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1. History of iron making

2. Flow diagrams of iron making to steel making
Content
3. Iron ore reserves in India and world
4. Coal reserves in India and world
5. Steel producing countries

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 History

• 3500BC Beads in Ancient Egypt for iron.

• First Iron Production 3000BC Syria and Mesopotamia the
comparatively advanced technique of hardening iron weapons by
heat treatment was known to the Greeks about 1000 BC.
• They were made by heating a mass of iron ore and charcoal in a
forge or furnace having a forced draft.
• The iron produced under these conditions usually contained about
3 % of slag particles and 0.1 percent of other impurities.
Occasionally this technique of iron`making produced, by accident,
a true steel rather than wrought iron.
• Ironworkers learned to make steel by heating wrought iron and
charcoal in clay boxes for a period of several days. By this process
the iron absorbed enough carbon to become a true steel.

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Extraction of Metal

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Iron Ore to Steel

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Odisha, which accounts for over half
of India’s iron ore production,
produced 120 million tonnes during
the 2019/2020 year to March, up
slightly from 118 million tonnes the
previous year.

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State wise Hematite ore in india

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▪ Private steel companies like TATA Steel, Mittal
Steel, Essar, Jindal etc. also produce hot metal in
Blast Furnace route.
▪ More than 90% Iron is produced in India through
the blast furnace route.
▪ This is the most versatile and energy efficient
process, economical and higher productivity and
hence used for mass production all over the world.

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 Conventional process BLAST
FURNACE.(Hot Metal)

IRON Nonconventional processes

like COREX, FINEX, FINEMET,
MAKING ROMELT (Hot Metal)

MIDREX, Rotary Kiln (Solid

Product DRI)

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 Nonconventional Processes

COREX :
A “coke less” iron making process, that also generates
electricity. Jindal Vijayanagram Steel Plant (JSW) uses
corex technology. (Non-Coking Coal)
FINEX :
Low operating cost process that uses iron ore fines and
non coking coal to produce liquid hot metal.

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FINMET : An optimized fine ore reduction process for the
direct utilization of low-cost iron ore fines to produce hot
briquetted iron (HBI).
MIDREX : Midrex is natural gas-based shaft furnace
process that converts iron oxides in the form of pellets or
lump ore into direct reduced iron (DRI).
ROMELT : It is a slag bath reduction process which uses
iron ore fines directly for hot metal production. One
commercial plant is being set-up in India.

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 Top steel
producers

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Steel Plants in India

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Thank you

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 Iron making
F.S.B.E.III (Metallurgical & Materials Engg.)
Content

• Raw materials for iron making process

• Types of iron ore
• Valuation of the ores
• Metallurgical coal
• Types of coal
• Function of coke
• Quality requirements of coke
• Evaluation of flux
 Raw materials for iron making

What is iron making:

• Iron ore, as mined, is a combination of iron with oxygen
and various other unwanted substances, generally known
as "gangue".
• The first metallurgical step is to reduce iron ore to
metallic iron, a process which is mostly carried out in a
blast furnace, using coke as both a fuel and reducing
agent.
• The metallic iron produced by such a furnace contains a
relatively high proportion of carbon (4%) and is passed to
the steelmaking process as a liquid at approximately
1450C, called "hot metal".
 Raw Materials for Blast furnace

• Iron Ore

• Limestone ----------→

• Coke
 Iron Ore

• Iron very rarely occurs in the

earth's surface as a metal makes
up 5% of earth’s crust
• Is not found in ‘free state’, must
be found in rocks and oxides,
hence Iron ore.
• After mining, the ore is crushed
and the iron is separated, then
made into pellets, balls or
briquettes using binders, such as
water.
• The pellets are typically 65% iron,
and about 1” in diameter.
 Iron ore

• For a rich lump ore, crushing and sizing to between 6mm and
35mm, and blending to overcome variations in chemical
composition are the only pre-treatments needed before
feeding into a blast furnace.
• However, if Fine ore were to be used as feed to a blast
furnace its powdery nature would restrict the passage of the
blast air up through the furnace, limiting its permeability. The
problem of using the fines is overcome by agglomerating the
ore into sinter or pellets.
• Granular fines are more suited for sintering whereas very fine
material of close size range is better for pelletizing.
 Coke
• Coke is formed by heating coal to 2100 F
(1150 C), then cooling it in quenching
towers.
• Metallurgical coke must be hard and
porous while still being physically strong.
• It used as a fuel and provides high heat
• It supply carbon for the reducing reactions
which convert iron oxide to metallic iron
• It provide a permeable support for the
feed materials charged into the furnace so
that the reducing gases derived from the
'air' blast can pass up the furnace to
provide the carbon which is dissolved in
pig iron.
 Limestone

• Limestone (calcium carbonate) is

used to remove impurities.
• Used as a flux.
• React with slag and reduce the
melting point of impurities.
• When the metal is melted,
limestone combines with impurities
and floats to the top of the metal,
forming slag.
• The slag can then be removed,
purifying the iron.
Classification of iron ore
 Types of iron ore

• Hematite: Is the economic iron bearing

mineral which has probably the widest
distribution in the world. It is weekly
magnetic.
• Magnetite : This is the second most
widely spread economic iron bearing
mineral in the world. It is rare that a
hematite body does not contain a few
percent of magnetite and vice versa. Its
highly magnetic in nature and occupies
particular place in iron ore treatment.
• Geothite & Limonite : These generally
occur as a cap on the original iron bearing
mineral body. Bcoz of weathering and
hence form flakes and needle. And are
converted to oxide by calcining.
 Iron ore
• Siderite : These deposits occur as large
masses, lenses and veins in many parts of the
world. Some countries still find as a good
sources of iron.
• Pyrite : These are the source of sulphur and
the left over iron oxide, after S recovery is a
by product. These along with other sulphides
are generally present in most iron ore
bodies.
• Silicates: These are present in most ore
bodies in varying proportions. High grade
hematite and magnetite type of deposits
their amount is fairly low but they are the
major constituent of the brown hematite
deposits. Silicates of iron if present do pose
problems during beneficiation of the
deposit.
• Although a large number of iron
minerals have been found only a
few of them important for iron
making.
• The various iron minerals
mentioned above occur in nature in
pure form.
• It consists of essentially of mixtures
of waste minerals call gangue.
• It contents silica ,alumina, lime
and magnesia.
Impurities

The presence of elements like phosphour, sulphur , arsenic

zinc ,lead, nickel, V, Cu, Cr,Ti etc in the ore has a
considerable bearing on the operation of iron making
process and quality of product. These are termed as a
impurities

If the ore is associated with above substantial amount

of these impurities the ores are referred to as
phosphoric , sulphuric , arsenical , titaniferous, etc.
 • The factors affecting the value
of an iron ore deposit can be
summarised under following
category:
Valuation of 1. Richness
iron ores 2. Location
3. Composition of the gangue
4. Treatment and preparation
needed before smelting
 Richness

• It means presence of metallic iron in the ore. The richer

the ore lesser will be the amount required to produce a
unit weight of pig iron.
• i.e. 1 tonne of pig iron production about one and half
tonnes of ore is required in Australia (68 % Fe) , about
2 tonnes of are required in India (55 – 60 %) , and
nearly 3 tonnes of ore required in U.K (30 – 35%)
• The fuel and flux required in all cases would be
different.
• For richer ores, since the gangue is less the fuel and flux
consumption is lesser than that of the leaner ore
wherein gangue in more.
Location

Geological location is related to whether deposit is

underground , as an outcrop or is in hill.

Cost of mining and transportation is high bcoz of more

machinery required.

Where in hilly are overall cost is less.

Geographical location modes of transport from mines to

smelter are road, rail, sea
 Composition of gangue

• The effect of gangue is related to its nature. i.e. whether it

entirely stays with the slag , partially with slag or remainder
with the metal or entirely joins the metal.
• The entire amount of P in the burden is reduced and joins
the pig iron. It affects the properties of CI and entire steel
making process. Hence reduces the value of iron ore.
• The presence of oxides like Alumina, lime, magnesia, and
Alkalies stays entirely in slag.
• Alumina raises the M.P of slag. Which is required more fuel.
• Alkalies tends to eat the furnace lining.
• The presence of lime and magnesia works
as self fluxing blend.
• So the value of iron ore is drastically
reduced by presence of Alkalies , further
reduced to some extent by presence of
alumina and is in fact enhanced by adding
lime or magnesia.
Treatment and preparation

Dense ores may need crushing and breaking to

render them more porous.

Fine ores will have to agglomerated

Carbonate ores will have to be calcined to

render the fit for charging.
 Metallurgical coal

• Its too dense and fragile in nature.

• Neither the blast penetrate it for
burning nor its stay strong enough to
stand at 80ft of burden in furnace.
• Coal converted to coke which is right
type fuel needed.
• The coal which can be converted to
coke is either called metallurgical coal
or coking coal.
• It should be low in ash and other
deleterious impurities like S, P and
high C.
Coal should contain

Ash – not more than 10%

Volatile matter – 2%

P – 0.018% - 0.04 %

S- 0.6 % to 1.5%
Types of metallurgical coal
 Metallurgical coal

• Volatile matter is essentially a measure of the nonwater

gases formed from a coal sample during heating.
• It is measured as the weight percent of gas (emissions)
from a coal sample that is released during heating to 950
C° in an oxygen-free environment , except for moisture
(which will evaporate as water vapor), at a standardized
temperature
• Volatile matter is directly related to coal rank; as rank
increases, volatile matter content decreases Volatile
matter has the opposite trend of fixed carbon with rank.
• Fixed ‘C’ is the solid combustible residue that remains
after a coal particle heated and V.M is expelled.
 COKE

• Coke is a grey, hard,

and porous fuel with a
high carbon content and
few impurities, made by
heating coal or oil in the
absence of air—a destructive
distillation process.
• It is an important industrial
product, used mainly in iron
ore smelting,
 FUNCTIONS OF COKE

• It fulfils three major roles in a blast furnace:

1. It’s a fuel providing heat for meeting endothermic
requirement of chemical reactions and melting of slag and
metal.
2. It produces and regenerates the reducing gases for the
reduction of iron oxides.
3. It provides an open permeable bed through which slag and
metal pas down into the hearth while hot reducing gases
pass upwards.
 Importance of coke

1. The carbon content of coke should be maximum for it be

a good fuel. And should having minimum ash and other
deleterious impurities.
2. As a regenerator of reducing gases and heat producer it
should have a high reactivity with O2 , CO & water vapor.
3. The function of coke as spacer, particularly in the bosh
region, cannot be dispensed with nor can it be substituted
by other fuel.
4. In other words a modern blast furnace can not be run
without a certain amount of coke as charge material.
 1. Chemical composition
2. Reactivity as determined by its
Quality physical structure
requirements 3. Size
of coke 4. Thermal stability at high
temperature
5. Strength and abrasion resistance
 Chemical composition

• Chemically the useful component of coke is its fixed

carbon which is the fuel as well as the reducing agent in
the B.F.
• The balance is made up of Ash.
• The volatile matter & other impurities etc.
• As the ash content increases the available C of coke
decreases and consequently heat supply to the furnace
per unit weight of coke use decreases.
• Ash usually contains refractory like oxides.
• P and S are usually present in ash in the form of inorganic
compounds.
• An increase in ash content of coke by 1% it results in
decrease in production by 3-6% and coke consumption
increase by 4-5 %.
• If S present in coke requires additional flux for its removal
and goes to the iron.
• The P in the coke joins the pig iron.
• Most of S and P in pig iron generally come from coke. The
remaining comes from the ores
Reactivity

• It define as the rate of reaction between coke and

oxygen and other gaseous phase capable of reacting
with coke i.e CO in case of B.F.
• High reactivity of coke with CO ,catalyzed by the
presence of alkalies ,however is detrimental to furnace
operation.
• Different coke have different reactivities. This is
related to the quality of coke blend used and the
carbonization process adopted.
 Size

• All the qualities of good metallurgical coke the most important

are its size and strength.
• The size range is known to affect the distribution of materials
inside the furnace and consequently the gas flow which has
direct bearing on the production rate.
• The size of coke generally chosen to match the size of other raw
material and is much bigger than the size of the iron bearing
materials.
• BF coke has typical size of 30 mm to 60 mm (some furnaces use
BF coke of size 40 mm to 80 mm) and it constitutes a big
component of the production cost of the hot metal (HM).
Thermal stability

• During its descent in the furnace coke gets heated to

15-1600 C before it burns in front of tuyers.
• Some factors are favour the high thermal stability.
o Absence of large lumps
o Uniformity of coke textures
o Minimum inert inclusions of large sizes.
o Prior mechanical conditioning
o Low chemical reactivity
 Strength and abrasion resistance

• The coke must stand the abrading action of the

surrounding particles until it descends into a tuyere
region.
• In addition to this coke has to stand high temperature
and nearly 20-30 m tall burden lying over it when it
reaches the tuyere level.
• It is an established practice to estimate the suitability of
coke for blast furnace, its strength and abrasion
resistance by measuring its shatter and abrasion indices.
Shatter test

• In principle of the shatter test

consists of dropping the
carefully obtained sample of
certain fixed weight of coke
from a standard height on a
standard quality of floor.
• The shatter index in expressed
as % retained on various sieves
of certain fixed sizes.
 Abrasion test

• In principle the abrasion index is

measured by putting a standard
weight of sample in a drum and
rotating it for a number of
revolution at a fixed speed.
• The abrasion index is expressed
as the % of material retained on
various sieves of pre fixed sizes.
Function of flux(limestone and
dolomite)

• It lower the softening or fusion point of gangue

material.
• To reduce viscosity of slag or increase fluidity for slag.
• It decreases activity of slag components to make them
stable in slag phase.
• The amount and type of flux depend on the composition
of burden.
Evaluation of flux

• The value of flux is expressed in terms of available

base since it may itself contain oxide impurities like
gangue.
• B=basic oxide/Acidic oxide
• The available base value depends on basicity of the
slag under operating conditions.
• In normal blast furnace the basicity is usually in the
range of 1.0-1.3.
• The available base is therefore equal to =% (CaO +
MgO) - % (SiO2).B
Thank you
 CHAPTER 2

F.S. BE III

(METALLURGY & MATERIALS ENGG.)

IRON MAKING
 • Burden preparation
• Burden qualities
CONTENT • Methods of beneficiation
• Agglomeration of iron ore
• Sintering process
 TREATMENT OF IRON ORE

• Burden preparation
• Burden distribution is one of the key operating parameters influencing
blast furnace performance, particularly the productivity and the coke
rate.
• The proper distribution of burden materials improves bed permeability,
wind acceptance, and efficiency of gas utilization.
• In furnaces operating with high coal injection rates, the distribution
resulting in predominant central working (steep cohesive zone profile)
was found to be beneficial.
• The blast furnace is essentially a furnace working on the counter
current principle.
• The descending solid charge meets a current of ascending gases and
reduction of iron ore along with its progressive heating must take place
during this passage.
• The production rate of blast furnace is directly determined by two
important factors:
• The rate of reduction of iron oxide.
• The rate of heating of the burden.
 BURDEN PREPARATION –I
(TREATMENT OF IRON ORES)
• The development in the field of iron making have always been
directed to increasing the productivity of B.F at minimum of fuel
consumption .
• Low Si and S contents obtain consistent and better quality of pig iron
owing to consequent economy in the steel making process.
• Effective process control and thereby maximum productivity can be
achieved
• If better quality charge materials, with respect to their uniform size.
• Adequate strength
• Good reducibility
 IDEAL BURDEN QUALITIES

• Physical :
1. A close size range with minimum of fines
2. An ability to withstand the physical stresses incurred
on being transported to the furnace ,charged to the
hopper and bells, finally in the furnace.
3. Ability to with stand mildly reducing conditions at
lower temperature w/o breaking.
4. Low swelling during reduction.
 ▪ Chemical
1. High % of iron and low gangue contents.
IDEAL BURDEN 2. A low % of silica, alumina, etc and a low
QUALITIES alumina/silica ratio.
3. Proper overall chemistry to ensure clean
slag and metal separation
4. Free flow of both slag and metal from the
furnace opening.
 BURDEN PREPARATION

• The quality of naturally occurring raw materials may not be up to

the mark as detailed above.
• It can however be improved with the help of pre treatments or
processing are known as ‘burden preparation.’
• These preparation includes the treatment of ores , coke and
limestone.
• Burden preparation often means agglomeration of ore fines with
or without flux.
PREPARATION
OF IRON ORE
 DRY PROCESSING
Crushing and screening
• In India most of the high grade of
hematite is subjected to dry
processing of beneficiation to meet
sizing requirements involving
multistage crushing and screening.
• Which obtain Lumps size- -40+10mm
for B.F
• Lump size—18+6mm for W.I
DRY CUM WET PROCESSING
• From iron ore fines generated
from dry processing is further is
processed in mechanical
classifiers , hydro cyclones etc. to
produced size of -10+0.15mm for
sintering feed.
 METHODS OF
BENEFICIATION
 OBJECTIVES
• To increase the metal content of the ore.
• To reduce the gangue content so as to lower the slag
formed in extraction of metal.
• To decrease the thermal energy required to separate liquid
metal from mineral.
 1. Comminution and sizing
2. Magnetic separation

TYPES OF 3. Gravity separation

METHODS 4. Flotation
5. Electrostatic separation
6. Magnetic roasting
7. Washing and calcination
 INTRODUCTION

• Mineral beneficiation is the process by which the valuable

constituents of the ore are concentrated by means of physical
separation.
• It is one of the initial steps before metallurgy and is an important
step in extracting metals from natural resources.
• These includes all the processes which deals with separation of ore
mineral from gangues or tailing and concentration of the ore
mineral.
• The other physical processes like transporting, crushing, grinding
etc. Are also included.
 COMMINUTION AND SIZING

• Comminution is the breaking down of ore

material. They may be done either in dry or wet
condition.
• Crushing and grinding are the two primary
comminution processes.
• The primarily used equipment in crushing are-jaw
crushers, gyratory crushers and cone crushers
whereas rod mills and ball mills, closed circuited
with a classifier unit, are generally employed for
grinding purposes in a mineral processing plant.
 SIZING
• Sizing is the general term for separation of particles
according to their size.
• It is done by using bar screens, wedge wire screens,
radial sieves, banana screens, multi-deck screens,
vibratory screen, fine screens, flip flop screens wire
mesh screens etc.
• Classification equipment may include ore sorters,
gas cyclones, hydro cyclones, rotating trommels,
rake classifiers or fluidized classifiers.
 MAGNETIC CONCENTRATION

• Magnetic separation is a process in which magnetically

susceptible material is extracted from a mixture using a
magnetic force. This separation technique can be useful in
mining iron as it is attracted to a magnet.
➢ Minerals fall into one of three magnetic properties:
• Ferromagnetic
• Paramagnetic
• Diamagnetic
• Ferromagnetic minerals are themselves magnetic (i.e Magnetite and
pyrhotite) and can be easily separated from other minerals with a
magnet since they will stick to the poles of the magnet.

• Paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals are not magnetic, but they

differ in how they interact with a magnetic field. Paramagnetic
minerals are weakly attracted into a magnetic field and diamagnetic
minerals are weakly repelled by a magnetic field.

• Thus, if a mixture of paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals is

passed through a magnetic field, they will be pulled into the field
(paramagnetic) or repelled from the field (diamagnetic) and may be
separated.
 GRAVITY CONCENTRATION

• Gravity separation is the separation of two or more minerals of

different specific gravity by their relative movement in response to
the force of gravity and one or more other forces (such as centrifugal
forces, magnetic forces, buoyant forces), one of which is resistance
to motion (drag force) by a viscous medium such as heavy media,
water or, less commonly, air.

• This method is used when the ore material is heavier than the
gangue material. The finely powdered ore is washed down through a
steam of water over vibrating sloped table with long wooden stripes
called riffles( forming grooves ).
• The heavier ore materials are obstructed by the riffles and settles
down the grooves and the lighter ones are washed always. These
ore materials deposited are collected from the grooves and used
for further processing of the gravity separation processes, the
spiral concentrators and circular jigs are two of the most
economical due to their simplicity and use of little space.

• They operate by flowing film separation and can either use wash
water or be wash water-less. The wash water spirals separate
particles more easily but can have issues with entrainment of
gangue with the concentrate produced.
 GRAVITY METHOD

1. Heavy media separation

2. Jigging
3. Tabling
4. Spirals
 ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATION
• Electrostatic separation works because different minerals having
different electrostatic affinities will absorb different amount of
charge depending upon their composition, and hence are
deflected in different magnitude by an electric field.
• In this method, the grains after sieved by size, they are placed
through a beneficiator. After a few passes through beneficiator ,
the minerals with different electrostatic affinities will be
separated. The resultant material is collected in different bins
whereby the enriched portion of the desired mineral is called
the "concentrate" and the rest of the output is called the
"gangue" or "tailings".
 FROTH FLOTATION

• Froth flotation is an important concentration

process. This process can be used to separate
any two different particles and operated by
the surface chemistry of the particles.

• In flotation, bubbles are introduced into a

pulp and the bubbles rise through the pulp. In
the process, hydrophobic particles become
bound to the surface of the bubbles.
• Sulfide and non-sulfide minerals as well as native
metals are recovered by froth flotation. This process is
based on the ability of certain chemicals to modify the
surface properties of the mineral

• Different chemicals are used in froth flotation to

enhance the process. They are-
• Frothers (pine oil, alcohol, low molecular weight
polypropylene glycol).
• Collectors (oils, xanthates, dithiophosphates,petroleum
sulfonates, fatty amines)
FROTH FLOTATION IN MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT
 IMPACT OF MINERAL BENEFICIATION ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
• Pollution of water by effluents from residual liquids of froth
flotation and also by washing of ore material.
• Noise is produced by grinding blasting etc. And by the heavy
machineries used in the beneficiation process.
• Destruction of land by improper dumping of gangue material.
• Energy a huge amount of energy is wasted is the technology
used For processing is outdates
 AGGLOMERATION
• The act or process of converting separate particles into mass or
cluster. An enormous amount of fines is generated during mining
and ore processing operations.
• Since the fines can not be used directly in the blast furnace.
• It is necessary to agglomerate them into lumps; pellets and
briquettes.
• The process is used for changing the size of concentrate particles,
when the particle size of an ore is too small for the use in latter
stage of treatment (e.g. in the blast furnace), it must be reformed
to lumps of appropriate size and strength.
 SOURCES OF IRON ORE FINES

Iron ore fines obtained from different sources

• Screening of good grade ore
• Beneficiation of low grade ore
• Collection of flue dust or pyrite residue form ‘S’ production
 TYPES

• Most of the mineral products are agglomerated by four

basic processes.
1. Sintering
2. Pelletizing
3. Briquetting
4. Nodulizing(Rotary kiln Sintering)
5. Vacuum Extrusion
 ADVANTAGES OF AGGLOMERATION
• Ability to use all kinds of Raw Materials- like iron ore fines, iron
bearing waste products, flue dust, Steel plant reverts.
• It can be produced into any shapes and sizes.
• It can be cured to adequate strength suiting Blast Furnace
needs.
• Process designed to suitable small batch operations and large
scale operations.
• Excellent blast Furnace charge material in place of lump ore,
reduces the cost of smelting of ore, increases Furnace
permeability there by increasing BF productivity and lowering
cost in terms of lower fuel rate.
 SINTERING
• The sintering of iron ore is one of the most important
methods of ore treatment. It may be defined as “the
process of heating concentrate particles to an
elevated temperature below its melting point”.
• It is one of the processes in which a bed of small ore
particles is bonded into clinker by high temperature
fuel combustion.
• Excessive fine material in an ore will result in a greater
fine dust loss at blast furnace
 SINTERING

• The rate of temperature is controlled by drying

and blowing air through the bed.

• The temperature approaching 1400C in the

narrow combustion zone.

• Sintering has the largest industrial application

and many million tons of iron ore concentrate
are annually converted into sinters by this
process.
FLOW CHART FOR SINTERING PROCESS
 BRIQUETTING
• It can be defined as “a process of agglomeration where
by particulate matter is consolidated into briquettes”
• Iron ore fines ------> binder -------->Mixing---
• Mechanical pressure = iron ore Briquettes
• Briquetting process is based on the principle of
applying pressure on iron ore fines so that a compact
mass can be obtained in specific size.
• In this process ore fines and concentrated are mixed
with suitable binder (lime or Petroleum bitumen or
pitch) and fed into a double roll Briquetting process to
be moulded into shape
BRIQUETTING MACHINES
 PELLETIZING
• The formation of raw iron ore pellets are known as palletizing.
• It is another process of agglomeration in which fine grained moist ore
is rolled in drum, so that the particles cling together and rollup into
small, spherical pellets.
• Making larger spheres from the finely ground iron ore has several
purposes.
• Not only is handling and transport easier with pellets but they are also
a requirement in subsequent iron and steel making processes.
• If the iron ore material is too fine , the process suffocates in the same
way as when sand is thrown on an open fire.
• Pellet size, high iron content and a good balance of additives also
provide steel works with technical and financial production
advantages.
 PELLETIZING
• A binder should be used to provide strength to the pellets during
the stress of transference, transport and use.
• The concentrate pellets are practically always heat hardened for
the same reason.
• A wide range of organic grinding material like tar, pitch and
inorganic binding material like, lime some, cement, bentonite clay
etc, have been used with varying proportions.
• The process of pelletizing combines with mixing of the raw
material , forming the pellet and a thermal treatment baking the
soft raw pellet to hard spheres. The raw material is rolled into the
balls and then fired in a kiln for heat hardened in order to make it
suitable for blast furnace.
 NODULIZING

• Nodulizing is a process of size enlargement by fusion

in which strongest nodules or small rounded lumps
are formed.
• Iron ore fines + Tar + Rotary kiln furnace = nodule
• In nodulizing ore concentrates along with tar pass
through a fired rotary kiln, the material begins to
soften at high temperature and the rotation of the
material causes the sticky material to roll into lumps.
• The temperature inside the kiln is just sufficient to
soften the ore but not enough to fuse the ore.
 ROTARY KILN
• The kiln used may be 100ft long 6 ft in diameter at entrance and 10ft
diameter at the discharge end.
• It is slightly inclined to the horizontal and rotates at the speed of 1to 2
rpm.
• The agglomeration continues as the ore proceeds through the kiln and
heated at temperature of 1200 to 1500C.
• A great cooler usually cools the nodules.
• The size of nodules depend upon the temp:, quality of tar and speed of
rotation of kiln.
VACUUM EXTRUSION
 VACUUM EXTRUSION

• It is adopted for ceramic industries for producing iron ore

compacts in 1950’s on a small scale .

• Moist ore with or without bentonite as a binder is fed in the

deairing chamber and extruded into a cylindrical product which
is cut into desired small sizes.

• The product is dried and fired before use in a blast furnace

THANK YOU
BLAST FURNACE
CHAPTER 4
F.S BE III
(MET AND MATS ENGG DEPT.)
Blast
Hot reducing gases ascend through the burden
column and transfer most of their sensible heat to
the descending raw materials and reduce about 60-
70% of iron oxide in the upper portion of the furnace
(Indirect Reduction Reaction).
3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
• Remaining unreduced Iron Oxide (i.e. FeO) reaches
the lower part of the furnace (high temperature zone)
and is reduced along with other gangue oxides by
carbon of coke (Direct Reduction Reaction) at
~1200C.
• Endothermic reactions:
1. FeO + C = Fe + CO2
2. SiO2 + 2 C = Si + 2 CO (Partial)
3. MnO + C = Mn + CO (Partial)
4. P2O5 + 5 C = 2P + 5CO
 TOP ZONE
1. HEATING UPTO 1000OC
2. INDIRECT REDUCTION OF IRON
OXIDES
SOLID THERMAL 3. CALCINATION OF FLUX (PARTLY)
TEMP. RESERVE 3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2
ZONE Fe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
GAS TEMP.
BOTTOM ZONE
1. DIRECT REDUCTION OF FeO &
CALCINATION OF REMAINING FLUX
2. DIRECT REDUCTION OF METALLOIDS
3. CARBURISATION OF IRON
4. HEATING OF METAL, COKE AND SLAG
TO TAPPING TEMPERATURE
FeO + C = Fe + CO2
SiO2 + 2C = Si + 2 CO
ROOM 500 1000 1500 2000
MnO + C = Mn + CO
TEMPERATURE, OC
P2O5 + 5 C = 2P + 5CO
Gas and solid temperature along Conceptual division of blast furnace in Top &
the height of Blast Furnace bottom zone & their functions
 INNER STATE & AERODYNAMICS IN BLAST FURNACE

LUMPY ZONE Ferrous Burden

(STACK)

10000C
COHESIVE ZONE Isotherms
(LOWER STACK &
BOSH) 12000C
Isotherms
COKE SLIT
ACTIVE COKE ZONE
FUSED SLAG
(BOSH+HEARTH)
Tuyere Gas & Fe

RACEWAY-
DEAD MAN
2000OC
MECHANICAL COKE
SLAG&COKE
SUPPORT TO
BURDEN METAL&COKE
• Granular zone:

• Cohesive zone:

• Active coke zone:

• Tuyeres zone:

• Stagnant coke zone:

• Hearth zone:
 Sintering process
Chapter 2
F.S. BE III
(Metallurgy & Materials Engg.)

PREPARED BY : MR. UTKARSH V PRAJAPATI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

(METALLURGY & MATERIALS ENGG. DEPT.)

 contents
• Introduction
• Preparation of raw materials
• Flux preparation
• Fuel preparation
• Principle of sintering
Introduction
❑During mining operation of Iron ore, big boulders are crushed to smaller
size suitable for blast furnace charging. During this operation fines are
generated and the same can not be discarded as it contains Fe to the
tune of 60% and also the same can not be charged in the blast furnace
due to the size restriction. During mining fines are generated to the tune
of 70%.

❑Blast furnace production is based on counter- current principle basis i.e.

charge descends from top and air is supplied from bottom. Permeability
plays a vital role in the blast furnace for production of hot metal.
❑Blast furnace is charged with lumps, size of 8 - 40mm.
Cont.…
❑To conserve the fines it has become essential to agglomerate the fines
to a desired size which can be charged in the blast furnace.
❑Many types of agglomerating processes are available where sintering
is techno - economically viable. Resulted in installation of sinter plants.
❑Sintering can be defined as agglomeration of fines into a porous mass
by incipient fusion.
❑Use of sinter has many fold advantages in the blast furnace like :
❑ Conservation of fines (ecological)
❑ Pre-reduced material
❑ High softening temperature
❑ Use of flux through sinter
❑ Higher reducibility of sinter
Raw Material Preparation
❑ Preparation of raw materials and production of consistent quality sinter
is utmost important.
❑ To produce consistent quality sinter maximum attention is required for
preparation of raw materials, and sintering process.

• Why preparation?
❑ To minimize the fluctuation in the quality of final product

• What is preparation?
❑ Raw material preparation for sinter making can be explained as crushing, mixing
& granulation of raw materials with different physico-chemical properties and
proportion of the same (iron ore fines, flux fines, fuel fines, metallurgical wastes)
to provide a homogeneous mixture, so as to produce sinter which has a good
and consistent metallurgical properties.
Raw Material Preparation
• Preparation of sinter mix exerts considerable influence on productivity,
quality (RDI,RI), consistency of sinter chemistry as well as machine
operation.
• Quality and productivity are determined by coke combustion behavior
during sintering process.

• Raw material preparation for sinter making consists of :

❖ Crushing, Proportioning
❖ Dry mixing
❖ Wet mixing (Balling)
Raw Material Preparation
• Raw material preparation for sinter making consists of :
❖ Crushing, Proportioning
❖ Dry mixing
❖ Wet mixing
• STAGE I:
❖ Crushing of bigger size material to smaller size fraction by hammer crusher/roll
crusher/rod mill for easy and proper mixing.
❖ Fuels and fluxes received in bigger size and can’t be used as such Combustion
behavior of coke is the controlling factor for sintering
• IMPROVEMENT IN COMBUSTION BEHAVIOUR RESULTS IN
❑ Energy saving
❑ Increased productivity
❑ Improved quality of sinter
 Flux Preparation
• FLUXES :
❑ Limestone
❑ Dolomite
❑ Serpentine (replacement for dolomite)
❑ Calcined lime (absorbs moisture & helps in balling and preheating
of sinter mix).

• ADVANTAGES OF ADDING FLUX IN SINTER MIX :

❖ Calcination of flux takes place during sintering process
❖ Intimately mixed with ore and get pre slagged
❖ Sinter produced likely to be more reducible
❖ Increases average permeability which increases rate of
sintering
Flux Preparation
• FLUX CRUSHING EQUIPMENT
❑ Primary Crushers
❖ Cone Crusher
❖ Jaw Crusher
❖ Impact breaker
❖ Hammer Mill
❖ Roll Crusher
❑ Secondary Crushers
❖ Rod Mill
❖ Hammer Mill

• ENHANCE CRUSHING EFFICIENCY

❑ Hammer Mill to be of reversible type
❑ Hammer to be of flat type preferably of rail steel
❑ Should have variable speed
Flux preparation
• FLUX REQUIREMENTS :

❑ Chemical composition
❖ Low in silica & low in alumina
❖ Lower alkali content
❖ Lower Sulphur

❑ Proper size grading

❖ Neither too coarse
❖ Nor too fine
FLUX TOO FINE
❖ Impairs sinter bed
permeability
❖ May be drawn out of bed into
the waste gas system
FLUX TOO COARSE
❖ Partial calcination
❖ Appear preferentially in
return fines – Sinter may
be weak
Fuel Preparation
• FUELS :
❑ Anthracite
❑ Petroleum coke
❑ Coke breeze (widely employed)
• FUEL REQUIREMENTS :
❑ Lower content of volatiles
❑ Adequate fuel reactivity
❑ Proper size grading
❑ Low moisture content
• High volatile content leads to :
❑Volatiles distill out of bed in advance of flame front – calorific value of fuel is
wasted
❑Condenses oily liquids in wind legs & mains causing practical difficulties.
Fuel Preparation
High reactive
Low reactive
❖ Lower thermal efficiency
❖ low max. Temp.
❖ Higher CO conc. in
❖ widening of combustion zone
waste gas
Too fine
Too coarse
❖ decrease efficiency
❖ Segregation problem
❖ decrease permeability
❖ Localized hot spots
❖ premature combustion
❖ Broaden combustion zone
• Over wet fuel :
❑ Difficult to extract at uniform rate
❑ Difficult to disperse uniformly
❑ Crushing efficiency comes down
• Optimum size requirement :
❖ 100% (-3mm) with a minimum of –
0.25mm
Fuel crushing equipments
ROD MILLS ROLL CRUSHERS
Advantages Advantages
 Greater degree of reduction  Little over crushing
possible.  Practically no oversize
 High unit production. above 5 mm
 Moderate cost.
Disadvantages Disadvantages
 Over crushing with excessive fines Poor degree of size reduction two
generation. stage for 0 - 40mm
 Too high a percentage of  Frequent grinding of
oversize above 3 mm. surface of rolls.
 Limited capacity.
DRY MIXING: Proportioned raw materials are mixed in a mixer for homogenization
of sinter mix
Two types of mixers are available:
❑ Drum type mixers are for high capacity (lifters are provided)
❑ High intensity mixer

PARAMETERS OF DRUM
❑ Speed and inclination angle of drum is adjusted to achieve
residence time of 1 – 3 minutes
❑ Generally the drum length is three times higher than it’s diameter
IMPROVEMENT IN MIXING EFFICIENCY OF MIXER BY
❑ Increase in mixing time
❑ Optimisation of speed and angle of the drum
❑ Increase the length of the drum
High intensity mixer
• Advantages of using High
intensity mixer:
➢ Mixing and homogenization of sinter mix to the
level achieved in a base mix yard
➢ Ultra fines can be used in sinter mix

➢ BOF sludge can also be used effectively in

the sinter mix
Principle
➢Sintering is a thermal process (carried out at 1300⁰C to 1400⁰C) by which a
mixture of iron ore, return fines, recycled products of the steel plant industry
(such as mill scale, blast furnace dusts, etc.), slag forming elements, fluxes
and coke fines are agglomerated in a sinter plant with the purpose of
manufacturing a sintered product of a suitable chemical composition, quality
(physical) and granulometry to be fed into the blast furnace.
➢Prior to sintering, there is an important process called granulation.
➢Granulation is the homogenization of the iron ore mixture in a rotating drum
with 7 % to 8 % of water with the objective of obtaining of a pre-
agglomerated product, which is then delivered as a layer over a continuously
moving grate or strand for getting the sintered product.
➢This process has a fundamental role since it ensures an adequate
sinter bed permeability and hence good productivity of the sintering
machine. Ace, thus ensuring a homogenous and stable operation of the
blast furnace
➢The process of sintering involves the heating of the pre-agglomerated
product to produce a semi-molten mass which solidifies into porous
pieces of sinter with the size and strength characteristics necessary for
feeding into the blast furnace.
➢The product of the sintering process is called sinter and the quality
characteristics of a good sinter include (i) chemical analysis, (ii) grain
size distribution, (iii) reducibility, and (iv) sinter strength.
Sintering process
➢The process of sintering begins with the preparation of the raw
materials consisting of iron ore fines, fluxes, in-plant metallurgical waste
materials, fuel and return fines of the sinter plant.
➢These materials are mixed in a rotating pelletizing drum and water is
added in order to reach proper agglomeration of the raw materials mix.
➢This agglomeration is in the form of micro-pellets. These micro pellets
assist in obtaining optimum permeability during the sintering process.
These micro pellets are then conveyed to the sintering machine and
forms the upper layer of the charge mix.
➢The sintering process is a continuous process which is based on
treating a charge mix (ore fines, return fines, and fluxes etc.) layer in
presence of coke breeze to the action of a burner placed in the surface
of the layer. In this way, heating takes place from the upper to the lower
sections.
➢The charge mix layer rests over a strand system and an exhausting
system allows to the whole thickness to reach the suitable
temperature for the partial melting of the mix, and the subsequent
agglomeration.
➢In the Dwight-Lloyd sintering machine, the sintering grate is a
continuous chain of large length and width, formed by the union of a
series of pallet cars which make the sintering strand.
➢Each pallet car passes below a charging hopper where it is charged
firstly by material of coarse granulometry (10 mm to 20 mm) in a
layer having thickness of 30 mm to 60 mm which forms the hearth
layer composed mainly of return sinter. The hearth layer protects
steel grates from over-heating during the sintering process.
Sintering machine
➢Straight line machines are normally used for high capacity sinter plants. The
sintering areas of such machines are generally 50 sqm and above. Present
straight line machines are installed having widths ranging from 2 m to 5 m and
with effective sintering areas ranging from 200 sqm to 600 sqm. The
productivities of such machines are typically in the range of 30 t/sqm/day to 46
t/sqm/day. Capacities of such machines range from 190,000 tons per annum to
6.5 Mtpa.
OBJECTIVES OF SINTERING PROCESS

➢Increase the size of the ore fines to a level acceptable to the blast
furnace.
➢To form a strong agglomerate with high bulk reducibility.
➢To remove volatiles like CO2 from carbonates , H2O from hydroxide or
sulphur from sulphides type of ore fines along with their agglomeration.
➢To incorporate flux in the burden.
here adding flux in the sinter than separate addition in charge material
from top of b.f greatly improves the blast furnace performance.
Advantages

The major advantages of using sinter in BFs are

➢ Use of iron ore fines, coke breeze, metallurgical wastes, lime, dolomite for hot
metal production
➢ Better reducibility and other high temperature properties
➢ Increased BF productivity due to higher softening temperature and lower
softening –melting temperature range.
➢ Improved quality of hot metal
➢ Reduction in coke rate in blast furnaces.
Burden preparation II – Sintering process

➢Iron ore sintering in essence is carried out by putting mixture of iron

bearing fines mixed with solid fuel on a permeable grate. Since coke
breeze is normally available as an otherwise wasteful product in an
integrated iron and steel plant incorporated as a solid fuel in the sinter mix.
➢It is equally true that this is the best choice among the available solid
fuels.
➢The top layer of this sinter bed is heated to the sintering temperature (12-
1300 ⁰C) by a gas or oil burner and air is drawn downwards, through the
grate , with the help of exhaust blowers connected, from underneath , to
the grate.
Fig 1 Situation in a sinter bed few minutes after ignition
Sintering process
• The narrow combustion zone developed initially a the top layer travels through
the bed raising the temperature of the bed, layer by layer. The situation
obtaining in a sinter bed few minutes after the ignition of the top layer is shown
in figure.1.
• The cold blast drawn through the bed cools the already sintered layer and
thereby gets itself heated.
• The heat contained in the blast is utilised in drying and preheating the lower
layers in the bed.
• In advance of combustion therefore each layer gets dried and preheated by the
heat transferred from the upper combustion zones. Much of the heat in the
gases is absorbed by the lower portion of the bed
 Cont..
➢In the combustion zone , bonding takes place between the grains an a strong porous
aggregate is formed.
➢The process is over when the combustion zone has reached the lowest layer of the
bed, the sinter cake is then tipped from the great in hot condition or after partial
cooling . It is broken , screened and cooled to produce desired fraction.
➢The undersize is recycled and the oversize is fully cooled an sent to the blast
furnace.
➢The process described above is known as down draught sintering since the air blast
is drawn through the sinter bed downwards.
➢The contradiction to this some non ferrous ores are sintered by up draught sintering.
PROCESS VARIABLES
➢During sintering the aggregate of particles anywhere in the bed are heated and
cooled as shown qualitatively in figure.

Fig.2 Temperature cycle during sintering of iron ore fines

➢As a result bods are developed at the points of contact of particles with each other.
Bonding of grains is therefore a high temperature phenomenon and is a function of
temperature to which and the time for which the mass is maintained at the high
temperature level.
➢The area under time-temperature curves as shown in figure 2.essentially determines
the nature and strength of the bonds developed during sintering of a given mix.
➢Below certain temperature level sufficient strength will be formed.
➢The effective factor which may around 1000⁰C for iron ores in deciding the extent of
sintering.
➢The nature of the time-temperature graph will depend upon the rate of heating and
cooling of given mix.
Process variables

The variables of sintering process are

• Bed permeability as decided by the particle size and shape of the mix.
• Thickness of the bed
• Total volume of air blast drawn through the bed for its sintering.
• Rate of blast drawn through the bed
• Amount and quality of solid fuel
• Amount and type of carbonates present in the charge
• Nature of ore fines
• Any non uniformity in the bed composition or in the process of sintering.
Types of sinter produced

• Acid Sinter – no flux is added.

• Fluxed Sinter – the flux is added in such a way that the basicity of mix =
that of slag to be produced in the furnace.
• Super Fluxed Sinter – flux required for whole charge . No addition of
flux from top . All from sinter. Basicity > slag.
Fig 3 - Vertical section through the sinter bed over the whole length showing the various zones.
➢During sintering on a static bed various zones that are formed have
already been shown.
➢Each layer below the ignited top layer undergoes changes in the order ;
wet ore- drying – calcining – preheating- combustion – cooling.
➢The same order of changes take place on moving bed .
➢The downward movement of each zones and the forward movement of
the pallet during sintering results n the structure as shown in fig 3. which
is vertical through the bed over the entire effective length of the strand.
➢Each zone is extended diagonally over the length.
➢The chemical composition changes gradually across the various zones.
➢The proportion of ferrous iron is more in the zone of calcination and
combustion but it decreases on cooling.

❑Two type of bonds may be formed

1. Diffusion or recrystallization or solid state
2. Slag or glass bond
Thank you
 Iron making
CHAPTER 5
F.S. BE III
(METALLURGY & MATERIALS ENGG.)

Prepared by :
Mr. Utkarsh V Prajapati (Assistant professor)
(Metallurgy & Materials Engg. Dept.)
BLAST FURNACE REACTIONS
• Reaction in Stack
• Reaction in Bosh
• Reaction in Tuyere
• Direct & Indirect reduction.

• Slag-metal reactions
• Desiliconisation

• Desulphurization
Reactions in different part
1. Tuyere zone – combustion zone
2. Stack - Including kinetics of iron oxide reduction
3. Bosh – fusion zone
4. Hearth – Desulphurization , Desiliconisation
Tuyere zone
• Cokeis the only constituents of the burden that descends down into the
Tuyere zone in the form of a solid column.
• Temperature at Tuyere level is around 1500⁰C .
• Sucha high preheated coke burns in front of Tuyere with great intensity and
turbulence when it comes in contact with 800-1300 ⁰ C , which generates
around 1900-2000 ⁰C.
• Thecombustion zone is in the form of a pear shape ,called raceway’ in which
the hot gases rotate at high speeds carrying a small amount of burning coke in
suspension.
• The situation in a blast furnace tuyere zone is practically ideally an
adiabatic system as define in classical thermodynamics.
• The burning of coke in front of the tuyere zone is almost instantaneous and
hence the theoretical adiabatic flame temperature in the raceway can be
calculated without any difficulty.
• This is known as RAFT in short.

• This
is the highest temperature available side of this zone. This is
temperature gradient in vertical direction on either side of this zone.
• This temperature is critically related to the hearth temperature .
• And this raceway is the vital part of
blast furnace.
• The structure of raceway largely
depends upon the quality of coke.
• Coke containing large amount of fines
tends to raise the pressure in the
raceway .
• Coke containing less fines exhibits
excellent permeability and form the
stable raceway.
• The volume and depth of raceway therefore deteriorates when quality of coke
deteriorates.
• Any lack of penetration of raceway might lead to decrease in temperature along
the vertical axis of the furnace - a situation detrimental to furnace operation.
• Hence main reactions are
• Although coke rate varies from furnace to furnace and it is as low as 450
kg/t of hot metal produced in some of the very efficient furnaces, it is
generally around 600-750 kg/t of metal product.
• Major portion of this coke burns at the tuyere level to provide major portion
of heat .
•A certain portion of the coke is consumed in the stack in solution loss
reaction .
• There is always some moisture in the blast ; it is more in rainy and less in summer.
{H2O} + <C> = {CO} + {H2}
• Which is generates additional reducing agent in the form of H2.
• Above reaction is endothermic in nature.
• If the extra heat is available at tuyere level then reaction will be useful.
• Unfortunately combustion also releases ‘S’ present in the coke, which is practically
all absorbed by the charge in the stack and is thus carried down into the hearth.
Reaction in stack
• The functions of the blast furnace stack are two fold.

1. It should progressively reduce the iron oxide to iron using CO of the gas
phase.
2. It should extract sensible heat from the ascending gases and thereby get
itself heated.
• The effluent gases at the stock line are usually at around 200⁰C and 1.3 atm
pressure with CO/CO2 ratio usually in the range of 1.5-3.0 .
• The equilibrium CO/CO2 ratio for

is small.
• Even if reaction as in eq.s

• Were to achieve equilibrium at the stock line the CO/CO2 ratio is not much.

• Thereducing potential of the gases is therefore not utilized fully in actual

practice.
• The relevance of CO/CO2 ratio of 2.3 in equilibrium with Fe/FeO .
• During the ascent if a volume of reducing gas comes in contact with iron
oxide at 950 ⁰ C it would tend to move towards a CO/CO2 ratio of 2.3 as per
eq.
• Ifthe same gas later on strikes a piece of coke its reducing power will be
regenerated and the CO/CO2 ratio tends to attend a value as per eq

• Below 800⁰C the CO content of the gases is more than the value in
equilibrium with the FeO or C.
• The presence of iron and iron oxide act as catalyst for the deposition
reaction which can be hazardous for the fireclay refractories in the upper
part of the furnace .
Lower part of stack

• Besides of main reaction i.e. reduction of iron oxide, higher oxides of Mn

like MnO2 , Mn3O4 etc. are reduced to lower oxides like MnO in the lower
part of the stack according to ;
• <MnO2> + {CO} = <MnO> + {CO2}

• <Mn3O4> + {CO} = <MnO> + {CO2}

• Further reduction is possible MnO to Mn only by C at higher temperature .

Kinetics of iron oxide reduction
• Since the gases pass through the furnace at tremendous velocity
attainment of equilibrium between the gas and the charge at any level in
the furnace is out of question.
• According to some estimates the residence time of gas inside is of the order
of only a second
• The gases therefore react with the solid charge as rapidly as possible in
order to fully utilize their reducing ability.
• Fe2O3 Fe3O4 FeO Fe…..above 570 ⁰
• Which means that there are Fe2O3/CO ,Fe3O4/CO and FeO/CO as gas
/Solid interface at which the indirect reduction is taking place. If a spherical
specimen of oxide is reduced by any reducing gas then, after partial
reduction , the particle may have concentric rings of Fe,FeO, Fe3O4 and
core as Fe2O3 quite visible even to naked eye.
• On macro level these rings are very clear but on micro level the same
rings are not all that sharply differentiated from each other.
• Everyiron particle inside the blast furnace is also reduced in the same
way in the stack, where the charge is solid, by the ascending gases
containing mainly CO as reducing gas agent.
• Any H2 present in the gas will also reduce the oxide in the same way .
• Thisis known as indirect reduction . Carbon of coke does not reduce
oxide in the stack part. This is because the system then resembles
solid/solid interfacial reaction and which is extremely slow to contribute
substantially in reducing the ore.
• Inthe cohesive and the bosh regions where the FeO rich slag trickles
through the coke bed Carbon reduces the FeO in the liquid slag directly,
although the reaction may takes place by coke reacting directly with the
FeO but more predominantly through
• 2{CO} {CO2} + <C> & (FeO) + <C> Fe + {CO}
• Thisparticipated carbon in fact contributes in direct reduction of oxide in
the cohesive and the upper bosh regions . The CO2 dissolves carbon to
recuperate to CO.
Factors
1. Physical nature of iron oxide
2. Nature and composition of gangue in the charge.
3. CO content of the gas phase at the level in question
4. Temperature of the charge and the gas at the level
5. Chemical nature of iron oxide
6. Pressure at the top of the furnace
7. The extent of solid - solid reactions
Physical nature of ore
• Reduction of oxide of iron is broadly a diffusion controlled gas- solid reaction.
• The rate of reduction is increased with decreasing size and increasing porosity
of individual particles.
• Theburden permeability decreases with increasing percentage of fines in the
charge and hence lower its reduction .
• The particle should be reduced completely , as far as possible , in the stack
itself.
• Themaximum size that can be reduced nearly completely before the ore
reaches the bosh region is determined largely by its chemical composition an
porosity .
• Thenatural ore often lacks necessary size range, strength and porosity as
required for efficient blast furnace operations.
• It is common practice therefore to agglomerated the ore fines and produce
sinter and /or pellets
• The burden in this case made up of lumpy ore plus sinter and /or pellets.

• Additionalcost of artificial agglomeration can be more than offset by the

increased efficiency of the operations.
• Ideal sinter size is +10-50 mm and pellets of +6-30mm.
Nature and composition of gangue
• It
is necessary that the stack zone of the blast furnace should be as
extended as possible and the softening and melting zone confined to the
lower part over a narrow region.
• The presence of usually associated gangue oxides is known to reduce the
rate of reduction of an iron oxide.
• Gangue that forms low melting slag often tends to cover the ore particles
with viscous slag before the reduction is complete in stack. The slag layer
acts as barrier for the reducing gas to reach the oxide and hence to rate of
reduction is slows down.
• Silica
is one such constituent which is invariably present in ores and which
tends to form a low melting iron silicate slag.
Temperature & CO content
• The higher the CO content of the gas and lower is its utilization
in the stack and lower will be the efficiency of operation, i.e.
higher coke rate.
• Hence lower are the CO content and temperature of the exit
gases the lower will be the coke rate higher will be the
efficiency.
Chemical nature of iron oxide

I. Fe2O3 → Fe3O4 → FeO → Fe

II. Fe3O4 → FeO → Fe
• Rate of reduction of Hematite involves formation of Magnetite and
hence greater quality of O2 has to be removed.
• The Fe3O4 formation required very less CO and it react very faster and
Fe3O4 produced by reduction of Fe2O3 has a porous structure because
the core to diffuses readily to the interface.
Pressure

• The increased pressure helps to increase the effective

concentration of reducing agent that is CO and thereby the
reduction rate of a process, is also increased.
• The hightop pressure also helps to increase the contact time of
gas with the charge and hence the efficiency of reduction is
improved.
Solid solid reaction
• Solid carbon is potentially a good reducing agent for the FeO even at low
temperatures. The speed of reduction however is limited by the area of contact
between the solid coke and the ore.
• Once the O2 at the contacting areas are removed further reduction, being
controlled by the diffusion of reactants , O2 from the core to the surface or
carbon to the interior across the reduced layer slows down.
• At low temperature reduction is slow.
• Above 1000⁰C the diffusion and consequently the rate of reduction is
appreciable.
• The formation of slag above 1000⁰C tends to decrease gaseous reduction and
therefore reduction by C may become dominant.
• Below 800⁰C the gas tends to deposit ‘C’ in a finely divided form upon
the surface.
• The contribution of ‘C’ reduction reaction is substantial.
• Inmost cases the most efficient blast furnace operations is obtained
when about 1/3 of the reduction is achieved by solid ‘C’(direct
reduction)
• And remaining 2/3 by gaseous reduction (indirect reduction).
 Reaction in Bosh
• The reduction of FeO by the CO contained in the ascending gases in the stack
and directly by solid carbon of coke or that deposited by Naumann reversion
reaction continuous side by side as direct reduction of iron oxide as against the
indirect reduction by the CO.
• Outof which gas-solid reaction kinetics being faster, the indirect is dominant in
the stack. As a gangue ,fluxed in sinter form or unfluxed form in an ore,
combined with FeO ,formed slag with highly oxidized and low melting trickles
down coke bed and it brings FeO to Fe reduction .
• Fe still in solid form as its high melting point. But it starts picking up C as it
trickles down through bosh region and its melting point is decreases and
becomes molten.
• The iron is carburized , it melts
and it picks up Si ,S, Mn,Cr and P
as per their extent of reductions. P is nearly completely reduced
and joins Fe.
• Theothers are distributed between slag and metal as per their
actual equilibria, under the prevailing conditions between slag
and metal phases.
• The SiO gas formed due to the reduction of silica from the coke
ash in the tuyere zone could be as :
• <SiO2> + 2<C> = {SiO} + 2{CO}
• The‘S’ released from the fuel, on its burning , in the tuyere combustion
zone is all absorbed by the trickling metal droplets through the coke and
whatever is not absorbed in the bosh is all picked by the iron in the stack.
➢<CaS> (coke ash) +{SiO} = {SiS} + <CaO>

➢FeS (coke ash) + {SiO} + <C> = {SiS} + {CO} + Fe

➢{SiS} = Si + S

• And partially bosh slag also absorbs ‘S’ as <CaS> (coke ash) = (CaS) in slag.
• The metal and slag beads trickling through the bosh zone have been
collected from working furnaces. Their analyses reveal that the Sulphur in
metal decreases and that in slag increases during their passage through the
bosh zone unto the slag surface in the health.
 Reactions in Hearth
• Hearth is that part of the furnace where the molten products of the blast furnace
process accumulate and stay there until these are tapped out periodically.
• Herein bosh region itself because of prevailing high temperature melting takes
place. There are two immiscible liquid products of the blast furnace smelting
process.
• One is metallic phase - iron and all other elements

• One is oxidized phase – oxides like alumina , magnesia , alkali oxides , alkaline
earth oxides , silica ,Mno and S.
• These trickles down through the bosh and the tuyere and collected to hearth.
• The slag is tapped out every 2-3 hrs.

• Molten metal is tapped out 5-6 hrs.

• Since
the molten metal trickles down through the coke bed in furnace it is
remains molten at 1200C.
• Slag consists of CaO,SiO2 ,Al2O3 constituting 90 % slag + oxides like MgO
,alkalies ,FeO.
• In order to obtain molten metal itis necessary that both the metal and slag form
thin free flowing liquids , so that these clarify into two clear liquid phases and
tapped separately .
• If no flux is added and if only silica and alumina are the main gangue
constituents of the ore the liquidus temp of this combination is too high.
• Flux like CaO is added to evolve a composition such that the liquidus is in
the range of 13-1400 c .
• Most of the deposites contains silica and alumina and therefore need a lime
as flux to obtain proper slag composition.
• Obviously the liquidus temperature of the slag is much higher than that of
the metal and therefore the operating temperature of a blast furnace is
always at least 50-100 C above the liquidus temperature of the slag formed.
• At this temperature both the slag and metal will be thin free flowing liquids.
• In reality the blast furnace operating temperature are in the range of 13-
1500 depending upon the total gangue in the burden and the flux is added.
Desulphurisation
• The slag composition has also to be viewed form that point of view of its
reactions with the metal, in particular its desulphurising ability..
• Since it is the main reactions that occurs in the hearth.

• The ‘S’ transfer across the slag – metal interface along with the associated
reactions are often described in below manner:
• [S] + [C] + (CaO) = (CaS) + CO2

• 2[S] + [Si] + 2(CaO) = 2(CaS) +SiO2

Hot metal composition
• C- 3.5-4.2
• Si-0.2-1.5
• S-0.020- 0.050
• P-0.1-2.0
• Mn-0.2-1.5

• Main source of Sulphur-coke (90 %)

• Iron ore,(sulphide ) flux (sulphide, sulphate) Effect of Sulphur

Disadvantage
• Hot shortness: Sulphur affects both internal and surface quality of steel
• Sulphur contributes to the steel brittleness and when it exists in sulphide
phase it acts as a stress raiser in steel products.
• It forms undesirable sulphides which promotes granular weakness and
cracks in steel during solidification.
• It has adverse effect on the mechanical properties.
• It lowers the melting point and intergranular strength and cohesion of
steel.
Advantages : ‘S’ is improves free cutting steel machinablility
DESULPHURIZATION OF HOT METAL Sulphur Reaction
• [FeS] + (CaO)= (CaS) + (FeO)

• K= a (CaS). a (FeO)
a[FeS].a(CaO)

OR assuming Henarian behavior we can write

• K= %(CaS). (%FeO)
[%FeS]. (%CaO)

DESULPHURISATION INDEX
• (%s) directly proportional to (%Cao) / (%FeO)
[%s]
• The ratio (%s) / [%s] is referred as the desulphurising index and which varies with basicity
and the oxygen potential.
• The oxygen ion concentration in slag is
represented by (CaO) or similar basic oxides in
the slag and the oxygen potential of the system
is represented by either (%FeO) or [%O].
• The ratio (%S)/[%S] is often referred to as the
Desulphurising index and which varies with
basicity and the oxygen potential as shown in
figure
CONDITION FOR SULPHUL REMOVAL

• Temperature- high

• Basicity-high

• Atmosphere-reducing

• Oxidizing potential low

• The presence of Mn the melt help in removal of the Sulphur.

• So generally we are adding Mn ore or Mn bearing Slag during iron making.

• Toprevent the use of Mn in the iron making we are carrying out external
desulphurization.
• Due to this we are getting low Mn hot metal and this situation leads to
decrease the operating temperature of the furnace and there by decreases
silicon iron which are better for steel making.

1. Adding Mn ore or Mn slag bearing material

2. Increasing the hearth temperature
3. Increasing the basicity of slag
4. Increasing the slag volume (higher is the basicity higher is the hearth
temperature.
Desulphurizing reagents
• Themost commonly used desulphurizing reagents are lime (CaO), calcium
carbide (CaC2) or magnesium (Mg).
• Lime – Its low cost and easy availability make it an attractive reagent. But it
has got some critical disadvantages.
• During the process of desulphurization, lime particles are continuously
being covered by two precipitates namely calcium sulphide (CaS) and
calcium silicate (CaSiO4).
• These compounds impede the desulphurizing reaction by surrounding the
lime and forming thick barriers at the lime – hot metal interface. In order to
reduce this growth, the grain size of the lime is to be restricted to 45
micrometer maximum. The desulphurizing reaction with lime takes place as
per equation: 2CaO + 2S =2 CaS + O2.
• Calcium carbide – Calcium carbide was once most used desulphurizing
reagent but now it is less prevalent.
• Complicated Material handling procedures as well environment
requirements associated with the disposal of slag have negatively
influenced its use.
• Calcium Carbide is also subject to layer formation similar to lime, which
impedes the desulphurizing reaction. The desulphurizing reaction with
calcium carbide takes place as per equation: CaC2 + S = CaS + 2C
Desiliconization
• For steel making the lower are the S and Si contents the better , for the
production of quality steels and to ensure higher metallic yield as well.
• Although sulphur and siliconcontents can both be controlled by external
treatments it is always attempted to get the desired quality from the BF.
• Low ‘Si’ is desirable in pig iron for its conversion to sheet but high Si
desirable in Pig iron for its use in foundry for making cast iron.
•
Desiliconization
• Suppression of SiO formation in the raceway-which will be helped by lower ash in
coke and lower coke rate
• Decreasing the activity of silica by having higher basicity – this is rather difficult to
adopt
• Increasing the blast pressure to suppress formation of SiO gas
• Optimal control of heat input in BF
• Keeping as far as possible stable hearth condition.
• Maintaining proper viscosity stable hearth conditions.
• Effective burden distribution to obtain effective raceway
• Minimising irregularities in BF operation.
Thank you
 Blast furnace refractories
Chapter 6
F.S. BE III
(Metallurgy & Materials Engg.)

Prepared by :
Mr. Utkarsh V Prajapati (Assistant professor)
(Metallurgy & Materials Engg. Dept.)
content
1. Constructional features of blast furnace,
2. Blast furnace profile,
3. Refractories,
4. Accessories,
5. Charging mechanism,
6. Bell and Belless charging systems.
What is refractory ?

 The materials whose usage is applied at temperature of

>6000C are considered as refractories
 Non-metallic materials having those chemical and physical
properties that made them applicable for structures, or as
components of systems, that are exposed to environments above
10000F(800K,5000C).
 These type of materials are stable at high temperatures and also
they retain their strength at same.
 Astheir operating environment are different, they need to be
thermal resistant ,they must be chemically inert
 Alsothey must be having a specific range of thermal
conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion depending
upon their working conditions
 Generallythe materials used in manufacturing of refractories
are oxides of alumina, silica, magnesia etc.
Refractory material
A refractory material should be able to ,
Important properties
 REFRACTORIES

BASED ON BASED ON BASED ON

CHEMICAL FUSION METHOD OF
COMPOSITION TEMPRATURE MANUFACTURE

ACIDIC NORMAL DRY PRESS

REFRACTORIES REFRACTORY PROCESS

BASIC HIGH FUSED CAST

REFRACTORIES REFRACTORY

NEUTRAL SUPER HAND MOULDED

REFRACTORIES REFRACTORY

FORMED

UN-FORMED

UN-FORMED
DRY
REFRACTORIES
Classification
Classifications
 BLAST FURNACE REFRACTORY LINING

 Campaigning life (starting of blast furnace to shutting

down of blast furnace depend on the life of refractory
lining which lies between the inside working volume to
that of outer steel sheel, which protects the steel
sheel.
 Campaign life of furnace have increased from 5 yrs -
10yrs and more these days.
 This is possible due to better furnace operation and
better quality of refractories.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FURNACE LINING
 Co attack
 alkali vapor attacks
 high temperature attack
 abrasion by solid charge moving downward.
 attack by molten slag and metal
 furnace design and operation.
 Action of other volatile matters
 Action of molten metal
 Blowing procedure
 All above factors may not be operative al all the areas in the
furnace.
 i.e.- the stack lining has to withstand predominantly abrasion
by solid burden and attack of CO , whilst in the bosh region
the lining has to stand high temperature , erosion by
ascending gas and attack of molten lime and alkali slags.
 Similarly hearth has to withstand action of molten slag and
metal without breakouts.
 The present days high duty firebrick for blast furnace lining
are made of different grades to suit the requirement at
various levels.
 Stack lining : the lining have a very good abrasion resistance
and resistance to CO.
 Good dense refractory is ideal.
 Below this high fired super duty firebricks are used.
 Some place where armour plates are used to withstand falling
burden. And can be replaces by alumina brick.
 Entire stack below the top few meters of height is lined with
high duty fire bricks (A 35% - 40% Al2O3 fire brick )
 For lower part – A 60 % Al2O3 brick
 This bricks are machine mould under high pressures and are
de-aired to improve their density .
Hearth lining:
 In the hearth lead to development and use of carbon lined wall.
 High refractoriness, high thermal conductivity , high abrasion resistance ,
high bulk density with low porosity, good crushing strength.
 In early adoption carbon blocks were used as only the facing lining with
high duty firebrick for backing.
 The whole wall thickness and a considerable bottom
thickness , has almost universally been accepted as a
standard method of preparing the earth.
 The remaining bottom thickness made up with high duty
firebricks.
 Effective cooling of the hearth walls is improved by
employing graphite as the backing layer with carbon blocks
facing.
 Alumina silicates(fire clay)
 A- low duty fire clay[35 - 40% alumina content ](for upper stack)
 B-high duty fire clay [60 % alumina content ](lower stack, bosh, tuyers)

 Carbon block ( hearth lining) carbon block is having high thermal

conductivity compared to that of fire clay 3W/m/K amorphous carbon
and 40W/m/K for graphite.) high thermal conductivity help is faster heat
transfer which helps in keeping refractory cool .
 For longer lining life water cooling is carried out , this water cooling not
only helps in great amount of heat transfer that also helps in formation
of protective coating of slag and metal on lining.
Bosh lining
CHARGING SYSTEM FOR CHARGING OF RAW MATERIAL
FROM THE TOP

Development of charging system.

• Since the b/f gas have fuel value it need to be cleans before it is
used as fuel so charging system is developed to prevent the
leakage of b/f gas during charging of raw material.
1- bell charging system
• Double bell arrangement system(small bell , large bell) not is not
used any more in new practice.
• Coke is lighter then iron it is generally 3.5 - 4 times lighter.
DOUBLE BELL CHARGING SYSTEM
FOR EFFECTIVE PRODUCTIVITY AND UNIFORM GAS FLOW
IN B/F
1. screening of solid charge to prevents fines in the burden .
2. agglomeration of fines (sintering , pelletizing)
3. proper charging device for better distribution of charge in horizontal
section.
4. a revolving chute is used for uniform charge distribution of charge in
horizontal section.
5. revolving chute uniformly distribute the charge over small bell.
6. But there is formation of two types of stock line profile in the furnace,
due to segregation of small and big size materials
7. segregation is due to different trajectories when they fall into the
furnace upon opening of the big bell.
BELL LESS TOP

• Invented by paul wurth in Luxembourg in 1972. this system

combines a hopper and gate. From various angle the raw
materials are feed onto rotating chute through a system of
sealed valve and flow control gate .
• Here in this case mathematical model and instrumentation
system are provided to predicts the stock line profile and to
measure the effect of change.
• In the distribution pattern. Now days all the furnace operates
at high top pressure. Where the exit gas pressure is 1.5-2
atm gauge. The distribution is much more better in bell less
charging the charge distribution monitoring system includes.
• Heat flux monitoring equipment to measure
the heat flow in the different zone(both above
and under the burden.) profile meter for
measurement of surface profile.
• Thermocouples at different position like
throat, stack, bosh for measurement of
temperature.
Gas cleaning and utilization
• The process of liquid iron production in the blast furnace (BF) generates
gas at the furnace top which is an important by-product of the BF process.
• This top gas of the blast furnace is at the temperature and pressure
existing at the BF top and usually contaminated with dust and water
particles. This top gas is having substantial calorific value and is known as
raw BF gas or contaminated BF gas.
• The composition and quantity of this top gas depend on the nature of the
technological process in the blast furnace and the type and the quality of
the raw materials used for the iron production in the blast furnace. In
order to further use the raw BF gas, it is necessary to clean it by using
certain process systems which reduces its content of the solid particles.
• The top gas contains carbon mono oxide (CO) and is known as blast
furnace gas after its cleaning. It is used as fuel gas for heating blast air
in the hot blast stoves as well as supplemental fuel in the steel plant.
• For the BF gas to be used as fuel gas, it is necessary that the raw BF
gas is cleaned and cooled to reduce gas volumes and moisture
content.
• Prior cooling and reduction in gas volume is also necessary since it
results in substantial savings in delivery costs throughout the
extensive distribution system of the steel plant.