FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, AKURE

DEPARTMENT: QUANTITY SURVEYING

A PROJECT ON FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METAL IN THE CONSTRUCION

INDUSTRY

PRESENTED BY:

OYELADE RIDWAN AYOMIDE QSV/16/8648

OYENEYE OLADIPUPO EMMANUEL QSV/16/8649
OYETOLA TEMITAYO OYEBAMIJI QSV/16/8650
YAKUB HAMID TIMILEHIN QSV/16/8653
ADEYEMI PETER QSV/17/3901
ADEBAYO YUSUFF QSV/17/3891
ADEDEJI OLUWALERE QSV/17/3893

PRESENTED TO: MR. EHIZ

DATE: 22/10/2019
 FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METAL
1. INTRODUCTION

2. TYPES OF FERROUS METAL

a. IRON
i. PIG IRON
ii. CAST IRON
iii. WROUGHT IRON

b. STEEL
i. STEEL SECTIONS
ii. REINFORCEMENT BARS

3. NON-FERROUS
a. ALUMINIUM
b. BRONZE
c. COPPER
d. NICKEL
e. ZINC
f. GOLD
g. ALLOIDS
1. INTRODUCTION

Ferrous materials/metals may be defined as those metals whose main constituent is iron
Such as pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their alloys. The principal raw materials
For ferrous metals is pig iron. Ferrous materials are usually stronger and harder and are
Used in daily life products. Ferrous material possesses a special property that their
Characteristics can be altered by heat treatment processes or by addition of small quantity
Of alloying elements. Ferrous metals possess different physical properties according to
Their carbon content.
The industrial age saw a substantial increase in the use of mass produced cast and wrought iron
and its use in architecture. Whilst its use is familiar in railway infrastructure, it was commonly
used by the close of the 19th century in the frame of many commercial and industrial buildings, as
well as used more decoratively as railings and gates.
Ferrous metals such as cast and wrought iron, and steel, will usually need to be protected with a
coating, and will rust if this fails. Ferrous metals expand as they decay and this is commonly
identified in layering of the surface (known as corrosion jacking). When the metalwork in
question is embedded within the structure or covered by other materials the rate of decay can go
unnoticed until surface materials start to crack. These types of repair are structurally complex
and require specialist advice.

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of iron or iron as
Base metal. These metals possess low strength at high temperatures, generally suffer
From hot shortness and have more shrinkage than ferrous metals. They are utilized in
Industry due to following advantages:
1. High corrosion resistance
2. Easy to fabricate, i.e., machining, casting, welding, forging and rolling
3. Possess very good thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Attractive colour and low density
The various non-metals used in industry are: Copper, Aluminum, Lead, Zinc, and
Nickel, etc., and their alloys.
In some cases, they form far better materials than iron and steel and have replaced them to a
great extent.
However, the non-ferrous metals are comparatively costlier and are selected for use only when
they satisfy certain specific requirements and possess some definite properties.
Following are the special advantages of non-ferrous metals over ferrous metals in some selected
areas.
In Civil Engineering Construction, Aluminum and some of its alloys offer a very suitable
alternative material to steel in some special engineering construction. Thus, wrought aluminum
alloys are:
i. Economical;
ii. Resistant to Corrosion;
iii. Light in weight;
Compared to steels, they have been used in, i.e., construction of bridges and roofs in situations
where not much strength is required.
In these situations, they have been found to save 50% of extra weight.
In Engineering Industries, Copper, zinc, nickel, and chromium in their pure and alloyed forms
have been used as materials in situations where:
I. High tensile strength is required at elevated temperatures.
II. High ductility and malleability are required.
III. High resistance to heat is required.
IV. High electrical conductivity is required.
In the above fields and situations, mostly non-ferrous metals are used.

2. TYPES OF FERROUS METAL

a. Iron:
I. Pig iron:
Pig Iron is the first or basic form in which Iron is prepared as the metal from its ores.
It is, therefore, impure and crude and requires subsequent processing to develop Cast and
Wrought Iron and Steel, which are the common Ferrous Metals used in construction and
industries.

Following are a few types of Pig Iron distinguished on the basis of their properties.
 a) Grey Pig Iron:
It is also called foundry pig. It is soft in character and rich in carbon. It is produced when the raw
material is burnt at a very high temperature.
b) White Pig Iron:
It is also called forge Pig Iron, as it is hard and brittle and can be converted only by using
pressure. This type contains sulfur as the main impurity and hence is considered inferior in
grade.
c) Bessemer Pig Iron:
It is specially used in the manufacture of Steel in the Bessemer process, because of its freedom
from sulfur and phosphorous.
II. Cast Iron:
Cast Iron is derived from the Pig Iron. Pig Iron, because of its impurities, is weak and hence very
difficult to shape into various forms.
Therefore, Pig Iron is remolded in a furnace and cast or poured into molds of the desired shape to
get the Iron known as Cast Iron.

Manufacturing of Cast Iron;

Cast Iron is manufactured in a furnace known as cupola furnace. Cupola furnace is cylindrical in
shape with an almost uniform diameter (about 1 meter) and a height of about 5 to 6 meters. The
cylinder has an inner lining of Refractory Bricks which is provided with Tuyers near the bottom
for injecting the supply of air blast. The outer shell is made of Steel. The top of the furnace
remains open. The cupola furnace contains a charging door, a platform and tapping holes for the
purpose of blasting the air. The working of the furnace or manufacturing of Cast Iron is as
follows: The mixture of Pig Iron, coke, and limestone, known as a charge, is prepared in correct
proportions. Coke is used as fuel and limestone as a fluxing material. Flux is the material which
easily fuses and mixes with impurities to form a slag, which can be taken through the top of the
furnace.
The molten metal in almost pure form is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with the
floating slag. The slag is removed intermittently through the hole and molten metal taken out
through its tap hole. The molten metal taken out are fed into the molds prepared to get desired
shapes. The Iron obtained is known as Cast Iron, and the shapes obtained are called Cast Iron
castings. The Cast Iron thus obtained, has 1.7 to 4% of carbon with small impurities of
manganese, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur.
General Properties of Cast Iron;
1. It is hard and brittle.
2. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered.
3. It cannot be forged, welded, or riveted.
4. It cannot be magnetized.
5. It does not rust easily.
6. It becomes soft in saltwater.
7. It shrinks easily.
8. It is weak in tension and strong in compression.
9. It is not suitable for shock and impact loads.
10. It has a specific gravity of 7.5, and it has a melting point of 1250°C.
11. It has good machinability property.
Uses of Cast Iron;
1. Used for water and gas pipes.
2. Used in manufacturing of cisterns, sewer and drain pipes, manhole covers and fittings.
3. Used for rail chairs, carriage wheels, etc.
4. Used in compression members, bed plates, etc.
5. Used for making parts, bodies, and beds of machines.
Types of Cast Iron;
Following are the common types of Cast Iron used in engineering materials.
i. Grey Cast Iron:
Grey Cast Iron is produced by melting the foundry Pig Iron or grey Pig Iron in the cupola
furnace. It shows grey color when fractured. The grey color is due to the presence of free
graphite.
The usual composition of Grey Cast Iron is:
Iron – 92 percent.
Carbon – 3 to 3.5 percent (as graphite).
Carbon – 0.5 percent (combined).
Silicon – 1 to 2.75 percent.
Manganese – 1 percent.
Phosphorus – 0.5 to 1 percent.
Sulfur – 0.02 to 0.15 percent.
It is soft and ductile. It is commonly used in castings, dies, molds, machine frames, and pipes,
etc.
Properties of Grey Cast Iron;
1. It is gray in color.
2. It is soft compared to other Cast Irons and has good machinability.
3. It has high compressive strength.
4. It is poor in tensile strength and impact strength with almost no ductility.
Uses of Grey Cast Iron;
1. It is used for machine tool bodies.
2. It is used for pipe and pipe fittings.
3. It is used for automobile cylinder blocks, heads, housings, etc.
4. It is used in flywheels and agricultural implements.
ii. White Cast Iron:
It is white in color as there is no free graphite. In white Cast Iron, the entire carbon is in
combined state. i.e., in the form of cementite, also known as Iron carbide. White Cast Iron is
produced by melting the low phosphorus Pig Iron along with the Steel scraps in a cupola furnace.
The Cast Iron thus obtained is in a molten state, and it is chilled, i.e., it is cooled rapidly.
Therefore, it is also known as chilled Cast Iron. Due to rapid cooling, its outer surface becomes
harder while its interior remains softer. It has a shiny white color and a bright metallic white
luster. It is very strong, hard, and resistant to Wear and Tear. And quite brittle as well.
Its usual composition is as follows:
Iron – 94 percent.
Carbon – 1.75 to 2.3 percent.
Silicon – 0.85 to 1.2 percent.
Manganese – 0.1 to 0.4 percent.
Phosphorous – 0.05 to 0.2 percent.
Sulfur – 0.12 to 0.35 percent.
Properties of White Cast Iron;
1. It is white in color.
2. It is hardest of all Cast Irons and is wear-resistant.
3. It is brittle.
4. It has high tensile strength but weak compressive strength.
5. It is not easily machine able due to its hardness, hence, require special tools for machining.
Uses of White Cast Iron:
It is used for car wheels, rollers for crushing grains, crusher jaw plates, etc.
iii. Malleable Cast Iron:
Malleable Cast Iron is the annealed White Cast Iron, i.e., white Cast Iron is heated slowly up to
900 to 950°C temperature for several days and then cooled at a slower rate.
The Iron obtained is malleable as well as ductile. It possesses useful properties of both Cast Iron
and mild Steels.
The tensile strength of malleable Cast Iron is higher than that of grey Cast Iron and has good
machinability.
It is used for hubs of wagon wheels, railway rolling stock, brake supports, parts of agricultural
machinery, pipe fittings, door hinges, locks, etc.
Uses of Malleable Cast Iron;
1. It is used in Automobile industries for making rear-axle housing, steering-gear housing, hubs,
and pedals, etc.
2. It is used in Railways equipment of a great variety.
3. It is used in Agricultural machinery making and carpentry tools.

iv. Ductile Cast Iron:

It is a modified Grey Cast Iron. It is also called as nodular or spheroid graphite Cast Iron or high
strength Cast Iron. Ductile Cast Iron is produced by adding any one of the elements of
magnesium, calcium, cerium, bismuth, zinc, cadmium, titanium, and boron into the molten Grey
Cast Iron.
Composition of ductile Cast Iron is;
Carbon – 3.2 to 4.5%.
Silicon – 1 to 4%.
Magnesium – 0.1% to 0.8%.
Phosphorus – 0.1%.
Iron – the rest % is Iron.
Properties of Ductile Cast Iron;
1. It has high fluidity.
2. It has high tensile strength, toughness, and wear resistance.
Uses of Ductile Cast Iron;
1. It is used for castings where shock and impact loads are operating.
2. It is used in rolls for rolling mills, hydraulic cylinders, cylinder heads, etc.
v. Alloy Cast Iron:
Alloy Cast Irons are also called as plain Cast Irons. Alloyed Cast Irons are produced by adding
the alloying elements to the Pig Iron in the cupola furnace itself or adding the same into the
molten Cast Iron taken out of the furnace.
Better results are obtained when Pig Iron with alloying elements are heated in an electric furnace
or air furnace. The alloying elements used are; nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium.
The usual alloying elements are Nickel and Chromium. Nickel is added to effect an increase in
the hardness and resistance to wear. Chromium makes the Cast Iron extremely tough, strong and
ductile.
The alloy Cast Irons are used for gears, sprockets, wheels, I.C engine cylinders, piston, piston
rings, crankcases, crankshafts, camshaft, brake drums and shoes, parts of grinding machines, etc.

iii. Wrought Iron:

It is the purest form of Iron, containing all impurities below a limit of 0.5 percent. And carbon is
included in these impurities, its proportion being generally less than 0.12 percent.
Besides, Wrought Iron always contains a small proportion of slag in the silicate component.
The source material for the manufacture of Wrought Iron is PIG IRON. There are two processes
for the manufacture of Wrought Iron:
a. Puddling Process.
b. Aston Process.

Properties and Uses of Wrought Iron:

Its most important properties are mentioned below.
Strength: It has a tensile strength varying between 2500 to 4000 kg/cm2. The strength will be
greater in the longitudinal direction.
The ultimate compressive strength ranges between 1500-2000 kg/cm2.
Physical: Wrought Iron is bluish in color, has a silky luster and fibrous structure. It is malleable,
ductile, tough, and resistant to corrosion.
Density: The metal has a density of 7.8 gm/cm3 and a melting point of 1500 centigrade.
Wrought Iron shows good resistance to fatigue and sudden shock. Moreover, it can be welded
with ease.
Because of the above set of properties, Wrought Iron is extensively used as a material for making
plates, sheets, pipes, tubes, etc.
It is also used in buildings, railways, and marine industries.

b. STEEL
The versatility of steel gives architects the freedom to achieve their most ambitious visions.
Structural steel is an essential component of most stadia, shopping centers and commercial
developments; steel cladding systems adorn iconic, landmark structures worldwide. Steel is one
of the most sustainable construction materials. Its strength and durability coupled to its ability to
be recycled, again and again, without ever losing quality make it truly compatible with long term
sustainable development. Building owners value the flexibility of steel buildings, and the value
benefits they provide, such as the light, open, airy spaces that can be created, making it ideal for
modernization, reconfiguring, extending or adapting with minimal disruption, and without costly
and sometimes harmful demolition and redevelopment. Even without these benefits, steel is often
the first choice on the basis of cost alone. Many of the advantages of steel construction are
applicable to all building types and sectors.
Steel is an alloy of Iron and carbon, where the carbon content is less than 1.7%. If the carbon
content in Steel exceeds 1.7%, it does not combine with the Iron, but it is present as free
graphite. Besides carbon, many other metals may also be present in addition to Iron, giving rise
to great varieties of Steel. On the basis of the presence of free graphite, differentiation of Steel
and Cast Iron can be made. If there is a free graphite present, it is a Cast Iron, otherwise a Steel.
The hardness and toughness of Steel increase with the increase in carbon content up to 1.7%. On
the other hand, with the decrease in the carbon content (lower than 0.1%), the material would
resemble more to Wrought Iron or pure Iron. The best thing about Steel is that it has both
properties of Cast and Wrought Iron – Compressive Strength of Cast Iron and Tensile Strength
of Wrought Iron.
Due to these properties, Steel is used as a structural material in all types of situations. Steel is a
versatile material of modern age. Its properties can be varied over a wide range by varying its
composition and by subjecting it to various mechanical and heat treatment processes. As we
noted earlier, Cast Iron is better in resisting compressive stresses, while Wrought Iron is suited to
tensile stresses. Steel is superior in resisting both compressive and tensile stresses. Hence, Steel
finds most of the applications for all purposes in places of Cast Iron and Wrought Iron. The
elements of the composition of Steel apart from carbon are sulfur, silicon, phosphorus,
manganese, etc.

Manufacturing of Steel;
Steel is manufactured using one of the following processes:
1. Bessemer process.
2. Open hearth process.
3. L-D process.
4. Crucible process.
5. Electric process.
6. Duplex process.
7. Cementation process.
Classification of Steels:
Steels can be classified in many ways such as on the basis of the methods used in their
manufacture, on the carbon content, or according to their use. It can also be classified on the
basis of Steel casting. It is, however, the classification on the basis of their chemical composition
is commonly adopted.
Following are the major groups of Steels.
1. Plain Carbon Steels:
This is the first major group of Steels. Carbon is the only controlling component in them besides
Iron. They are further subdivided into 3 subcategories.
Low Carbon Steels (C=0.05-0.25%)
Medium Carbon Steels (C=0.25-0.50%)
High Carbon Steels (C=0.50-1.50%)
2. Alloy Steels:
An alloy is the purposeful mixture of two or more elements of which one being in largest
proportion is called as base metal, and other elements are called as alloying elements. However,
the Steel, containing Iron and carbon, is not referred to as an alloy. But if elements are added
other than Iron and carbon, the Steel is known as alloy Steel.
Thus all the Steels, in addition to Iron and carbon-containing other elements such as; nickel,
chromium, manganese, silicon, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, sulfur, phosphorus, etc., are
called as alloy Steels. The purpose of alloying is to improve the properties of Steel, like
imparting the fine grain size, to improve the hardness, toughness, strength, corrosion resistance,
etc. These are Steels made with the addition of a definite proportion of a selected element or
elements in addition to carbon at the manufacturing stage.
Benefits of alloying are as follow:
 The tensile strength of the Steel may be increased without affecting its workability.
 The resistance against very high temperature, abrasion and corrosion may be improved
considerably.
 The electrical, magnetic, and thermal properties may be modified in the desired direction.
They can be sub-divided into 2 types on the basis of the proportion of alloying elements, which
are the following:
o Low Alloy Steels.
o High Alloy Steels.
Advantage of steels
a. Adaptability
b. Steel can be adjusted or changed according to the owner’s requirement. For
instance, wall frames made from this type of material can be repositioned or
altered easily in order to
c. widen the space or create a new interior building layout. This ability to adapt to
changes allows for easier expansions, at the same time helps extend the lifespan
of the structure.
d. Beauty
e. It offers a stylish way of creating large, column-free interiors, thereby giving the
building a sense of openness. It’s also malleable, giving structural designers the
 freedom to explore ideas in terms of creating stylish shapes and textures in order
to make the building distinct.
f. Cost-effectivity
g. It is light-weight compared to timber, which makes it easier to transport and thus,
reduces fuel costs and accelerates project schedules. Aside from this, it is also
energy efficient and can be recycled, creating minimal raw material wastes.
h. Ductility
i. It does not buckle, distort, rotate, clink, warp or splinter; but it can be rolled or cut
and turned into a variety of sizes and shapes without changing its composition or
physical property through structural steel fabrication.
j. Durability
k. It can withstand extreme forces or harsh weather conditions, such as strong winds,
earthquakes, hurricanes and heavy snow. They are also unreceptive to rust and,
unlike wood frames, they are not affected by termites, bugs, mildew, mold and
fungi. Additionally, they are more fire-resistant compared to wooden frames.
Utilizing steel supplies in building residential, commercial or industrial structures
is definitely a worthy investment. If you are planning on using these materials as
the functional support for your construction project, make sure to choose quality
products from trusted steel suppliers like us here at Stronghold Fabrications.

i. STEEL SECTIONS
Types of Manufactured Steel Sections
Steel is such a versatile metal as it can be fabricated into various shapes and sizes. In the
fabrication industry, structural fabricators produce various steel sections for the
construction of buildings, bridges, skyscrapers and industrial equipment. Depending on
the site and blueprint designed by the engineer, different types of manufactured steel
sections are used. Edmonton Steel Fabricators use a whole range of manufactured steel
sections. Some commonly used manufactured steel sections are:
a) Angled Sections
These are steel bars which are L-shaped or angular shaped. They can have equal
or unequal sides and always form a right angle. These angular structural steel
sections are mostly used to build the framework of buildings.
b) U-shaped Channels
These are u-shaped steel bars. They are manufactured in various sizes and their
two sides are always parallel to each other at right angles. U- Shaped channels are
used as braces in buildings to reinforce the structure. They are also used as
support beams in carports.
 a.

c) Flat Bars
It is practically impossible to imagine any kind of construction without using flat
steel bars. These bars are usually used to attach other sections. They are cost
effective, versatile, and environment friendly. Flat bars can be fabricated to any
desired shape or are used with various other manufactured steel sections.

d) Beams
They have an H-shaped or an I- shaped cross section. These are also known as I-
Beams or universal beams. I-Beams are widely used in the construction industry.
 They provide vertical support as they have a strong center. These beams can be
used on their own or can be cast in concrete.

e) Round and Square Shaped Bars

These are round shaped and square shaped solid bars. They are used in
manufacturing industrial equipment, agricultural appliances, and for general
fabrication work.
 f) Circular Hollow Sections
These are structural steel bars which are circular in shape and are hollow. The
thickness of the walls of this section is uniform everywhere. The hollow nature of
this steel section is known to have high resistance to torsion. They are mostly
used for multi-axis loading applications.

ii. STEEL REINFORCEMENT

Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement concrete to
make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement concrete
structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebar’s’. Steel reinforcement bar is
also known as rebar, reinforcing bar, reinforcing steel and reinforcement steel. It is a versatile
constructional material which is widely used in the construction industry for making of the
reinforced concrete. Reinforcement concrete (RC) is a composite material made up of concrete
and some form of reinforcement – most commonly steel rods, bars, wires or mesh of steel rods
and steel wires. The steel reinforcement bars usually consist of such shape and size that they may
easily be bent and placed in the concrete so as to form a monolithic structure.
Steel reinforcement bars are normally divided into primary and secondary reinforcement as given
below. However, there are also other minor uses.
• Primary reinforcement refers to the steel which is employed to guarantee the resistance needed
by the structure as a whole to support the design loads.
• Secondary reinforcement is also known as distribution or thermal reinforcement and is
employed for durability and aesthetic reasons, by providing enough localized resistance to limit
cracking and resist stresses caused by effects such as temperature changes and shrinkage.
• Steel rebar’s are also employed to confer resistance to concentrated loads by providing enough
localized resistance and stiffness for a load to spread through a wider area.
• Steel rebar’s may also be used to hold other steel bars in the correct position to accommodate
their loads.
Common definitions connected with steel reinforcement bars
• Steel reinforcing bar – It is a steel product with a circular or practically circular cross section
which is suitable for the reinforcement of concrete.
• Ribbed steel reinforcing bar – It is a steel reinforcing bar with at least two rows of transverse
ribs, which are uniformly distributed over the entire length.
• Nominal cross sectional area – It is the cross sectional area equivalent to the area of a circular
plain bar of the same nominal diameter, d (i.e.? d²/4).
• Longitudinal rib – It is a uniform and continuous protrusion parallel to the axis of the steel
reinforcing bar.
• Transverse rib – It is a rib on the surface of the steel reinforcement bar other than a longitudinal
rib.
• Transverse rib flank inclination angle – It is the angle of the rib flank measured perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the rib.
• Transverse rib inclination angle – It is the angle between the axis of the transverse rib and the
longitudinal I’ll axis of the steel reinforcement bar.
• Rib height – It is the distance from the highest point of the rib (transverse or longitudinal) to the
surface of the core, to be measured normal to the axis of the steel reinforcement bar.
• Rib spacing – It is the distance between the centers of two consecutive transverse ribs measured
parallel to the axis of the steel reinforcement bar.
• Relative rib area – It is the area of the projection of all ribs on a plane perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the steel reinforcement bar divided by the rib spacing and the nominal
circumference.
• Standard property – It is the property which is determined as part of the routine inspection and
test require cements.
• Special property – It is the property which is not determined as part of the routine inspection
and test requirements. (e.g. fatigue properties).
Types of Steel Reinforcement
The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They are:
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
4. Prestressing Steel Bar
1, Hot Rolled Deformed Bars
Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As
the name says, the hot rolling of the reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations on
its surface in the form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete. The typical yield
strength of hot-rolled deformed bars is 60000psi.
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold
working. In the cold working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing. The process is
performed at room temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus
have less ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.

3. Mild Steel Plain Bars

The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their surface. They have a plain
surface. These bars are used for small projects where the major concern is the economy. The
tensile yield strength of these bars has a value of 40000psi.
4, Prestressing Steel Bars
The prestressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or tendons.
Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the prestressing action. The
strands are made of multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used here are cold
formed and have a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This high strength
helps to effectively prestress the concrete.
Advantages of Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its
unique advantages. They are:
a) Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold already
prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete during the
concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand special tying up
with formworks.
b) Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have the
ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.
 c) Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard size,
it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are delivered
easily at the site.
d) Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a structure is
recycled again and used for new construction.
e) Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or manufacturer.
Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.
Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement
The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:
a) Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is small
and subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes reaction
and starts to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to failure.
b) Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of
construction
c) Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt. This
is the reason why the steel reinforcement is tied up and not welded.
3. TYPES OF NON FERROUS METALS
a. ALUMINIUM
Aluminium makes up more than 8% of the Earth’s core mass and is the most widespread metal.
It is also the third most common chemical element after oxygen and silicon. It is the 13 element
on the Periodic Table and has a silvery-white appearance. Pure aluminium does not occur in
nature because it binds very easily with other elements. It is because of this that aluminium was
only discovered in the 19th century when scientists were able to break down chemical
compounds into their elements. Because of the high costs of the extraction process, it wasn't until
the late 19th century that it was possible to produce aluminium on an industrial scale for use in
construction and other industries.
Extraction process
Aluminium is relatively expensive because of the amount of energy required for its extraction. It
is extracted from aluminium oxide, a white powder which is purified from aluminium ore
(bauxite). The aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (an aluminium compound that has
a lower melting point than aluminium itself). Aluminium is then extracted by a process of
electrolysis or electrolytic reduction. Electricity is passed through the liquid, and aluminium
forms at the negative electrode. It then sinks to the bottom of the tank, where it can be tapped off.

The main market sectors are windows, roofing, cladding, curtain walling and structural glazing,
prefabricated buildings, architectural hardware, H&V, shop fitting and partitions. Aluminium is
also used extensively in plant, ladders and scaffolding.
By selecting the right alloy, the designer is offered a wide range of properties including high
strength (up to 400 MPa or 26 tonnes per sq. inch), low density, high thermal conductivity, and
good forming and joining characteristics. The choice of the most appropriate alloy of the 6000
series for a particular extrusion depends on the nature of the task it has to perform. A balance has
to be struck between strength, ease of forming and finish. The 6063 alloy, for instance, has good
extrudability, corrosion resistance and surface finish; and is thus widely used in fenestration. The
properties of the individual alloys are amplified by the shape of the extruding die. Careful and
knowledgeable design can take advantage of the ability of the extrusion process to distribute the
material across the section to exactly where it is needed for a particular performance
requirement.
Advantages:
1. Lightweight:
2. Aluminium is one of the lightest available commercial metals with a density
approximately one third that of steel or copper.
3. Excellent Corrosion Resistance:
4. Aluminium has excellent resistance to corrosion due to the thin layer of aluminium oxide
that forms on the surface of aluminium when it is exposed to air
5. Strong at Low Temperatures:
6. Whereas steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminium increases in tensile
strength and retains excellent toughness.
7. Easy to Work
8. Aluminium can be easily fabricated into various forms such as foil, sheets, geometric
shapes, rod, tube and wire.

9. Easy Surface Treatment

For many applications, aluminium requires no protective or decorative coating; the
surface supplied is entirely adequate without further finishing

Disadvantages:
1. Thermal insulation was almost definitely insufficient: aluminium being a good thermal
conductor.
2. Poor water proofing due to the inadequately designed/executed joints between the roof
aluminium sheets
3. General noise caused by rain or hail falling on aluminium roof and wall sheets.

Applications
The best application can be obtained in some typical cases, which are characterized in getting
profit at least of one of the main basic properties: lightness, corrosion resistance and
functionality. The structural applications which best
fit these properties in the field of civil engineering are
the following:
1. Long-span roof systems in which live loads are
small compared with dead loads, as in the
case of reticular space structures and
geodetic domes covering large span areas,
like halls and auditoriums.
2. Structures located in inaccessible places far from the fabrication shop, for which transport
economy and ease of erection are of extreme importance, like for instance electrical
transmission towers, which can be carried by helicopter.
3. Structures situated in corrosive or humid environments such as swimming pool roofs,
river bridges, hydraulic structures and offshore super-structures.
4. Structures having moving parts, such as sewage plant crane bridges and moving bridges,
where lightness means economy of power under service.
5. Structures for special purposes, for which maintenance operations are particularly
difficult and must be limited, as in case of masts, lighting towers, antennas towers, sign
motorway

Properties of Aluminum as Building Material

Following are the properties of aluminum which makes aluminum as one of the important
building materials.
1. Air tightness:
Doors and windows or its frames made form aluminum are perfectly air tight
which cannot permit dust or air or water when they are closed. Now a day for
fully air conditioned buildings like seminar rooms, theaters etc. aluminum doors
and windows are using.
2. Strength to Weight Ratio:
Aluminum as a construction material has a property of very high value of strength
to weight ratio. It represents that small amount of aluminum can give more
strength to structure. Because of less weight we can construct the structure in less
time and load transferring to foundation also reduces.
3. Ease in Fabrication and Assembly:
 Compared to other metals aluminum alloys can be cast, forged, extruded, rolled or
welded easily. During or after composition of aluminum alloy it cannot break
because it is not having brittle nature. The assembly of aluminum structures can
be easily dismantled or transported or assembled.
4. Cryogenics:
Study of phenomena occur at very low temperature is called cryogenics. At very
low temperature steel becomes brittle and lost its strength. But in the case of
aluminum, it is highly suitable for sub-zero temperatures. So, for snow bound
areas aluminum structures are highly preferable.
5. Low Handling and Transportation Cost:
Handling of aluminum is very easy because of its less weight. So, we can
transport it easily in large quantity to any place with low transportation cost.

6. Reflectivity:
Reflectivity of aluminum is also
very high. Aluminum does not absorb
radiant heat and low absorption heat. So,
during summer it maintains the interior
cooler and during winter maintains
warmer condition.
7. Corrosion Resistance:
Corrosion resistance of aluminum is very high. It doesn’t effect by weathering
conditions. They can withstand against humid or hot dry conditions very well.
Because of its good corrosion resistance, aluminum corrugated sheets are widely
used for power plants, chemical plants, paper mills, petroleum refineries etc.
8. Appearance:
Aluminum also gives beauty to the structure. Smooth and bright finishing is
possible for aluminum structures. We can also provide various shades of colors on
the aluminum sheets to enhance decorative style.
9. High Scrap Value:
Scrap value of aluminum is very high. So, it cannot be damaged easily and highly
durable. Because of high scrap value, we can resale it for good value.
10. Sound Proof:
Aluminum sheets acts as sound proof materials. They are excellent reflectors of
sound waves as well as electromagnetic waves. So, they do not allow external
noise into the building and also interior sounds to outside.
11. Low Maintenance Cost:
As said above, aluminum have high corrosive resistance and good properties
against low temperature so, maintenance of aluminum is negligible. Even though
it is expensive to buy, it will with stand for 25-30 years without any maintenance.

12. Durability:
Aluminium building products are made from alloys, which are weather-proof, corrosion-
resistant and immune to the harmful effects of UV rays, ensuring optimal performance
over a very long serviceable lifetime.
13. Fire safety:
Aluminium does not burn and is therefore classed as a non-combustible construction
material. Aluminium alloys will nevertheless melt at around 650°C, but without releasing
harmful gases. Industrial roofs and external walls are increasingly made of thin
aluminium cladding panels, intended to melt during a major fire, allowing heat and
smoke to escape and thereby minimizing damage.
Physically, chemically and mechanically, aluminum is a metal similar to steel, brass,
copper, zinc, lead or titanium. It can be melted, cast, formed and machined in a similar
way to these metals and conducts electric currents. In fact, often the same equipment and
fabrication methods are used as for steel.
14. Light Weight:
Aluminum is a very light metal with a specific weight of 2.7 g/cm3, about a third of that
of steel. This cuts the costs of manufacturing with aluminum. Again, its use in vehicles
reduces dead-weight and energy consumption while increasing load capacity. This also
reduces noise and improves comfort levels.
Its strength can be adapted to the application required by modifying the composition of
its alloys. Aluminum-magnesium-manganese alloys are an optimum mix of formability
with strength, while aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys are ideal for automobile body
sheets, which show good age-hardening when subjected to the bake-on painting process.
15. Corrosion Resistance:
Aluminum naturally generates a protective thin oxide coating which keeps the metal from
making further contact with the environment. It is particularly useful for applications
where it is exposed to corroding agents, as in kitchen cabinets and in vehicles. In general,
aluminum alloys are less corrosion-resistant than pure aluminum, except for marine
magnesium-aluminum alloys. Different types of surface treatment such as anodizing,
painting or lacquering can further improve this property.
16. Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
Aluminum is an excellent heat and electricity conductor and in relation to its weight is
almost twice as good a conductor as copper. This has made aluminum the first choice for
major power transmission lines. It is also a superb heat sink for many applications that
require heat to be drained away rapidly, such as in computer motherboards and LED
lights.

17. Reflectivity:
Aluminum is a good reflector of visible light as well as heat, and that together with its
low weight, makes it an ideal material for reflectors in, for example, light fittings or
rescue blankets. Cool roofs made of coated aluminum are invaluable in reducing internal
solar heat within a house, by reflecting up to 95% of sunlight.
18. Ductility:
Aluminum is ductile and has a low melting point and density. It can be processed in
several ways in a molten condition. Its ductility allows aluminum products to be formed
close to the end of the product’s design. Whether sheets, foil, geometrical configurations,
tubes, rods or wires, aluminum is up to them all.
19. Strength at Low Temperatures:
In contrast to steel, which rapidly becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminum shows
increased tensile strength as temperatures drop.
20. Impermeable and Odorless:
Aluminum foil is only 0.007 mm in thickness, but is still durable and completely
impermeable, keeping any food wrapped in it free of external tastes or smells. It keeps
out ultraviolet rays as well.
Moreover, the metal itself is non-toxic and odorless, which makes it ideal for packaging
sensitive products such as food or pharmaceuticals. The fact that recycled aluminum can
be used reduces the carbon footprint for this stage of food and beverage manufacturers as
well.
21. Non-magnetic:
 Aluminum is non-magnetic, making it useful for electrical shielding as in computer disks,
dish antennas, bus bars or magnet housings.
22. Non-toxic:
Aluminum is non-toxic and is used to make woks, pressure cookers and many other
cooking utensils without fear. It is easily cleaned and does not contaminate the food at
any stage.
23. Sound and Shock Absorption:
Aluminum is an excellent sound absorber and is used for constructing ceilings. It is also
used in auto bumpers due to its shock-absorbing properties.

24. Non-sparking:
Aluminum produces no sparks when it comes into contact with itself or non-ferrous
metals.
25. Recyclability:
Aluminum is 100% recyclable and recycled aluminum is identical to the virgin product.
This makes it a much more cost-effective source material for production runs. The re-
melting of aluminum requires little energy: only about 5% of the energy required to
produce the primary metal initially is needed in the recycling process.
Physically, chemically and mechanically, aluminum is a metal similar to steel, brass,
copper, zinc, lead or titanium. It can be melted, cast, formed and machined in a similar
way to these metals and conducts electric currents. In fact, often the same equipment and
fabrication methods are used as for steel.

b. Bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often
with the addition of other metals (such as aluminium, manganese, nickel or zinc) and sometimes
non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus or silicon. These additions produce a range
of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness,
ductility, or machinability.
Sources of bronze
The bronze age (C. 5000 to 1100 BC) was defined by the production of bronze by smelting,
which combined copper with tin. Bronze was much harder than earlier metals, and its durability
is evident in the multitude of bronze artifacts that have endured. While other metal tools were
fabricated prior to bronze, they were formed of single metals. Bronze required not only the
mining of copper but also trade for tin, which was not available in the same geographic region. It
also required separate smelting, and craftsmen who could combine the materials in the right way,
at the right temperatures, and form the tools.
Bronze were produced with ore naturally contain copper and tin, but Where tin and copper did
not naturally occur, bronze was first made by mixing copper with arsenic to get its hardness, but
this process created a toxic off-gas. Tin replaced arsenic around 3500 BC, in the height of the
Bronze Age, with the transportation and trading of tin in regions without naturally occurring
combination ore, making the bronze stronger and easier to cast. The Iron Age followed when
iron was combined with carbon to make steel, which was stronger and could hold an edge better.
Bronze continued to be used for cast objects and was prized for objects which were exposed to
moisture due to its resistance to corrosion, especially salt water, such as propellers, cannons for
ships, and public sculptures.

Forms of bronze
In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin,
was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets.
Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor were hammered
from mild bronze.
Commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead,
40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main
alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications.
Bismuth bronze is a bronze alloy with a composition of 52% copper, 30% nickel, 12% zinc, 5%
lead, and 1% bismuth. It is able to hold a good polish and so is sometimes used in light reflectors
and mirrors.
Plastic bronze is bronze containing a significant quantity of lead which makes for improved
plasticity, possibly used by the ancient Greeks in their ship construction.
Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn:
1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance.
Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell metal,
arsenical bronze,
speculum metal and cymbal alloys

Characteristics of bronze
1. Bronze are dull gold colored.
2. Bronzes are typically very ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron.
3. Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily
produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than
steel, although alloys using aluminium or silicon may be slightly less dense.
4. Bronze is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels
 5. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that
of nickel -base alloys.
6. Other characteristics include malleability, thermal conductivity, resistance to corrosion
and antimicrobial characteristics.

Uses of bronze
1. In architecture, it can be regularly found in hardware, doors, entrances, fountains,
handrails, column cladding, and architectural details such as plaques, medallions, and
panels.
2. It can be used to create electrical connectors.
3. It can be used to manufacture hammers, mallets and other durable tools.
4. It can be used as interior and exterior decorations as; cast sculptures due to it's desirable
qualities of expanding slightly before setting, and this quality means that bronze can fill
the finest details of a mold.
Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard
material for mirrors due to its reflecting surface.
Defects in bronze
1. Corrosion: Bronze will corrode when exposed to acid rain and air pollution. This
corrosion from the exposure to oxygen and sulfur in the atmosphere forms a
patina on the surface that partially prevents further corrosion.
2. Abrasion: As hard as they are, bronzes can wear away through handling, such as
parts of this statue, here people handle it or sit on it.
3. Cracking: Bronze castings can include inherent flaws due to inconsistencies in
the mold material, the molten bronze being too hot or including air pockets, or
flaws in the crystal structure developed in the cooling process thereby resulting in
cracking.
 Bronze used as mallets, hammers. Bronze used as sculpture for interior and exterior
design

c. COPPER
Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form (native
metals). This led to very early human use in several regions, from c. 8000 BC. Thousands of
years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, c. 5000 BC, the first metal to be
cast into a shape in a mold, c. 4000 BC and the first metal to be purposefully alloyed with
another metal, tin, to create bronze, c. 3500 BC. Copper has been explained earlier to some
extent when we talked about bronze.
SOURCES OF COPPER
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry
copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata, in Chile, Bingham
Canyon Mine, in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine, in New Mexico, United States.
According to the British Geological Survey, in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with
at least one-third of the world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper
can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are
considered prime candidates for this method. The amount of copper in use is increasing and the
quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of
usage.

COMPOSITION OF COPPER
In nature, copper occurs in a variety of minerals, including native copper, copper sulfides such as
chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite, covellite, and chalcocite, copper sulfosalts such as tetrahedite-
tennantite, and enargite, copper carbonates such as azurite and malachite, and as copper(I) or
copper(II) oxides such as cuprite and tenorite, respectively. The largest mass of elemental copper
discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan,
US. Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largest single crystal ever described measuring
4.4×3.2×3.2 cm.
FORMS OF COPPER
Pure copper. Unlike other metals, copper is frequently used in its pure (99.9% Cu) unalloyed
form for sheet and strip applications in roofing, exterior cladding, and flashings. Alloyed copper.
Copper alloys, such as brass and bronze, are also used in residential and commercial building
structures. [6] Variations in color stem primarily from differences in the alloy chemical
composition.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COPPER
It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A
freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color but can oxidize to a blue green
color. Copper have corrosion resistance, highly durable and needs less maintenance work
(cleaning etc.) They are light weight and does not require complex ventilation measures. Copper
provides protection to buildings from lighting when used in the building or in roofing.
USES OF COPPER
Pipe and pipe fittings are commonly manufactured from these metals due to their corrosion
resistance. Copper is the most commonly found in electrical materials such as wiring because of
its ability to effectively conduct electricity. Architectural copper is used in roofing systems,
flashings and copings, raining gutters and downspouts, building expansion joints, wall cladding,
domes, spires, vaults, and various other design elements. Simultaneously, the metal has evolved
from a weather barrier and exterior design element into indoor building environments where it is
changing the way commercial and residential interiors are decorated.
In recent years, copper countertops, range hoods, sinks, handles, doorknobs, faucets, and
furniture embellishments have become trendy – both for their appearance as well as for their
antimicrobial properties.
JOINING OF COPPER
1. Soldering is the preferred joining method where strong, watertight joints are required, such as
for internal gutters, roofing, and flashing applications. A soldered seam joins two pieces of
copper into a cohesive unit that expands and contracts as one piece. Well-soldered seams are
often stronger than the original base material and provide many years of service.
2. Mechanical fasteners, such as screws, bolts, and rivets, are often used to strengthen the joints
and seams. Continuous, long runs of soldered seams can cause stress fractures and should
therefore be avoided. Common 50-50 tin-lead bar solder is often used for uncoated copper; 60-40
tin-lead solder is used for lead-coated copper. [60] Many lead-free solders are also acceptable.
3. Adhesives can be used in certain applications.

Relatively thin sheet alloys can be bonded to plywood or certain types of foam which act as rigid
insulation.
4. Brazing is the preferred method for joining pipe and tube copper alloys. Copper metal sections
are joined with a non-ferrous filler material with a melting point above 800 degrees Fahrenheit
but below the melting point of the base metals. Blind or concealed joints are recommended since
the color match of silver filler material is fair to poor.
5. Welding is a process where pieces of copper are effectively melted together, either by flame,
electricity, or high pressure. With increasing availability of modern TIG welding equipment,
welding of even light-gauge copper decorative elements is gaining acceptance.

Dome made with standing seam copper panels and

with a copper final pineapple mounted on t

d. NICKEL
Nickel is a strong, lustrous, silvery-white metal. Nickel is rarely used in its pure form. The
chemical properties of nickel (i.e. hardness, high melting point, ductility, malleability, somewhat
ferromagnetic, fair conductor of heat and electricity) make it suitable to be combined with other
elements to form many alloys. The nickel-containing 300 series stainless steels are the most
widely-used alloys in use for
these applications. Nickel
is very strong and resistant to
corrosion, making it excellent
for strengthening metal
alloys. It is also very ductile and malleable, properties that allow its many alloys to be shaped
into wire, rods, tubes, and sheets.
Sources:
Nickel and its compounds are naturally present in the earth's crust, and are emitted to the
atmosphere via natural sources (such as windblown dust, volcanic eruptions, vegetation forest
fires, and meteoric dust) as well as from anthropogenic activities (e.g. mining, smelting, refining,
manufacture of stainless steel and other nickel-containing alloys, fossil fuel combustion, and
waste incineration).
Nickel is primarily extracted from the nickel sulfides pentlandite, pyrrhotite, and millerite, which
contain about 1% nickel content, and the iron-containing lateritic ores limonite and garnierite,
which contain about 4% nickel content. Nickel ores are mined in 23 countries, while nickel is
smelted in 25 different countries.

Uses of Nickel
1. Nickel has been used for plating /coating architectural details. Nickel is most frequently used
for building components in the form of alloys: nickel silver, Monel metal, and stainless steel.
2. Architects and designers preferred nickel silver because it could take and retain appropriate
finishes, and it resisted corrosion.
3. Nickel is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion and resists most acids. Stainless steel is
used in roofing and nickel is 75% of stainless steel when there are particularly corrosive plant or
environmental conditions
4. Nickel is also used in ceramics: Due to the properties, it's add to desirable condition of
ceramics
5. Stainless steels are used in general engineering equipment, chemical equipment, architectural
panels and fasteners.
6. casements can be made out of stainless steel facings or roll formed stainless steel. Stainless
steel has higher heat resistance than that of normal structural steel and it is therefore used for
fire-resisting spandrels and panels.
7. Reinforcing stainless steel bars together with concrete make structures more durable and save
time for inspections and maintenance
8. In renovation: Stainless steel can be used as over-cladding roofing panels and brackets for
connecting the old and new structures.
Uses of nickel in interior decoration
1. Nickel serve has beautification in glass, when added to glass it makes it green.
2. Stainless steel is likely to be the material used for many design and construction features.
Nickel-containing stainless steel is everywhere in interior design and construction; in the
entrance of the office building, in the elevators of a modern hotel and on the walls of a stylish
restaurant. Nickel-containing stainless steel has a huge variety of finishes - bright, matte,
embossed or tinted. These different appearances fit perfectly with modern design and interior
architecture. In addition to these good looks, nickel-containing stainless steel is also
exceptionally hard-wearing and resistant to corrosion, making surfaces easier to clean and
extremely long-lasting.
3. nickel-containing stainless steel can be found in the
kitchen and bathrooms, where it is favored for both its
design and functional properties. Meanwhile, behind the
walls, the most-advanced water handling and plumbing
uses nickel-containing stainless steel for it is durability
and low maintenance, allowing an uninterrupted water
supply.
4. stainless steel is a popular material used in building
interior decorations such as railings and staircases.
Stainless tubes are mechanically or weld joined to form the hand railings of staircases. plank
stainless steels are used for flooring in raised floors and walkways.
 E. ZINC

Zinc (symbol Zn) is a naturally occurring element, the first in Group 12 of the periodic table. After aluminium, iron
and copper, it is the fourth most-used metal in the world, with a market of US$40 bn and is the 24th most abundant
element in the earth’s crust. It is found primarily as zinc ore and occurs mainly in Australia, Asia and the US. Before
it can be used, it must be extracted from the ore using electricity.

Zinc was known to the ancient Romans and Greeks, but was not produced in significant quantities until the 12th
century. Its main use today is as a corrosion-resistant plating for steel (hot-dip galvanizing) but other applications
include batteries, non-structural castings and alloys.

Environmental qualities

Humans, animals and plant life need zinc to function. It is important for healthy growth and brain development and
strengthens the immune system; it is therefore vital for life. As it tends to be non-toxic, zinc can be taken in vitamin
form. It is also added to fertilizers and can help increase crop yields and nutrition quality. Recently, the United
Nations designated zinc a ‘life-saving commodity’.

Used as a material zinc can be easily recycled and maintains its physical properties.

Building construction

Since the 18th century, zinc has been commonly used in France, Belgium, Germany, Holland and other European
countries as a building material for covering roofs and facades, as well as for gutters and downpipes. When laid
correctly as a roof covering, it has lasted in excess of 100 years. For construction applications, the zinc used is
usually in sheet form of 99.9%+ purity but with very small concentrations of titanium and copper. It is typically
applied in sheet thicknesses of 0.7mm. The two main application methods are roll-cap (the traditional method) and
standing seam.

Roll-cap method

This is the traditional system that has been used by skilled craftsmen in continental Europe and requires no
complicated tools or procedures. The roof is divided into longitudinal bays (parallel to the slope) by trapezoidal-
shaped timber battens with sloping sides. Zinc sheet (typically 400-500mm wide) with upstands on either side is cut
to size to fit within each bay, the upstands abutting the timber battens are secured in place with concealed clips. Zinc
capping pieces are placed over the battens to cap the upstands and create a watertight finish.

Standing seam method

This system uses a mechanical welting machine. Zinc sheets with around 50mm upstands on each side are placed
parallel to the roof slope (so rain can travel down the roof). Clips fastened to the roof deck are folded around the
upstands. A welting machine is run along two adjacent upstands to produce a welt, folding together the upstands and
clips and forming a discreet, watertight joint. The standing seam method gives a more streamlined, contemporary
look compared to roll cap and can typically be used on roof slopes of 3°-90°.

Warm roof or cold roof?

Traditionally, especially in France, Belgium and Germany, zinc sheet has been applied to a cold roof, where the
insulation (if it existed at all) was immediately above the ceiling level and the roof was therefore ‘cold’ (usually with
ventilation in the roof void). Also, the zinc was applied directly to a deck of close-boarded timber planks with gaps
of around 10mm in between. This had the effect of ensuring adequate ventilation to the underside of the zinc,
ensuring a service life in excess of 100 years.
Modern construction has tended to favor ‘warm’ roof constructions where the insulation is typically in or above the
roof structure, and sometimes with an inadequately ventilated roof space. This, taken with the fact that the zinc may
have been laid on continuous ply with no ventilation gaps, could lead to condensation and consequent corrosion on
the zinc underside and therefore a reduced service life.

When the zinc is to be laid on a continuous substrate (e.g. 18mm plywood sheets with no ventilation gaps),
contemporary practice typically installs a continuous, self-sealing vapor barrier and breather membrane to prevent
moisture from condensing on the underside of the zinc.

Substrates other than ply can be used, such as insulated metal-faced panels, rigid insulation and cellular glass foam.
Accessories such as zinc roof vents, finials, gutters and downpipes are normally used in conjunction with zinc roofs.
Zinc tiles, usually diamond-shaped, can also be used for cladding facades.