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Aliasing happens
Aliasing
Quantization
Mapping
Sampling
Discrete Discrete
Time Time &
Analog Binary
Cont. Discrete
Signal Sequence
Ampl. Ampl
Signal Signal
Linear Quantization
L levels
(L-1)q = 2Vp = Vpp
For large L
Lq ≈ Vpp
PCM Mapping
Linear Quantization Summary
• Mean Squared Error (MSE) = q2/12
• Mean signal power = E[m2(t)]
• Mean SNR = 12 E[m2(t)]/q2
• For binary PCM, L = 2n n bits/sample
• Let signal bandwidth = B Hz
– If Nyquist sampling 2B samples/sec
– If 20% oversampling 1.2(2B) samples/sec
• Bit rate = 2nB bits/sec
• Required channel bandwidth = nB Hz
Non-Uniform Quantization
• In speech signals, very low speech volumes
predominates
– Only 15% of the time, the voltage exceeds the
RMS value
• These low level signals are under represented
with uniform quantization
– Same noise power (q2/12) but low signal power
• The answer is non uniform quantization
Uniform Non-Uniform
Non-uniform Quantization
Bi-Phase level
(1 +v-v, 0 -v+v)
Bi Phase Mark
Bi-Phase Space
Delay Modulation
Dicode NRZ
Dicode RZ
Line Coding Requirements
• Favorable power spectral density (PSD)
• Low bandwidth (multilevel codes better)
• No/little DC power
• Error detection and/or correction capability
• Self clocking (Ex. Manchester)
• Transparency in generating the codes
(dependency on the previous bit?)
• Differential encoding (polarity reversion)
• Noise immunity (BER for a given SNR)
Some Power Spectral Densities
Polar Signalling {p(t) or –p(t)}
• Polar signalling is not bandwidth efficient (best
case BW = Rb . Theoretical min is Rb/2)
• Non-zero DC
• No error detection (each bit is independent)
• Efficient in power requirement
• Transparent
• Clock can be recovered by rectifying the
received signal
On-Off Signalling
• On-off is a sum of polar signal and periodic
clock signal (Fig. 7.2) spectrum has discrete
freq. Components
• Polar amplitude is A/2 PSD is scaled by ¼
• No error detection
• Excessive zeros cause error in timing extraction
• Excessive BW
• Excessive DC
AMI (bipolar) Signalling
• DC null
• Single error detection (violation) capability
• Clock extraction possible
• Twice as much power as polar signalling
• Not transparent
• Excessive zeros cause timing extraction error
HDB or B8ZS schemes used to overcome
this issue
Bipolar with 8 Zeros Substitution
• B8ZS uses violations of the Alternate Mark
Inversion (AMI) rule to replace a pattern of
eight zeros in a row.
• 00000000000V10V1
• Example: (-) 0 0 0 - + 0 + - OR
• (+) 0 0 0 + - 0 - +
• B8ZS is used in the North American telephone
systems at the T1 rate
High Density Bipolar 3 code
• HDB3 encodes any pattern of more than four
bits as B00V (or 100V; 1B (Bit))
• Ex: The pattern of bits
11000011000000
+ - 0 0 0 0 + - 0 0 0 0 0 0 (AMI)
• Encoded in HDB3 is:
+ - B 0 0 V - + B 0 0 V 0 0, which is:
+-+00+-+-00-00
M-Ary Coding (Signaling)
• In binary coding:
– Data bit ‘1’ has waveform 1
– Data bit ‘0’ has waveform 2
– Data rate = bit rate = symbol rate
• In M-ary coding, take M bits at a time (M = 2k)
and create a waveform (or symbol).
– ‘00’ waveform (symbol) 1
– ‘01’ waveform (symbol) 2
– ‘10’ waveform (symbol) 3
– ‘11’ waveform (symbol) 2
– Symbol rate = bit rate/k
M-Ary Coding
• Advantages:
– Required transmission rate is low (bit rate/M)
– Low bandwidth
• Disadvantages:
– Low signal to noise ratio (due to multiple
amplitude pulses)
M-ary Signaling
8-level signaling
2-level signaling
M-ary (Multilevel) Signaling
• M-ary signals reduce required bandwidth
• Instead of transmitting one pulse for each bit
(binary PCM), we transmit one multilevel
pulse a group of k-bits (M=2k)
• Bit rate = Rb bits/s min BW = Rb/2
• Symbol rate = R/k sym/s min BW = Rb/2k
• Needed bandwidth goes down by k
• Trade-off is relatively high bit error rate (BER)
Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
• Unwanted interference from adjacent (usually
previous) symbols
Nyquist's First Criterion for Zero lSI
• In the first method Nyquist achieves zero lSI
by choosing a pulse shape that has a nonzero
amplitude at its center (t=0) and zero
amplitudes at (t=±nT" (n = I. 2. 3 .... )).
Min. BW Pulse satisfying the first criteria
Zero ISI Pulse
Vestigial Spectrum
Raised Cosine Pulse
r=0 (fx=0)
r=0.5 (fx=Rb/4)
r=1 (fx=Rb/2)
Raised Cosine Filter Transfer Function
in the f domain
Raised Cosine Filter Impulse Response
(time domain)
Note pulse
rapidly decays
for r = 1
Equalization
• The residual ISI can be
removed by equalization
• Estimate the amount of
ISI at each sampling
instance and subtract it
Eye Diagram
• Ideal (perfect)
signal
• Real (average)
signal
• Bad signal
Eye Diagram
• Run the oscilloscope
in the storage mode
for overlapping
pulses
• X-scale = pulse width
• Y-Scale = Amplitude
• Close Eye bad ISI
• Open Eye good ISI
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• TDM is widely used in digital communication
systems to maximum use the channel capacity
Digit Interleaving
TDM – Word Interleaving
TDM
• When each channel has Rb bits/sec bit rate
and N such channels are multiplexed, total bit
rate = NRb (assuming no added bits)
• Before Multiplexing the bit period = Tb
• After Multiplexing the bit period = Tb/N
193 framing bits plus more signalling bits final bit rate = 1.544 Mb/s
North American Digital Hierarchy
Delta Modulation
(a) What is the minimum system bandwidth required for the detection of PAM
with no ISI and with a filter roll-off factor of 1.
(b) Using the same roll-off, what is the minimum bandwidth required for the
detection of binary PCM waveform if the samples are quantized to 8-levels