type.
c) Language Used
  Is one of the clearest indicators of a well-written text. It enables the writers to Philippines, code – switching such as Taglish, and Bislish is prevalent across domains
effectively communicate ideas without confusing the readers. from the informal to business and mass media.
- Before writing, think of your audience. Whether you write using the British or American
CONSIDERATIONS IN LANGUAGE USED
spelling, it is important to be consistent in spelling. If you are unsure of the spelling of a
i. Determine when it is appropriate to use formal language or when informal language word, consult a dictionary or a spell checker.
is acceptable. -
Informal Language – is usually used in writing for oneself or in writing to family,
American and British English Spelling Variations
friends, and colleagues.
American Spelling British Spelling
Formal Writing - is used in writing academic, business, and official texts.
1) Color 1) Colour
ii. When you write, you should also make sure that the language you use is direct and
simple rather than complicated so that the readers would easily understand the text. 2) Defense 2) Defence

iii. You should also be sensitive enough to use unbiased language, so you will not 3) Organize 3) Organise

offend any individual or any particular group of people. 4) Traveled 4) Travelled

Unbiased Language is language that is free of racial bias, free of religious 5) Theater 5) Theatre
bias, and free of gender bias. 6) Learned 6) Learnt
7) Airplane 7) Aeroplane
8) Analyse 8) Analyse
Mechanics are conventions used in writing. These conventions involve: spelling, capitalizations,
9) Aging 9) Ageing
and punctuations.

I. Spelling
- Is the forming of words from letters according to the accepted usage. Always use a
specific standard spelling to avoid confusion.
- Philippine English is any variety of English native to the Philippines, including those used
by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos.
- English is taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country, the other II. Punctuation Marks
being Filipino (Tagalog) due to the strongly bilingual and multilingual nature of the - Are symbols used to aid the clarity and comprehension of the written language.
1) PERIOD (.) – it is used after sentences, in abbreviations, and as decimals.
 2) EXCLAMATION POINT (!) – it is placed at the emphatic or forceful sentences.  Avoid Contraction (like shouldn’t)
3) QUESTION MARK (?) – it is placed at the end of a question and to note questionable  Avoid exclamation marks unless part of a quotation.
items.  Mention full name in first mention. Thereafter, use abbreviations. Number zero to ten vs
4) QUOTATION MARKS (“”) – it is used to indicate direct quotations for titles of poems, 11 and so on…
short stories, chapters, essays, songs, and episodes of television shows.  Citations are used in academic and formal texts but sparingly used in businesses texts.
5) APOSTROPHE (‘) – it is employed to show possession (Angel’s bag), to show
missing letters and numbers (you’re), and to show plural of letters (I got all A’s last
semester). III. Capitalization
6) COLON (:) – it is utilized after independent clauses to introduce elements. It is used - Is the act of writing the letters in uppercase+. It is an act or process of capitalizing.
to separate items in numerals, ratios, titles and subtitles, time references, scripture,
Capitalization Rules
and referenced.
Kinship
7) PARENTHESIS () – these are used to set off nonessential details and explanations,
Names
to enclose letters and numbers used when listing items, first – time use of acronym. Days of Content Historical
Proper Proper Months of Course followed
8) BRACKETS [ ] – it is used to set off clarifications inserted in quotations. the Words Events, Periods,
Nouns Adjectives the Year Titles by
9) HYPEN (-) – it is used to separate or join words. Week in a title Documentations
Personal
10) DASH (--) – is it used to show sudden break of thought to set of an introduction to a Names
series. Through
11) SLASH (/) – it is employed to separate words or to show alternatives. the
12) SEMICOLON (;) – it is utilized to join independent clauses when and, or, yet, but, or Looking
so are not present, to separate items in a series that contains commas. Glass,
Theater Grandma People Power
13) ELLIPSIS (…) – it is utilized to indicate that words have been deleted from quoted Alex Canadian Sunday September and
101 Dad Revolution
materials. What
14) COMMA (,) – it is used to signal pauses and shifts in sentences, sed with and, or, so, Alice

but, yet to join independent clauses. Found

There
GENERAL GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE USE OF PUNCTUATIONS
Manila Sharonian Friday April Reading Tita And I The 1987

 Always use standard English. and Hazel Am Constitutions

 Telling NANG AT NG
Writing Uncle You I’m
Skills Jow Not o NANG ang gamitin bilang pangatnig sa mga hugnayang pangungusap at
Going
katumbas ito ng salitang “when” sa Ingles.
The
Renaissance Halimbawa: Tulong na ang mga bata nang dumating ang kanilang ina.

o NANG ang gamitin sa gitna ng dalawang salitang ugat na inuulit.

Halimbawa: tapon nang tapon, kuha ng kuha, kanta nang kanta

o NANG ang gamitin kapag nagmula sa na at inaangkupan ng ng at inilagay sa

pagitan ng pandiwa at ng pang-abay. (Sumasagot sa tanong na “paano”)

Halimbawa: Nangaral nang mahinahon si Miss Reyes.

o NG ang gamitin bilang pananda sa tuwirang layon ng pandiwang palipat.

(ng + ano)

Halimbawa: Nag – aaral siya ng Mabuti.

o NG ang gamitin bilang pananda ng actor o tagaganap ng pandiwa sa tinig

balintiyak. (ng + nino)

PAGBABASA at Pagsusuri ng Iba’t Ibang Teksto Tungo sa Pananaliksik Halimbawa: tinulungan ng binata ang matanda sa pagtawid.

a) Wastong Paggamit ng mga Salita

 o NG ang gamitin kapag nagsasaad ng pagmamay-ari ng isang bagay o katangian.  MAY ang gamitin kapag sinusundan ng pang-uri?

(ng + kanino)
Halimbawa: May mahabang buhok si Olga.

Halimbawa: Ang bahay ng milyonaryo ay naguho dahil sa lindol.

 MAY ang gamitin kapag sinusundan ng panghalip na panao sa kaukulang paari.

KUNG AT KONG
Halimbawa: Bawat tao ay may kanya – kanyang katangian.

 KUNG ang gamitin bilang pangatnig na panubali at ito’y ginagamit sa hugnayang

 MAYROON ang gamitin kapag may napapasingit na kataga (ingklitik) sa salitang
pangungusap. Katumbas ito ng “if” isa Ingles.
sinusundan nito.

Halimbawa: Kung hindi ka sana nagtaas ng boses ay hindi kayo nag-away ng iyong kaibigan.
Halimbawa: Mayroon pa bang natirang ulam?

 KONG ay nanggaling sa panghalip na panaong ko at inaangkopan lamang ng ng.

 MAYROON ang gamitin bilang panagot sa tanong na may.
Katumbas nito ng “I” o “my” sa Ingles.
Halimbawa: May pasok ba bukas?
Halimbawa: Ikaw lamang ang tangi kong inaasam.
 MAYROON ang gamitin kung nangangahulugan ng pagka – maykaya sa buhay.

Halimbawa: Ang mga Mondragon ay mayroon sa kanilang probinsya.

MAY AT MAYROON

 MAY ang gamitin kapag sinusundan ng pangalan.

SUBUKIN AT SUBUKAN
Halimbawa: May virus ang flash drive na hiniram ko.
 SUBUKIN ay nangangahulugan ng pagsusuri o pagsisiyasat sa uri, lakas, o kakayahan
 MAY ang gamitin kapag sinusundan ng pandiwa.
ng isang tao o bagay.

Halimbawa: May pupuntahan ka ba mamaya?

Halimbawa: Ating subukin ang bisa ng lotion na ito.
  SUBUKAN ay nangangahulugan ng pagtingin upang malaman ang ginawa ng isang tao o  OPERAHIN kung binanggit ang tiyak na parte ng katawan.

mga tao.
Halimbawa: Ooperahin ang mga mata ni Leo bukas.

Halimbawa: Susubukan natin siya para malaman natin kung saan siya nagpunta.
 OPERAHAN kapag binaggit mismo ang tao ang tinutukoy.

Halimbawa: Inoperahan na si Leo kanina.

PAHIRIN AT PAHIRAN ; PUNASAN AT PUNASIN

 PAHIRIN ay nangangahulugang pag – alis o pagpawi ng isang bagay.

DIN AT DAW ; RIN AT RAW

Halimbawa: Pahirin mo ang iyong pawis sa noo.

- DIN at DAW ang gamitin kung ang sinusundang salita nito ay nagtatapos sa katinig.

 PUNASIN kapag may tatangalin.

Halimbawa: Masakit daw and kaniyang ulo.: Nakapagsulat din sa wakas ng aklat si Elma.

Halimbawa: Punasin mo ang uling sa iyong pisngi.

- RIN at RAW ang gamitin kung ang sinusundang salita nito ay nagtatapos sa patinig at

 PAHIRAN ay nangangahulugang paglagay ng isang bagay. malapatinig na “w” at “y”.

Halimbawa: Pahiran mo ng Vicks ang kanyang likod. Halimbawa: Si Vanessa ay katulad mo ring masipag.: Ikaw raw ang pipiliing lalahok sa beauty

pageant.
 PUNASAN kapag ang binanggit ay ang bagay na kailangang tanggalin ng kung ano.

Halimbawa: Punasan mo ang iyong pisngi.

OPERAHIN AT OPERAHAN

SUNDIN AT SUNDAN
 SUNDIN to follow an advice iii. Pantulong na Kaisipan

 Mahalaga rin ang paglalagay ng mga angkop na pantulong na kaisipan o mga detalye
Halimbawa: Sundin mo ang mg autos niya sa’yo.
upang makabuo sa isipan ng mambabasa ang pangunahing ideyang nais niyang
SUNDAN to follow where one is going, or what one does.
matanim o maiiwan sa kanila.

Halimbawa: Sinusundan niya ang mga palabas sa T.V.

Estilo sa Pagsulat

a) Paggamit ng mga nakalarawang presentasyon.

B) Tekstong Impormatibo b) Pagbibigay diin sa mahalagang salita sa teksto, nagagamit dito ang mga estilong tulad ng

- Ito ay isang uri ng babasahing di – piksyon pagsulat nang nakadiin, nakahilis, nakasalungguhit, o nalagyan ng panipi upang higit na

- Ito ay naglalayong magbigay ng impormasyon o magpaliwanag nang malinaw at walang madaling makita o mapansin ang mga salitang binibigyan diin sa babasahin.

pagkiling tungkol sa iba’t ibang paksa tula dng sa mga hayop, isports, agham o siyensiya, c) Pagsulat ng mga talasanggunian. Karaniwang inilalagay ng mga manunulat ng takstong

kasaysayan, Gawain, paglalakbay, heograpiya, kalawakan, panahin at iba pa. impormatibo ang mga aklat, kagamitan at iba pang sanggunian.

Elemento ng Tekstong Impormatibo

i. Layunin ng May – Akda

 Maaaring layunin niyang mapalawak pa ang kaalaman ukol sa isang paksa.

ii. Pangunahing Ideya

1) Paglalahad ng Totoong Pangyayari / Kasaysayan
 Di tulad sa tekstong naratibo na hindi agad inihahayag ng maunulat ang mga mangyayari
o Inilalahad ang mga totoong pangyayaring nagaganap sa isang panahon.
upang mapaabot ang interes ng mambabasa sa tekstong impormatibo naman ay
2) Pag – uulat Pang Impormasyon
dagliang inilalahad ang mga pangunahing ideya ng mambabasa.
 o Kinakailangan ng masusing pananaliksik dahil naglalahad ng katotohanan. THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

3) Nagpapaliwanag This chapter includes the introduction, theoretical framework, statement of the problem,
hypothesis, scope and limitation, conceptual framework, significance of the study and the
o Nagbibigay paliwanag kung paano o bakit nagaganap ang isang bagay o
definition of terms used.
pangyayari.
Introduction
Iba’t Ibang Tekstong Impormatibo
- The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the
reader. It has several key goals: Present your topic and get the reader interested.
I. Sanhi at Bunga – nagpapakita ng direktang relasyon sa pagitan ng bakit nangyayari
Provide background or summarize existing research. Position your own approach.
(Sanhi) at kung ano ang nagiging result anito (Bunga).
Drafting Introduction
II. Paghahambing – ito naman ay nagpapakita ng pagkakaiba o pagkakatulad sa
 What are international issues?
pagitan ng kahit anong bagay, konsepto, at maging pangyayari.
 What is the significance?
III. Pagbibigay ng Depinisyon – sa ganitong uri ipinapaliwanag ng manunulat ang  What is the focus problem?
kahulugan ng salita, terminolihiya o konsepto.  Laws and policy to address the problem?
 What is happening now in relation of the study?
IV. Paglilista ng Klasipikasyon – sa tekstong ito, ang malawak na paksa ay hinahati sa
 What is the gap in knowledge?
iba;t iabng kategorya upang magkaroon ng sistema ang talakayan.
Theoretical framework

- The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research
study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why
the research problem under study exists.

Lesson 1 Introduction of Qualitative Research To create your own theoretical framework, you can follow these three steps:

CHAPTER 1  Identifying your key concepts.

  Evaluating and explaining relevant theories. Hypothesis

 Showing how your research fits into existing research. - A hypothesis is a strong, concise statement that forms the basis of your research.
- The sole purpose of a hypothesis is to predict your paper's findings, data, and conclusion.
Statement of the Problem
It comes from a place of curiosity and intuition. When you write a hypothesis, you're
- A research problem statement is a clear, concise, and specific statement that describes making an educated guess based on scientific prejudices and evidence, which is further
the issue or problem that the research project addresses. It should be written in a way proven or disproven through the scientific method.
that is easily understandable to both experts and non-experts in the field.
Null hypothesis
To write a research problem statement, you should:
- A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by H0, it is a
 Identify the general area of interest. negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect athletes' on-
field performance.” Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-
 Define the specific problem.
field performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.
 Explain the significance of the problem.
Scope and Limitations
 Provide a clear and concise statement.
- All scientific research has boundaries, whether or not the authors clearly explain them.
 Use a scientific and objective tone. The study's scope and delimitations are the sections where you define the broader
parameters and boundaries of your research.
An Example of a Research Problem Statement
 The scope details what your study will explore, such as the target population, extent, or
“The increasing prevalence of obesity in children is a growing public health concern. study duration.
Despite the availability of information on healthy eating and physical activity, many children are
Scope example
still not engaging in healthy lifestyle behaviors. The problem this study addresses is the lack of
understanding - Your research question is, “What is the impact of bullying on the mental health of
adolescents?” This topic, on its own, doesn't say much about what's being investigated.

The scope, for example, could encompass:

of the barriers and facilitators to healthy lifestyle behaviors in children.”
 Variables: “bullying” (dependent variable), “mental health” (independent variable), and
ways of defining or measuring them
  Bullying type: Both face-to-face and cyberbullying
 Target population: Adolescents aged 12–17
 Geographical coverage: France or only one specific town in France
 Delimitations are factors and variables not included in the study.
Delimitations
example
 Recruitment of participants: Quota sampling (aiming for specific portions of men, women,
ethnic minority students etc.)
- Scope and delimitations are not methodological shortcomings; they're always under your
control. Discussing these is essential because doing so shows that your project is
manageable and scientifically sound.
Conceptual Framework

- Explo - A conceptual framework illustrates the expected relationship between your variables or
ring the characteristics or properties that you want to study. It defines the relevant objectives
the for your research process and maps out how they come together to draw coherent
conclusions.
- The IPO model represents a system in three stages: input, process and output. Inputs are
modeled as consumables and efforts that are introduced to a system at the beginning
stage of the lifecycle.

adverse effects of bullying on adolescents' mental health is a preliminary delimitation.

This one was chosen from among many possible research questions (e.g., the impact of
bullying on suicide rates, or children or adults).

Delimiting factors could include:

 Research design: Mixed-methods research, including thematic analysis of semi-

structured interviews and statistical analysis of a survey.
 Timeframe: Data collection to run for 3 months
 Population size: 100 survey participants; 15 interviewees
 the reader. Researchers will be able to appreciate your work better when they understand
the relevance and its (potential) impact.

Definition of Terms

- This gives your readers an understanding of the concepts or factors that will be discussed
throughout your study, as well as contextual information as to how you will be
using those concepts in your study.

What Is the Difference Between Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework?

Conceptual Framework Theoretical Framework

Significance of the Study

- The significance of a study is its importance. It refers to the contribution(s) to and impact You can develop this through the
Purely based on existing theories.
of the study on a research field. The significance also signals who benefits from the researcher’s specific concept in the study.
research findings and how.

It is established with the help of the research

Based on acceptable and logical findings.
paradigm.

Purpose of writing
It emphasizes the historical background and A general set of ideas and theories is
the significance of
the structure to fill in the knowledge gap. essential in writing this area.
a study

- A study’s
It highlights the fundamental concepts It emphasizes the historical background and
significance
characterizing the study variable. the structure to fill the knowledge gap.
should spar
k the
interest of
Lesson 2 Literature Review
Review of researchers in your chosen are to clarify conceptual issues and empirical context.

Three stages where a review of literature is needed:

How to organize your RRL
 To establish the context and rationale for your study to confirm your choice of research
focus.  Chronological
 To keep in touch with current and relevant research in your field.  By publication date

To relate your findings to the findings of others and identify their implications for theory and  By trend
research.  Thematic
 A structure which considers different themes
 Methodological
 Focuses on the methods of the researcher. E.g., qualitative vs. quantitative
approaches.

Making links between studies

Organization of literature review
Agreements Disagreements
 Broader topics Practice of herbal medicines
Similarly, author B points to... However, author B points to...
 Subtopics
Likewise, authors C makes the case that... On theCommon herbalauthor
other hand, medicine
Cinmakes
the Ph. the case
 Studies like yours
that... Leaves as commonly used.
Author D also makes this point... Conversely, author D argues...
Unexplored cassava leaves
Again, it is possible to see how authors E Nevertheless, what author E suggest...
agrees with author D...

Characteristic of a Good Literature Review

 Focused
 Concise
  Logical References examples:
 Developed
 Journal Article
 Integrative
 Current 12 Ashing-Giwa, K. T., Padilla, G., Tejero, J., Kraemer, J., Wright, K., Coscarelli, A., Clayton, S.,

Writing the Literature Review Williams, I., & Hills, D. (2004). Understanding the breast cancer experience of women: A

Plagiarism Includes qualitative study of African American, Asian American, Latina and Caucasian cancer

1. Using another writer’s word without citations survivors. Psycho‐Oncology, 13(6), 408-428. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.750
2. Using another writer’s idea without citations
 Web Page
3. Citing sources without quotation marks.
4. Borrowing all or part of another student’s paper American Nurses Association. (n.d.). Disaster preparedness. https://www.nursingworld.org/
5. Using paper-writing services or having a friend to write the paper.
practice-policy/work-environment/health-safety/disaster-preparedness/

Paraphrasing
 News Article
Is rewriting other people’s work in your own words.
Cresell, J., & Kaplan, S. (2019, November 24). How Juul hooked a generation on nicotine. The
 The paraphrase must have the same idea as the original work.
New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/23/health/juul-vaping-crisis.html
 Author must be cited for every paraphrases.
 Book
In-text Citations
Schmidt, N. A., & Brown, J. M. (2017). Evidence-based practice for nurses: Appraisal and
1. 1 Author (Abrams, 2018)
2. 2 Authors (Wegener & Petty, 1994) application of research (4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.

3. 3+ Authors (Harris et al., 2018)

4. Group Author First time with an abbreviation: (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2019) Then all subsequent citations: (CDC, 2019) Lesson 3 Methodology
Design

- Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a

researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research
methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for success.
 What is the problem?
 What are the research questions?
 What is the scope and limitations?

Design in Qualitative
and Quantitative
Research
Settings

- Nature and the uniqueness of the setting in relation to your problem.

Where Is the setting of your data?

 Use clear and colored maps

 Cire the source URL
 Write geographical and related features

Ethical issues

- Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs
and practices.
 Participants
 Publication
 Confidentiality
 Informed consent

Materials

- Research Material means documents, records, software, information, data and other
materials or work product in any tangible form created or developed during, or in
association with, the Research Activity.
 Replicability
 Description
 Actual picture

Sampling

- The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting several elements from a population, we
can make an inference about the entire population. Respondents of the study
 - The survey respondent is appropriately referred to as a “respondent” because that is
exactly the role, he or she is playing in the research process.
 Describe the unique characteristics of the respondents.
Data gathering/ Procedure
- Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Validity and reliability of the instrument
 Describe each step.
 Do not mention name.
- A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to
your research interests. These tools are most used in health sciences, social sciences,
and education to assess patients, clients, students, teachers, staff, etc.
 Research questions
 Variables
 Research design
 Measurement scales
- Validity in qualitative research means the extent to which the data is plausible, credible
and trustworthy; and thus can be defended when challenged. Reliability and validity
remain appropriate concepts for attaining rigor in qualitative research.
 Does it measure what it is supposed to measure?
 Is it consistent?

Testing and evaluation

- Evaluation research is defined as a form of disciplined and systematic inquiry that is

carried out to arrive at an assessment or appraisal of an object, program, practice,
activity, or system with the purpose of providing information that will be of use in decision
making.
 Replicability
 Improvements
 Efficiency
 Effectivity

Research instrument
Data analysis
 - Qualitative data analysis (QDA) is the process of organizing, analyzing, and interpreting
qualitative data—non-numeric, conceptual information and user feedback—to capture
themes and patterns, answer research questions, and identify actions to take to improve
your product or website.
 Research questions variables
 Measurement scale used
 Ability and skill of the researcher
Sample situation in choosing what appropriate sampling techniques to be used.
Probability sampling techniques
Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
 You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a social media
marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the company database
from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
 All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers,
you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th
person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of
100 people.
Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.
 The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure
that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population
into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
 The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same
number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every
office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are
your clusters.
Non- Probability
Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.
 You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after
each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This
is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same
 classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these
your university. groups. You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.
Purposive sampling
Additional inputs
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research. Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative

 You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people.

 You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all
homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person
who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.

Quota sampling

Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of

units. This is called a quota.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
 You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in Boston,
focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians,  More flexible

and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to all  Data collection and analysis occurs simultaneously

consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
 Provide riches insights from small sample
 Data collection is continuous until saturation
 Examine the natural context
 Natural setting is the direct source of data
 Analyze data inductively
H.O.P.E Benefits:
 Increases bone strength and density.
Module 1: Energy System
 Promotes weight maintenance.
Anaerobic ATP Production  Increases power.
What is ATP?  Boosts metabolism.
> stands for Adenosine Triphosphate.  Increases lactic threshold.
> An important energy molecule found in all life forms.
> is a nucleotide consisting of an adenine base attached to a ribose sugar. What is Aerobic Exercise?
> In a process called hydrolysis, energy is released converting ATP to Adenosine diphosphate >Physical activity that increases the heart rate and the body’s use of oxygen.
(ADP) > Aerobic cellular respiration is the process of cellular respiration that involves oxygen.
> The aerobic energy system uses fats, carbohydrates and sometimes proteins for re-
What is Hydrolysis? synthesizing ATP for energy use.
In ATP hydrolysis, water is used to split apart adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to create adenosine
diphosphate (ADP)to get energy. ATP hydrolysis energy (AHE) is then used in the activities of The Process
living cells.
 Stage #1: Aerobic (slow) glycolysis
Anaerobic energy system - Aerobic glycolysis is exactly the same series of reactions as anaerobic (fast)
>The body has three primary ways of creating energy called energy systems. glycolysis, except it just has a different outcome because sufficient oxygen is present.
1. Alactic Anaerobic system (short duration energy)  Stage #2: Krebs Cycle
2. Lactic Anaerobic Systems (medium short duration energy) - Fatty acids (from fats) and amino acids (from proteins) are converted to acetyl
3. Aerobic System (long term energy from oxygen breakdown) coenzyme A through a series of complex chemical reactions. Along with the acetyl
coenzyme A from glycolysis they enter the Krebs cycle and are broken down.
Examples of Anaerobic exercises:  Stage #3: Electron transport Chain
1. Weightlifting - The process of transferring hydrogen ions from its carrier molecules to oxygen and
2. Isometric exercise (plank) having the hydrogen ions move across a chemical gradient produces the energy
3. Sprinting required to combine ADP and Pi to form ATP.
Exercise Metabolism Some Examples of Exercises for metabolic training sets:
- Kettlebell Swings
Definition of Terms - Squat and Press
>Metabolism - Push-Ups
- It is referred as the chemical reactions in the body that provide energy vital in our day-to-day - Burpees
living. - Dumbbell Step-Ups
>Energy expenditure
- the amount of energy we use/spend in certain activities. Rest to Exercise Transition
>ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
- an "energy molecule". It is a molecule that stores and carries energy within the cells of the body. How essential is Rest?
Taking regular breaks allows your body to recover and repair. Skipping rest days can lead to
Exercise Metabolism overtraining or burnout.
Exercise has a powerful action on metabolism, and adaptation of the body to changes induced by Benefits of Resting
exercise is fundamental to be able to provide the energy required for muscle contraction and 1. Allows time for recovery.
physiological functions of vital tissues. 2. Prevents muscle fatigue.
3. Reduces risk of injury.
Categories of Energy Expenditure 4. Improves performance.
Resting metabolic rate
- is the amount of energy per minute the body uses to maintain a quiet resting state.
- These functions include Breathing, hormone activities, and heart function.
Energy Expenditure of Activity
- is the amount of energy needed to fuel body movement as it occurs in activities of
daily living, including exercise.
Thermic effect of Food
- the energy required to process the food that we eat.
- The energy expenditure is directly related to the size of the meal and the food
composition.
 Oxygen Uptake
>Oxygen uptake is a measure of a person’s ability to take in oxygen to the respiratory system.
>The more oxygen you inhale, the more energy your body can use. That usually
means better physical fitness.
> In the recovery period after exercise,
there is an increase in oxygen uptake termed the ‘excess post-exercise oxygen
Recovery from Exercise
consumption’(EPOC)
Metabolism
>Remains elevated for several minutes immediately following exercise.
> During the Immediate Post-exercise Recovery Period, Oxygen is used for the Following
>When you exercise, your body uses energy.
Functions:
>When you finish exercising, your body continues to use energy to recover and
1. Production of ATP to replace the ATP used during the workout
repair itself.
2. Resynthesis of muscle glycogen from lactate
3. Restore oxygen levels in venous blood, skeletal muscle blood, and
Intensity of Exercise
myoglobin
>The magnitude and duration of this elevated metabolism is influenced by the intensity of
1. Work with protein for the repair of muscle tissue damaged during the workout.
exercise.
2. Restore body temperature to resting levels.
>The more exercise you do, the more calories are burned by this expenditure.
>Glucose uptake by muscle begins to decline, and there is an increased dependency on free fatty
Metabolic Response to Exercise: Influence of Duration and Intensity
acids for energy metabolism.
Short Term Exercise
 The energy to perform short - term exercise of high intensity comes primarily from
Oxygen Uptake vs Intake
anaerobic metabolic pathways. Whether the ATP production is dominated by the ATP-PC
>Oxygen uptake refers to the amount of oxygen which can be absorbed and consumed by
system or glycolysis depends primarily on the length of the activity.
working muscles and
 In general, the ATP-PC system can supply almost all the needed ATP for work for events
depends on blood flow and temperature and pulmonary diffusion.
lasting one to five seconds; intense exercise lasting longer than five seconds begins to
> Oxygen intake is the amount of oxygen drawn from the atmosphere and depends on the lung
utilize the ATP-producing capability of glycolysis. It should be emphasized that the
and alveoli capacity.
transition from the ATP-PC system to an increased dependence upon glycolysis during
exercise is not an abrupt change but rather a gradual shift from one pathway to another.
 Prolonged Exercise
 The energy to perform long-term exercise (i.e., more than ten minutes) comes primarily
from aerobic metabolism. A steady-state oxygen uptake can generally be maintained
during submaximal, moderate-intensity exercise.
 First, prolonged exercise in a hot/humid environment result in a “drift” upward of oxygen
uptake; therefore, a steady state is not maintained in this type of exercise even though
the work rate is constant Second, continuous exercise at a high relative work rate (i.e.,
>75% V ̇O2 max) results in a slow rise in oxygen uptake across time.

Incremental Exercise
 The test generally begins with the subject performing a brief warm-up, followed by an
increase in the work rate every one to three minutes until the subject cannot maintain the
desired power output. This increase in work rate can be achieved on the treadmill by
increasing either the speed of the treadmill or the incline. On the cycle or arm ergometer,
the increase in power output is obtained by increasing the resistance against the
flywheel.

Maximal Oxygen Intake

 Changes in oxygen uptake (V ̇O2) during an incremental exercise test. The dashed line
indicates a plateau in V ̇O2 at a higher work rate; however, this is not observed in many
cases.

Lactate Threshold

 Changes in blood lactate concentration during incremental exercise. The sudden rise in
lactate is known as the lactate threshold (LT).
 Failure of the mitochondrial “hydrogen shuttle” system to keep pace with the rate of
glycolytic production of NADH + H+ results in the conversion of pyruvate to lactate.