METALS

(FERROUS)

GROUP-1
NEHA GUPTA
OJASVANI CHAURASIA
NIDHI MAURYA
SANYAM JAIN
RITU SINGH
SHARAD KUMAR SINGH
SRISHTI SINGH
SURYANSH SINGH
CONTENT
S. Topics Subtopics
No.
1 Ferrous metals- introduction

2 Pig iron Properties

Available forms
3 Wrought iron Uses
Joinery
4 Cast iron Manufacturing
Advantages/Disadvantages
5 Market survey
6 Soldering
7 Brazing
8 Welding
FERROUS METALS

 A ferrous metal is any metal that is primarily composed of iron and has magnetic properties.
 A ferrous metal is known for its hardness, durability and tensile strength.
 Some common ferrous metals include: Alloy steel , Carbon steel, Cast iron, Wrought iron
 The properties that they possess make them perfect to be used in both the industrial and architectural sector for
projects like skyscrapers, bridges, railroad projects and vehicles.
 Due to their magnetic properties, ferrous metals are also widely used in various appliances and engines.
 Ferrous metals, however, have high carbon content, which generally makes them more likely to rust; stainless steel
is an exception due to its chromium content, as is wrought iron, due to the purity of its iron content.
 Ferrous metals are widely used in almost all industries such as in the manufacturing of shipping containers,
industrial piping, automobiles, railroad tracks, ships and many commercial and domestic tools.
PIG IRON
PIG IRON IS A SOLID FORM OF HOT
METAL, OBTAINED FROM IRON ORE OR
SCRAP RECYCLING, AND IT IS
PROCESSED WITH A BLAST FURNACE
OR AN ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE. PIG
IRON IS USED AS A RAW MATERIAL
FOR IRON STEEL MAKING AND MOST
OF THIS MATERIAL WAS IMPORTED.
 PROPERTIES

 Pig iron is also known as crude iron.

 It is obtained from a smelting furnace in the form of oblong blocks and has a very high carbon content of 3.5 – 4.5
as it contains 90% of iron.
 It is produced by smelting iron ore with high-carbon fuel and reductant such as, coke usually with limestone which
serves flux. Other materials like anthracite and charcoal are used as fuel.
AVAILABLE FORMS/USES

 Basic pig iron– This is used in electric arc furnace for the purpose of
steel making.
 Foundry pig iron– This type of pig iron is also known as hematite pig iron Basic pig iron
and is used in cupola furnaces for grey iron castings.
 High purity pig iron– This is synonymous to nodular pig iron and is used
for producing ductile iron castings, which is also known as SG or
Spheroidal Graphite. This is used by the manhole covers manufacturers.
 Pig iron is used as an intermediary step in creating various iron products
and steel.

Foundry pig iron

MANUFACTURING

 Following three distinct operations are involved in the manufacturing process of pig-iron:

1. Dressing
2. Calcination and roasting

3. Smelting.
DRESSING: The iron ores as obtained from mines are crushed into pieces of size of 25 mm diameter. This is achieved in the
rock crushers of ordinary type. The crushing of ores helps in two ways:
I. The ore particles of uniform size are obtained.
II. The reducing gases penetrate the ores in a better way. If ores contain clay, loam and other earthy matter, they are washed
in a stream to remove such impurities. The perforated trays may be kept in water to remove pebbles and sand. To work in
dry condition, the magnetic separators are used to remove the impurities contained in the iron ores.

CALCINATION AND ROASTING: After the iron ores are dressed, they are calcined and roasted. The calcination consists in
heating ores in presence of air so that they are oxidized. The water and carbon dioxide are removed from ores by calcination.
The roasting consists of making the ores hot and very dry. It is adopted to dissipate the volatile parts, especially Sulphur, by
heat. Hence the roasting will not be necessary, if ore is an oxide.
SMELTING:
The melting so as to separate metal from ore is known as
the smelting.
It is carried oi t in a special type of furnace, known as the
blast furnace.
It is in the form of a vertical steel cylinder. The outer shell of
furnace is of steel plate about 30 mm to 40 mm thick and
its inside surface is covered with a lining of fire-bricks. Its
diameter is about 6 m to 8 m and its height is about 30 m to
36 m.
The blast furnaces continue throughout the world to provide
the predominant, if not the sole means of producing pig-iron.
Their design has practically remained unchanged. They have
however grown to an incredible extent in size and efficiency.
The capacity of old blast furnaces was around 15000 kN of
pig-iron per day. The capacity of present day modern blast
furnaces has gone upto 100000 or more kN of pig-iron per
day.
ADVANTAGES

 Pig iron is known for its high carbon content, which makes it brittle while pure iron has a low content of carbon and
minor level of impurity, contributing to the strength of the metal. It has a lower melting point in comparison to steel
and iron which also helps produce a low-grade iron, named grey iron.
 It is wear-resistant and hard.

 It is brittle and mildly fusible.

 In comparison to steel, it has a lower melting temperature, 1200° centigrade.

 Tensile strength is from 25 kNs to 50 kNs.

CAST IRON
CAST IRON CAN REFER TO A RANGE OF
IRON ALLOYS, BUT IT IS MOST
COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH GRAY
IRON. DESPITE HAVING THE NAME IRON,
IT ISN’T PURE ELEMENTAL IRON (FE ON
THE PERIODIC TABLE)—IT’S ACTUALLY AN
ALLOY CONTAINING 2–4 PERCENT
CARBON, PLUS SMALL AMOUNTS OF
SILICON AND MANGANESE. OTHER
IMPURITIES, SUCH AS SULFUR AND
PHOSPHORUS, ARE ALSO COMMON.
PROPERTIES
i. If placed in salt water, it becomes soft.
ii. It can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling, but it cannot be tempered.
iii. It cannot be magnetized.
iv. It does not rust easily.
v. It is fusible.
vi. It is hard, but it is brittle also.
vii. It is not ductile and hence it cannot be adopted to absorb shocks and impacts.
viii. Its melting temperature is about 1250°C.
ix. It shrinks on cooling. This fact is to be considered while making patterns or moulds for foundry work.
x. Its structure is granular and crystalline with whitish or greyish tinge.
xi. Its specific gravity is 7.5.
xii. It lacks plasticity and hence it is unsuitable for the forging work.
xiii. is weak in tension and strong in compression. The tensile and compressive strengths of cast-iron of average quality are respectively 150
N/mm2 and 600 N/mm2.
xiv. The two pieces of cast-iron cannot be connected by the process of riveting or welding. They are to be connected by nuts and bolts which are
fixed to the flanges. The holes for bolts, etc. are either drilled out or cast in the casting.
 AVAILABLE FORMS
1. Centrifugal Casting: In this type of casting, the molten metal is
poured into molds which are kept rotating. The quantity of
metal should be carefully determined and accurately
controlled. The molds are cylindrical and made of metal. The
molten metal is spread uniformly by the centrifugal force and it
is held till it becomes solid. This method is generally used to
prepare pipes and it is found that these castings are stronger
and compact than ordinary castings.
2. Chilled Casting: In this type of casting, the outer surface is
made hard by sudden cooling or chilling and the inner surface
remains comparatively soft. The mould is either made of metal
or is lined with metal. The hot molten metal is suddenly cooled
or chilled as it comes into contact with metallic surface of the
mould.The outer surface thus becomes suddenly hard and
inner surface becomes soft and tough due to pressure of
contraction on the molten metal. This type of casting is
adopted to produce wearing surface as in case of tyres and
axle holes of railway carriage wheels, etc.
4. Hollow Casting: In this type of casting, the mould is made as usual and a solid core is suspended in the middle of
mould to form cavity. The thickness of casting is represented by the space between the core and mould. The metal is
poured into this annular space and when it has cooled down, the mould is removed and the core is withdrawn. This
casting is used for preparing hollow columns, pipes, piles, etc.
5. Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the
mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand
castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 60% of all metal castings are produced via sand
casting process.
6. Die Casting: In this type of casting, the molten metal is poured into metal moulds under pressure. These castings are
cheap, smooth and compact. They require no finishing treatment except the removal of surplus metal.
 USES
 For making cisterns, water pipes, gas pipes and sewers, manhole covers and sanitary fittings.
 For making ornamental castings such as brackets, gates, lamp posts, spiral staircases, etc.

 For making parts of machinery which are not subject to heavy shocks.
 For manufacturing compression members like columns in buildings, bases of columns, etc.

 For preparing agricultural implements.

 For preparing rail chairs, carriage wheels, etc.
 MANUFACTURING

 The cast-iron is manufactured by re-melting pig-iron with coke and limestone. This re-
melting is done in a furnace known as the cupola furnace. It is more or less same as
the blast furnace, but it is smaller in size. Its shape is cylindrical with diameter of
about 1 m and height of about 5 m. Fig. shows a typical cupola furnace.
 The working of cupola furnace is also similar to that of blast furnace. The raw
materials are fed from top. The cupola furnace is worked intermittently and it is open
at top. After the raw materials are placed, the furnace is fired and blast of air is forced
through tuyeres. The blast of air is cold as the impurities in pig-iron are removed by the
oxidation.The working of cupola furnace is also similar to that of blast furnace. The
raw materials are fed from top. The cupola furnace is worked intermittently and it is
open at top. After the raw materials are placed, the furnace is fired and blast of air is
forced through tuyeres. The blast of air is cold as the impurities in pig-iron are
removed by the oxidation.
 ADVANTAGES
 Advantages of cast iron

 It has Good casting properties

 It is available in large quantities, hence produced in mass scale.

 Tools required for casting process are relatively cheap and inexpensive.

 This results into low cost of its products.

 It can be given any complex shape and size without using costly machining operations

 It has three to five times more compression strength compared to steel

 It has Good machinability (gray cast iron)It has excellent anti-vibration (or damping) properties hence it is used to make machine frames

 It has good Sensibility

 It has excellent resistance to wear

 It has constant Mechanical properties between 20 to 350 degree Celsius

 It has very low notch sensitivity

 It has Low stress concentration

 It bears Low cost

 It has Durability

 It has Resistance to deformation

DISADVANTAGES

 is Prone to rusting
 It has poor tensile strength
 Its parts are section sensitive, this is due to slow cooling of thick sections.
 failure of Its parts is sudden and total, it does not exhibit yield point.
 It has poor impact resistance
 Compared to steel it has poor machinability
 It has High weight to strength ratio
 It has High brittleness
 It is Non machinable (white cast iron)
WROUGHT IRON
WROUGHT IRON IS AN IRON ALLOY WITH
A VERY LOW CARBON CONTENT (LESS
THAN 0.08%) IN CONTRAST TO THAT OF
CAST IRON (2.1% TO 4%). IT IS A SEMI-
FUSED MASS OF IRON WITH FIBROUS
SLAG INCLUSIONS (UP TO 2% BY
WEIGHT), WHICH GIVES IT A "GRAIN"
RESEMBLING WOOD THAT IS VISIBLE
WHEN IT IS ETCHED OR BENT TO THE
POINT OF FAILURE. WROUGHT IRON IS
TOUGH, MALLEABLE, DUCTILE,
CORROSION RESISTANT, AND EASILY
WELDED.
PROPERTIES

 Soft.

 Ductile.

 Magnetic.

 Strong - high elasticity and tensile strength.

 Malleable - can be heated and reheated and worked into various shapes.

 Becomes stronger the more it is worked.

 Suitable for members in tension or compression (whereas cast iron is suitable for
members in compression only).
 USES

 Used for rivets, chains, ornamental iron work,

railway couplings, bridges, water and steam
pipes.
 Roofing sheets, corrugated sheets.

 It is manufactured for bolts and nuts, horse

shoe bars, handrails, straps for timer roof
trusses, boiler tubes, roofing sheets, etc.
 MANUFACTURING
 BLOOMERY PROCESS • the bloomery is preheated by burning charcoal, and once hot, iron ore and additional
charcoal are introduced through the top, in a roughly one to one ratio • Air was blown in through a tuyere to heat
the bloomery to a temperature somewhat below the melting point of iron. • Slag would melt and run out, and
carbon Monoxide from the charcoal would reduce the ore to iron. • The mixed iron and slag cool to form a spongy
mass referred to as the bloom • Because the bloom is highly porous, and its open spaces are full of slag, the bloom
must later be reheated and beaten with a hammer to drive the molten slag out of it. Iron treated this way is said to
be wrought (worked), and the resulting iron, with reduced amounts of slag is called wrought iron or bar iron. • After
smelting was complete, the bloom was removed, and the process could then be started again.
 FINERY PROCESS. • Pieces of cast iron were placed on a finery hearth. • On finery hearth charcoal was being burned with
a plentiful supply of air so that carbon in the iron was removed by oxidation, leaving semisolid malleable iron behind. • It
was in turn replaced by the puddling process
 PUDDLING PROCESS •Wrought iron is manufactured from process of puddling of cast iron. • This involves
reheating cast iron and manually mixing air in with the molten mass. • Puddling, by which the molten metal is
still further exposed to a blast of air .Method of converting pig iron into wrought iron by subjecting it to heat
and frequent stirring in a furnace. • It was the first method that allowed wrought iron to be produced on a
large scale.
 ASTONPROCESS • It involves taking molten steel from a Bessemer converter and pouring it into cooler liquid
slag. • The molten steel contains a large amount of dissolved gases so when the liquid steel hits the cooler
surfaces of the liquid slag the gases are liberated • The molten steel then freezes to yield a spongy mass
having a temperature of about 1370 °C. • . This spongy mass must then be finished by being shingled and
rolled.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

Disadvantages of wrought iron

Advantages of wrought iron
• It cannot be hardened by heating and quenching
• It has excellent weldability • It cannot take sudden loads
• It is tough
• It can be forged easily
• It has high tensile strength
• It has high compressive strength
 SOLDERING

Solders are melted using heat from a temperature-controlled soldering iron. The
solder melts at a temperature below 450°C. A flux is used in soldering to clean
the metal surfaces, allowing easier flow of the liquid filler metal over the base
material.
Base materials suitable for joining by soldering include brass, copper, iron, gold
and silver. Filler metals used in soldering were once lead based, however, owing to
regulations, lead-based solders are increasingly replaced with non-lead versions,
which may consist of antimony, bismuth, copper, indium, tin or silver.
Soldering is widely used in the electronics industry for making electrical
connections, such joining copper to printed circuit boards (PCB). Plumbers also
use the process to join copper pipes. One high-value application of soldering is for
the assembly of jewelry.
WHAT IS METAL JOINING PROCESS?

Metal Joining is defined as joining of two metal parts either temporarily or

permanently with or with out the application of heat or pressure.

 Classification
 Riveting – Permanent Joining
 Bolting – Temporary Joining
 Welding/Brazing/Soldering – Permanent Joining
• Riveting Its is metal joining Process in which the two metallic parts are joined by
the use of rivets.
• In this process, the metallic parts to be joined do not undergo any change in their
physical structure or atomic structure. However Force is required for riveting.
• Riveting is used widely in automobile and aerospace industry and in many other
applications where we require permanent/semi-permanent bonding and where
bolting and welding is not an option.
• Mostly done for low thickness sheet metals and Aluminum.
1. Lap Joint
Lap is when two plates are placed above or below each other. When two plates are folded under or above
each other, this type of joint is called a lap joint.

Riveted Lap joints are made by placing two plates above or below each other, creating a hole in these two
plates & fixing the rivet inside the holes of the two plates, and hitting the rivet’s tail with a hammer.

2. Butt Joint
In the butt joint, both plates are combined by placing the plates on each other or on each other. The two plate
touches each other but does not overlap each other. To join two plates side by side, cover plates are used,
which typically have a thickness less than the thickness of the main plate.

The butt joint is placed on either side of the main plate and on both sides of the plate by covering the plate,
and holes are made at the joint of the main plate, and a rivet is inserted into the cover plate and each hole of
both plates
 1. Single Riveted Joint
 If a single line of the rivet is inserted between the two
plates, then it is called a Single Riveted Joint. Single
Riveted Joints can be of Lap type or Butt Type.

 2. Double Riveted Joint

 If two lines of rivet are inserted between the two plates,
then this type of joint is called a Double Riveted Joint.
Double Riveted Joints can be of Lap type or Butt Type.

 In Double Riveted Lap Joints, there are two lines of rivets

between the main plates used to create a joint. In
Double Riveted Lap Joints, there are two lines of rivets in
each main plate and cover plate combinations.
ADVANTAGES OF RIVETED JOINTS:

 Quality inspection of a riveted joints is very easy and cheap.

 It is more reliable.
 At the time of dismantling, the part joined have less damage as compared to
welded parts.
 The parts which are joined by rivets joints do not have any damage due to heat, as
in the case of weldings joints.
 BOLTING
Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in construction and
machine design. They consist of fasteners that capture and join other parts,
and are secured with the mating of screw threads.

There are two main types of bolted joint designs: tension joints and shear joints.

In the tension joint, the bolt and clamped components of the joint are designed to
transfer an applied tension load through the joint by way of the clamped components Bolted joint in vertical
by the design of a proper balance of joint and bolt stiffness. cutaway

The second type of bolted joint transfers the applied load in shear of the bolt
shank and relies on the shear strength of the bolt. Tension loads on such a joint
are only incidental. A preload is still applied but consideration of joint flexibility is
not as critical as in the case where loads are transmitted through the joint in
tension.
DISADVANTAGES OF RIVETED JOINTS:

 The cost of labor is high.

 Due to holes, plates become weak.
 Overall cost, including labor costs, is high relatively.
 Stress is concentrated near the holes.
 The overall weight of the joints parts increases.
 Riveting creates more noise.
BRAZING
Brazing is considered as a high-temperature version of soldering. There are
several brazing variants, including torch brazing, vacuum brazing, furnace
brazing and induction brazing. Regardless of the type, the braze filler metal
melts at a temperature above 450°C, but always below that of the base
materials to be joined. The filler metal, while heated slightly above melting point,
is protected by a suitable atmosphere, which is often supplied by a flux. The flux,
as with soldering, also helps to clean the metal surfaces.
Base materials suitable for brazing include aluminum, copper, gold, nickel, silver
and steel. Primary filler metals used in brazing include aluminum, cobalt,
copper, gold, nickel or silver. These primary filler metals are often alloyed with
other elements to obtain desirable properties and performance.
Brazing is a commercially accepted process used in a wide range of industries
due to its flexibility and the high integrity to which joints may be produced. This
makes it reliable in critical and non-critical applications, and it is one of the most
widely used joining methods.
WELDING

Welding has been used to join most metals known to humankind, but the process is extensively used for common
manufacturing materials, such as aluminum, steel and titanium. Welded components are in use all around us in
everyday life, such as in aero planes, bridges, buildings, cars and ships.
Sl.No. Welding Soldering Brazing
1 These are the strongest joints that can bear the load. The These are the weakest joint of the These are stronger than soldering
strength of the welded joint can exceed the strength of the three. Not to bear the weight. but also weaker than welding. It
base metal. Generally, use to make electrical can be used to bear some load.
contacts.
2 The temperature of the desired welding zone is up to Temperature required upto 450°C. It may go up to 600°C in brazing.
3800°C.
3 The workpiece needs to be heated to their melting point to Workpieces do not need to be The workpiece is heated but below
join. heated. the melting point.
4 The mechanical properties of the base metal may vary in There is no change in mechanical The mechanical properties of the
the joint space due to heating and cooling. properties after joining. joint may change, but it is almost
negligible.
5 Involving heat consumption, high-level skills are required. The costs involved and the skill The costs involved and the skills
requirement is very low. needed are between the two
others.
6 Heat treatment is usually required to eliminate the No heat treatment is required. No heat treatment is required after
unwanted effects of welding. brazing.
7 Since it is performed at high temperature, it is not Preheating the workpiece before Preheating is beneficial for forming
necessary to preheat the work before welding. soldering is good for making good a solid joint because brazing is
quality joints. done at relatively low
temperatures.
MARKET SURVEY
KACHHA LOHA= Rs. 70-75/Kg
KACHHA LOHA( SCRAP)= Rs. 20-25/Kg
GATE WELDING= Rs. 80-90/Kg
WELDING (REINFORCED/SARIA)= Rs. 50-60/Kg
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