Chapter 2

Formatting
And
Baseband Modulation
Formatting & Source Encoding
 Today, we are going to talk about:

• The first Important Step in any DCS:

• Transforming the Information Source to a form

Compatible with a Digital System
 Source

SOURCE

Digital Textual Analog

Information Information Information
 Formatting and Transmission of Baseband
Signal
Digital info.

Textual Format
source info.
Pulse
Analog Transmit
Sample Quantize Encode modulate
info.

Pulse
Bit stream waveforms Channel
Format
Analog
info. Low-pass
Decode Demodulate/
filter Receive
Textual Detect
sink
info.

Digital info.

• Digital Information
• Data already in Digital Format bypass the formatting function
• Textual Information
• A textual information is a sequence of Alphanumeric Characters
• Alphanumeric and Symbolic Information is Encoded into
Digital Bits using Standard Formats e.g. ASCII, EBCDIC
 Format Analog Signals

• To transform an analog waveform into a

form that is compatible with a digital
communication, the following steps are
taken:
1.Sampling
2.Quantization and
3.Encoding
4.Baseband transmission
 Analog to Digital Conversion
• Analog-To-Digital Conversion Includes:
– Sampling
• Conversion from continuous-time analog signal x(t)
to discrete time continuous signal n[n]
• It is obtained by taking the samples of x(t) at
discrete-time intervals, Ts
– Quantization
• Convert from discrete-time continuous valued signal
to discrete-time discrete valued signal
 Steps in ADC
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding  PCM
Sampling
 Sampling

• If Rs < 2B, Aliasing (Overlapping of the Spectra) results

• If the signal is not strictly bandlimited, then it must be passed through
low pass filter (LPF) before sampling
 Sampling

• Fundamental Rule of Sampling

• The value of the sampling frequencies 𝑓𝑆 must be greater than twice the
highest signal frequency 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 of the signal (Nyquist Criterion)

𝑓𝑆 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Sampling Theorem

Analog Sampling Pulse amplitude

signal process modulated (PAM) signal

• Sampling theorem: A bandlimited signal with no

spectral components beyond , can be uniquely
determined by values sampled at uniform intervals of

– The sampling rate, is called

Nyquist Rate.
2004-01-24 Lecture 2 16
 Sampling – Types
• Types of Sampling
• Impulse Sampling (Ideal Sampling)
• Natural Sampling (Practical Sampling)
• Flat-Top Sampling
 Impulse (Ideal) Sampling
Time domain Frequency domain
x(t )
| X( f )|

x (t ) | X ( f ) |

xs (t )
| Xs( f )|

xs (t )  x (t )  x(t ) X s ( f )  X ( f )  X ( f )
Aliasing effect
LP filter

Nyquist rate

aliasing
 Natural (Practical) Sampling
• In practice, we cannot perform ideal sampling
• It is not practically possible to create a train of impulses
• Thus a non-ideal approach to sampling must be used
• We can approximate a train of impulses using a train
of very thin rectangular pulses:
 Natural Sampling
• If we multiply x(t) by a train of
rectangular pulses xp(t), we obtain
a gated waveform that
approximates the ideal sampled
waveform, known as Natural
Sampling or Gating
Natural Sampling
Flat-Top Sampling
 Aliasing
• Solution 1: (Anti-Aliasing Analog Filter)
– All physical realizable signals are not completely
bandlimited
– If there is a significant amount of energy in frequencies
above half the sampling frequency (fs/2), aliasing will
occur
– Aliasing can be prevented by first passing the analog
signal through an anti-aliasing filter (also called a pre-
filter) before sampling is performed
– The anti-aliasing filter is simply a LPF with cutoff
frequency equal to half the sample rate
 Aliasing
Solution 2: (Over-Sampling and Filtering in the
Digital Domain)
– The signal is passed through a low performance
(less costly) analog low-pass filter to limit the
bandwidth
– Sample the resulting signal at a high sampling
frequency
– The digital samples are then processed by a high
performance digital filter and down-sample the
resulting signal
Summary of Sampling
Practical Sampling Rates
Sources of Corruption in the Sampled,
Quantized and Transmitted Pulses
• Sampling And Quantization Effects
• Quantization (Granular) Noise
» Results when quantized levels are not finely spaced apart
enough to accurately approximate input signal resulting in
truncation or rounding error
• Quantizer Saturation Or Overload Noise
» Results when input signal is larger in magnitude than
highest quantization level resulting in clipping of the signal
• Timing Jitter
» Error caused by a shift in the sampler position
» Can be isolated with a stable clock reference
• Channel Effects
• Channel Noise
• Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
 Steps in ADC
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding  PCM
 Quantization
• Amplitude quantizing: Mapping samples of a continuous
amplitude waveform to a finite set of amplitudes.
Out

In
Average quantization noise
power
Quantized
values

Signal peak power

Signal power to average

quantization noise power
 Quantization
• Types of Quantization

• Uniform Quantization

• Non-Uniform Quantization
 Encoding (PCM)

• A uniform linear quantizer is called Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM).

• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

– Encoding the quantized signals into a digital word (PCM
word or codeword).
– Each quantized sample is digitally encoded into an k bits
codeword where M is the number of quantization levels

𝑘 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑀
 Quantization Example
amplitude
x(t)
111 3.1867

110 2.2762 Quant. levels

101 1.3657

100 0.4552

011 -0.4552 boundaries

010 -1.3657

001 -2.2762 x(nTs): sampled values

xq(nTs): quantized values
000 -3.1867
Ts: sampling time
PCM t
codeword
110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100 100 011 PCM sequence
Uniform Quantization
• A Quantizer where the Quantization levels are
uniformly distributed over full range
• Each sample is approximated within a quantile
interval
• Uniform quantizers are optimal when the input
distribution is uniform
– i.e. when all the values within the range are equally
likely
• Most ADC’s are implemented using uniform
quantizers
 Uniform Quantization
• L-level linear Quantizer with
a Vpp = 2Vp

• Quantile Interval
– Step size between quantization
levels
– Denetoted by ‘q’

• Uniform Quantizer
– Quantization levels are uniformly
distributed over full range
• Degradation (error) of signal
due to quantization is limited
to ±q/2 volts
– Error is bounded by
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio for Quantized Pulses
• Assuming that the quantization error, e, is uniformly distributed over a
single quantile interval q-wide (i.e. the analog input takes on all the values
with equal probability), the quantizer error variance is found to be:

• Where p(e) = 1/q is the (uniform) probability density function of

quantization error
• The peak power of the analog signal (normalized to 1 ) is expressed as:

• Thus, the Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio is given as:

Signal To Quantization Noise Ratio
Any Disadvantages???
 Disadvantages
• For most Voice Communication Channels, very low speech
volumes predominate

• Large Amplitude Values are Relatively Rare

• Quantization noise depends on step size (size of quantile

interval)

• Uniform quantization would be wasteful for speech signals as

many of the quantizing steps would be rarely used

• Thus, SNR is worse for low-level signals than for high level
signals
Solution
• Basic Principle
• To use more levels at the regions with large
Probability Density Function (pdf)

• Use Fine Quantization (Small Step Size) for weak

signals

• Use Coarse Quantization (Large Step Size) for

strong signals
Non-Uniform Quantization
Advantages
• Provides fine quantization of the weak signals and
coarse quantization of the strong signals

• Quantization noise can be made proportional to

signal size

• The effect is to improve the overall SNR by

reducing the noise for the predominant weak signals,
at the expense of an increase in noise for the rarely
occurring strong signals
Uniform Vs. Non-Uniform
Companding
 Companding
• At the receiver, an inverse Compression
characteristic, called Expansion, is applied
so that the overall transmission is not
distorted

• The process pair (Compression and

Expansion) is usually referred to as
Companding.
Companding
Companding
Companding
Input-Output Characteristics of a
Compander
 Steps in ADC
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding  PCM
 Encoding:

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• A class of baseband signals obtained from the quantized PAM
signals by encoding each quantized sample into a digital
word.

• The source information is sampled and quantized to one of L

levels; then each quantized sample is digitally encoded into l-
bit codeword.

• For Baseband transmission, the codeword bits will then be

transformed to pulse waveforms.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Transmission BW & Output SNR
Assignment
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Modulation
Pulse Modulation
Pulse Modulation
Baseband Transmission
Waveform Representation of Binary
Digits
 PCM Waveform Types
• When Pulse Modulation is Applied to a
Binary Symbol, the Resulting Binary
Waveform is Called PCM Waveform.

• In Telephony Applications, these

waveforms are often called Line Codes.

• There are Many Types of Waveforms (or

Line Coding Schemes)

Why???
 PCM Waveform Types
• When Pulse Modulation is Applied to a
Binary Symbol, the Resulting Binary
Waveform is Called PCM Waveform.
Assignment
• In Telephony Applications, these
waveforms are often called Line Codes.

• There are Many Types the

- Study of Waveforms (or waveforms,
various PCM
Line Coding Schemes)
- Describe their features/advantages/disadvantages
- Where are these employed?

Why???
 PCM Waveform Types
• Depends upon the Performance Criteria!

• Each line code scheme has Merits and Demerits

• The choice of waveform depends on operating

characteristics of a system, such as:
• Modulation-Demodulation Requirements
• Bandwidth Requirements
• Synchronization Requirements
• Receiver Complexity etc.
 Goals For Line Coding
A line code is designed to meet the following goals:
• Transmission Bandwidth
• Should be as small as possible

• Power Efficiency
• Transmitted Power should be as small as possible

• Error Detection & Correction Capability

• The receiver needs to be able to distinguish the waveform associated
with a Mark from the waveform associated with a space
• BER Performance
» Relative Immunity to Noise
• Error Detection Capability
» Enhances low probability of Error
 Goals For Line Coding
• Favorable Power Spectral Density
• Particularly its value is Zero
• PSD of the code should be negligible at the frequency near Zero

• Adequate Timing Content (Self-Synchronization)

• The ability to recover timing from the signal itself
» i.e. Self-Clocking (Self-Synchronization) – ease of clock lock or signal
recovery for Symbol Synchronization
• Long series of ones and zeros could cause a problem

• Transparency
• It should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of
the pattern of 1’s and 0’s
• Long string of 0’s could cause errors in timing extraction in on-off and
Bipolar cases
• If the data are so coded that for every possible sequence of data the coded
signal is received faithfully, the code is Transparent