TELECOMMUNICATION SWITCHING

SYLLABUS
• Multiplexing Techniques
• Space Switching
• Time Switching
• Signalling Techniques
• Traffic Engineering
• Networking of Exchanges
• IP Exchange

2
 Phase 1
Multiplexing
 Multiplexing

Analog Digital
Space Division Multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Space Division Multiplexing
• Not really multiplexing
• Each signal has its own wire that is just
bundled together.
• This is what the telephone company does at a
junction box.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
• FDM
• Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required
bandwidth of channel
• Each signal is modulated to a different carrier
frequency
• Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
• e.g. broadcast radio
• Channel allocated even if no data
Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM System
 FDM
 Advantages
– A large number of signals can be transmitted
simultaneously
– Does not need synchronization
– Easy demodulation

 Drawbacks
– Requires very large bandwidth
– large number of modulators and filters are required
– Suffers from crosstalk
 Time Division Multiplexing
• Only digital
• The multiplexing unit slots time.
• Each of the sender is assigned one slot to send in.
• If the multiplexing unit can slot time fast enough, the
senders will each get a guaranteed certain rate of
speed.
– The limit is on the bandwidth of the downward pipe.
– That’s why we use fiber.
• Slotting time is a big job. This is actually a slow
process.
 Time Division Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of
digital signal to be transmitted
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
• May be at bit level of blocks
• Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Time slots do not have to be evenly
distributed amongst sources
Time Division Multiplexing
 TDM
• Invented in WW2.
– Used in T1s/E1s by the 1960s.
• Used in:
– T1 architecture of telephones
– WAV format
– GSM cell phone network (TDMA).
• Negatives:
– Too slow
System
 Phase 2
WDM Concept
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
• Multiple beams of light at different frequency
• Carried by optical fiber
• A form of FDM
• Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate data channel
• Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now
available
• Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39.8 Gbps each
 WDM Operation
• Same general architecture as other FDM
• Number of sources generating laser beams at different
frequencies
• Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over single
fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
– Typically tens of km apart
• Demux separates channels at the destination
• Mostly 1550nm wavelength range
• Was 200MHz per channel
• Now 50GHz
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• DWDM
• No official or standard definition
• Implies more channels more closely spaced
that WDM
• 200GHz or less
Evolution of the Technology
 Why WDM?
• Capacity upgrade of existing fiber networks
(without adding fibers)
• Transparency: Each optical channel can carry
any transmission format (different
asynchronous bit rates, analog or digital)
• Scalability– Buy and install equipment for
additional demand as needed
• Wavelength routing and switching:
Wavelength is used as another dimension to
time and space
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Each wavelength is like a separate channel (fiber)

 Ex: SONET

TDM Vs WDM
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• Passive/active devices are needed to

combine, distribute, isolate and amplify
optical power at different wavelengths
 WDM and DWDM
• First WDM networks used just two wavelengths, 1310
nm and 1550 nm
• Today's DWDM systems utilize 16, 32,64,128 or more
wavelengths in the 1550 nm window
• Each of these wavelength provide an independent
channel (Ex: each may transmit 10 Gb/s digital or
SCMA analog)
Phase 3
PCM
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
x(t)

0
t

Consider the analog Signal x(t).

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
x[n]

0
n

The signal is first sampled

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

0
n
 Each quantization level corresponds to a unique combination
of bits. The analog signal is transmitted/ stored as a stream of
bits and reconstructed when required.

0
n
 Each quantization level corresponds to a unique combination
of bits. The analog signal is transmitted/ stored as a stream of
bits and reconstructed when required.

0
n
00 01 10 11 10 01 00
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
x~(t)
Quantized Signal

0
t

It is quite apparent that the quantized signal is not exactly the

same as the original analog signal. There is a fair degree of
quantization error here. However; as the number of quantization
levels is increased the quantization error is reduced and the
quantized signal gets closer and closer to the original signal
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
x~(t)
Quantized Signal

0
t

It is quite apparent that the quantized signal is not exactly the

same as the original analog signal. There is a fair degree of
quantization error here. However; as the number of quantization
levels is increased the quantization error is reduced and the
quantized signal gets closer and closer to the original signal
 Analog to Digital Conversion
Analog
The Analog-to-digital Converter (ADC)
Input
performs three functions:
Signal
Sampling
Sample Makes the signal discrete in time.
If the analog input has a bandwidth of
W Hz, then the minimum sample
frequency such that the signal can be
ADC reconstructed without distortion.
Quantize Quantization
111
110 Makes the signal discrete in amplitude.
101
100 Round off to one of q discrete levels.
011
010
001
Encode
Encode 000 Maps the quantized values to digital
words that are  bits long.
If the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem is satisfied,
then only quantization introduces distortion to
the system.
Digital Output
Signal
111 111 001 010 011 111 011
 PCM encoding example

Levels are encoded

using this table

Table: Quantization levels with belonging code words

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a signal. PCM encoded signal in binary form:
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization 101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Total of 33 bits were used to encode a signal
segments.
 PCM of Speech Signals (very-important)
• Most of the significant spectral components of speech signals are contained in
the range 300-3400 Hz

• Nyquist Rate = 2x3400 = 6.8 kHz

• Practical Sampling Rate fs= 8 kHz

• Number of quantization levels = 256

Number of Bits/Sample n = 8 (log2256 )

Data Rate = nfs = 8x8000 = 64 kbps

 PCM of Speech Signals (very-important)
• Bandwidth Requirement

Communication theory tells us that we can transmit errorfree at most two pieces of
information per second per hertz bandwidth (lathi pg. 260)

Therefore the minimum required bandwidth for transmission of a PCM speech signal
BWmin = 64/2 = 32 kHz

Recall that for analog techniques such as AM, FM etc the bandwidth of the order of 4
kHz, 8 kHz etc.

We may require more bandwidth but the signal is now digital and we now have the
ability to manipulate, store, regenerate the data. (see advantages of Digital
Communication pg 263 of lathi)
 PCM Based TDM Systems
• PCM is widely used in transmission of speech signals in fixed line telephone
system.

• A similar scheme called the E1 is used in Europe and India.

• These schemes are used to multiplex the speech from multiple subscribers
and transmit them to their destinations over a common “Time Shared”
channel. Hence the name time division multiplexing (TDM).
 PCM Based TDM Systems
• The sampling rate used for voice = 8000 samples/sec

Therefore, Sampling Interval = 1/8000 = 125µs

– This means that the time between two consecutive samples (from the same
source) is 125µs. TDM systems exploit this fact and utilize this interval to sample
signals from other subscribers. In E1 systems the signals from 32 subscribers is
sampled in 125µs.

– The samples are quantized and then converted into a bit stream for
transmission over the channel.
 PCM Based TDM Systems
• As mentioned previously, sampling rate used for voice = 8000 samples/sec
• Every sample is represented by 8 bits
• Therefore,

Data rate of 1 voice channel = 8x8000 = 64kbps

• In the E1 system 32 voice channels are multiplexed in time

therefore,

Data rate of a E1 stream should be = 32x64kbps = 2.048 Mbps