AHS 2205: PRINCIPLES OF HORTICULTURE

Course outline

1. General introduction -History of horticulture

2. Contribution of Horticulture into human lives
3. Growth and development in plants
4. Dormancy and germination in seeds
5. Management of environmental factors for crop production
6. Horticultural cultural practices
7. Control of plant growth-physical, chemical and biological control
8. Horticultural laws and policies -governing production, quality and marketing of
horticultural seeds and other planting materials produce and plant products.

Reference
1. Adams, C.R. and M.P Early (2004). Principles of horticulture, 4th edition, Elsevier.
2. George A. (2004). Horticulture: principles and practice 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall New Jersey
ISBN 9.
3. Ed. Hudson Hartmann T., Kester, D.E and Davis, Fred T. (2003). Plant propagation:
principles and practices 7th ed. ISBN-0-87692-795-9, Prentice Hall New Jersey.

4. Any other relevant text books, journals

General introduction

Horticulture is the science and art involved in the cultivation, propagation, processing and
marketing of ornamental plants, flowers, turf, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. It is unique among
plant sciences because it not only involves science and technology, but it also incorporates art
and principles of design.

From these definition the following conclusions can be made to give a general idea on what
is horticulture:

1. Horticulture is a branch of plant agriculture and is both a science and an art. As an art, it
incorporates the principles of design (as in landscaping).

2. Horticulture deals with intensively cultivated and high-value crops.

3. Horticultural crops include the vegetables, fruits, and nuts which are directly used by man for
food, the flowers and other ornamental plants for aesthetic uses or visual enjoyment, and those
used for medicinal purposes.

1.1.2 Main distinguishing features of horticulture compared to agronomy

1. Horticulture differs from agronomy (branch of agriculture that deals with field crop
production) in many ways but some crops can be classified as both horticultural and
agronomic depending on use (e.g. sweet corn is horticultural, grain or forage corn is
agronomic).
2. Horticultural produces are mostly utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable
nature.
3. Cultural operations like propagation, training, pruning and harvesting are skilled and
specific to horticultural crops.
4. Horticultural produce are rich source of vitamins, minerals and alkaloids (anti-
inflammatory, anticancer, analgesics, local anesthetic and pain relief,
neuropharmacologic, antimicrobial, antifungal, and many other activities)..
5. Aesthetic satisfaction is an exclusive phenomenon to horticultural science
 6. Horticulture is intensive. It deals with high-value crops which are intensively cultivated
with high infusion of capital in terms of production inputs, labor and technology per land
area.
7. Protected cultivation, as in glasshouses and plastic tunnels, and irrigation are common.
8. The following terms are used to refer to production units for horticultural crops: gardens,
orchards, vineyards, greenhouses, nurseries, and sometimes plantations.
9. Horticulture supports environmental enhancement (environmental protection and
conservation through large- and small-scale landscape design and management.
10. Increasingly horticulture (especially home gardening, landscaping, arboriculture
(growing of trees), and interior decorating with the use of plants) can be seen to be
involved with social well-being and welfare through the impact of plants for human
physical and mental health.
1.3 The Main Branches of Horticulture

Horticulture is a wide field which includes a great variety and diversity of crops.

The science of horticulture can be divided into several branches depending upon the crops it
deals with

Based on crop grouping and plant use, the main divisions or branches of horticulture are:

1. Olericulture - the production of vegetables including storage, processing, and marketing.

Vegetable crops are grown for their succulent and edible parts such as the roots (carrots), stems
(asparagus), leaves (spinach), young tops (Lettuce), flowers (cauliflower), fruits (tomatoes,
eggplants, capsicum), or seeds for use in culinary preparations either fresh or preserved in the
fresh state.

2. Pomology - the branch of horticulture which deals with fruit crop production. Fruit crops are
grown for their edible fruits which, as a rule, are consumed raw. Fruits can be temperate e.g.
apple or tropical fruits e.g. papaya, mango.

Differences between fruits and vegetables

Sl No. Vegetables Fruits

Most of the vegetables are annuals Fruit plants are perennial in nature
1.
 Mostly majority of them are sexually propagated Fruit plant are sexually and
2. asexually propagated

Cultivation of vegetable is seasonal and special Fruit plants require special practices
3. techniques like pruning and training are generally not like training and pruning and are
required required seasonally.
Vegetable plants are generally non-woody Fruit plants are generally woody in
4. nature

All parts of the plant are edible Only fruit is edible but sometimes
5. false fruit also edible (eg. Fleshy
thalamus of apple)
Generally consumed after cooking Mostly consumed raw after
6. ripening

3. Floriculture - the cultivation and management of cut flowers (roses, carnations,

chrysanthemums, Alstroemeria, Anthuruim, Asters, birds of paradise) and foliage plants (spider
plants, Coleus), including their use in ornamental construct such as flower arrangement (blue
flame fern). A term that is used interchangeably with floriculture is ornamental horticulture.

4. Plant Propagation / Nursery Crop Culture - the propagation and production of seedlings,
young trees, shrubs and vines, as well as ground covers, turf, ornamental plants and other crops
in nurseries for landscaping, interior plantscaping, or out planting.

5. Landscape horticulture - the branch of horticulture which includes the design, construction
and care of landscapes taking into consideration proper choice of plants and aesthetic effects for
homes, businesses and public places.

6. Spices and aromatic crops: Free from extraneous matter used for flavouring, seasoning and
imparting aroma in foods e.g. black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, chilli, Coriander etc
Examples of aromatic plants include are Japanese mint, Lemon grass

7. Medicinal crops: cultivation of medicinal (Artemisia, Opium poppy, Periwinkle, Coleus)

8. Post-harvest technology: deals with post-harvest handling, grading, packaging, storage

processing, value addition, marketing etc, of horticulture crops

Importance of Horticulture
1. Income generation:

Kenya’s horticultural sub-sector contributes 33 percent of agricultural gross domestic product

and 38 percent of national export earnings making it one of the leading generators of the
country’s income and foreign exchange

2. Source of nutrient:

Fresh fruits and vegetables, including root crops, contribute about 15 percent of the national diet
in Kenya and are the main source of essential micronutrients for low income households and
meets food security at household and national levels.

Vegetables and fruits play an important role in human nutrition and health, as they provide
essential micronutrients:

 Vitamins: include vitamins A, C, E, B complex,

 Phytochemicals: antioxidant
 Minerals: Essential minerals include calcium, iron, zinc, Magnesium, Potassium, iodine
and chromium.
3. Creates Employment:

The Government of Kenya estimates that the Horticultural sub-sector directly and indirectly
employs more than 6 million men, women and youth. Some of these employment include:

 Fruit cultivation
 Vegetable cultivation
 Spice crop cultivation
 Vegetable seed production
 Flower seed production for local and export
 Cut flower production and floristry
 Landscaping
 Nursery raising
 Tissue culture
 Marketing
 Processing of horticulture produce
 Government development departments Administrator, extension agent, etc)
 Ancillary (subsidiary) services (fertilizers, tools, insecticides –pesticides , irrigation
equipment, chemicals like growth regulators etc. –manufacture , sale, Farm management
etc Consultancy services)
 Research and education
 Therapist (using plants for wellness) or growing plants for wellness)
4. Aesthetic value (beauty)

 Aesthetics make us happy. On an emotional level they elicit feelings of happiness and
calm. They connect us to our ability to reflect on and appreciate the world around us
which in turn gives us feelings of contentment and hope.
 Flower increases the aesthetic sense of human being and satisfies demand of heart
feelings.
 Their beauty and fragrance give happiness to all irrespective of age and wealth.
 It is the principal component of public functions and anniversaries and extensively used
for decoration.
 Religious significance in the country
 Flower gardening is a good medium of passing leisure time and help keeping good
health.
 Horticultural plants used in Landscape designs help beautify the environments that
provide pleasure, joy and relaxation
 Flowers are source of incentive to the poets and writers.
5. Horticultural Therapy

Horticultural therapy is a time-proven, evidence-based process and practice of using plants and
gardens in human healing, rehabilitation, and training. It involves customized activities and
programs with treatment goals and objectives under the direction of a trained and credentialed
horticultural therapist.

Sick people given flowers

6. Aromatherapy

The art and science of utilizing naturally extracted aromatic essences from plants to balance,
harmonize and promote the health of body, mind and spirit. It seeks to unify physiological,
psychological and spiritual processes to enhance an individual’s innate healing process.

Scent has a transporting effect in that it can soothe the mind or jar the senses. This is the basis of
aromatherapy, where naturally derived oils are used for specific effects on the body.

7. Medicinal value

The parts like stem, leaf, flowers, roots and even the fruits of horticulture plants are used to make
drugs, chemicals, insecticides, germicides etc. e.g. rose water is used to cure eyes ailments.
Similarly saffron is (a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus) important ingredient of
many medicines.
8. Provides raw material for Industry:

Horticulture provides raw material for processing industry especially fruits and vegetables.

There are several SMEs and large processing (e.g. Del Monte) industries in Kenya that play an
active role in the local and export market of the processed products, providing alternative, and
new opportunity, for smallholders and rural employment.

Producers of horticultural crops are grouped into 3 groups depending on their

characteristics of horticulture activities;

1. Purely subsistence producers-have small portion of vegetables, few fruit trees which
are primarily intended for home consumption.

2. Producers who grow for their needs and market whatever is surplus.

3. Producers who are purely market oriented-whatever activity is done is treated as any
business taking into consideration of costs of inputs, output e.t.c.

When we consider horticultural enterprises that are market oriented, their success of
enterprise is determined by various factors

1. Choice of crop- the adaptability of crop, availability of planting materials

2. Climate of area- certain crops maybe adapted to specific climatic conditions. Crops are
regarded as tropical crops and temperate crops.

3. Soils of a region-different crops are adapted to different types of soils

4. Technical skills of producer-horticultural production requires proper understanding of

crops e.g. strawberry, depending on the variety, the flowering is much influenced by daylight. If
u don’t have this understanding…. Other activities like pruning require skills.

5. Infrastructures that exist in a region- accessibility of the farm to the market,

availability of electricity (cooling and storage facilities which require electricity), and irrigation
also require power.
6. Organizations of markets- how stable are the prices, is one doing contract farming.

7. Availability of inputs- most activities require one to be programmed. E.g availability of

fertilizers and other chemicals.

8. Availability of labour- for weeding, harvesting e.t.c. is labor intensive and one has to be
assured of labour when needed.

CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

1. Basis of their use-whether crops are used as food, medicinal. This is the oldest method.

2. Basis of the growth habit and physiological characteristics- Herbaceous (succulent,

banana) versus woody plant (mango), vines vs. shrubs, deciduous (temperate fruits) versus
evergreen (tropical fruits).

3. On the basis of lifespan

Annual plants-lifecycle of plant is complete in a single growing season e.g tomatoes

Biennial plants-requires 2 growing seasons to complete their lifecycle. The first season
involves vegetative growth while reproductive growth occurs in second season e.g carrot, celery

Perennials-whose growth takes very many years e.g. fruit crops.

4. Basis of temperature tolerance- those plants that would be injured by low temp helps to
distinguish the tender plants Vs. hardy plants. This is mainly seen in areas that experience winter
condition.

5. Scientific classification- plants are grouped according to their evolutionary relationship.

Based on this, all crops have scientific or botanical name e.g. Carica papaya, Mangifera indica
e.t.c.

6. Agronomic classification- mainly groups plants into 3 broad categories

Cereals –maize, corn, wheat

 Seed legumes-beans

Forages- those utilized for animal feeds.

7. Horticultural classification

a) Edible plants

a. Vegetables- it may include plants that are grown for consumption of aerial parts e.g.
cabbages, cucumber; Underground portion- root crops e.g. carrot, Tubers- irish potato,
Bulb/corm-onion, garlic

b. Fruits- whether the fruits are temperate fruits e.g. strawberry, apples, pears. Tropical
(evergreen fruits) e.g pineapple, bananas, oranges.

b) Ornamental plants

1. Plants that are grown for their flowers especially those used as cut
flowers e.g. roses, carnations.
2. Plants that are grown for their foliage. Mainly utilized as pot
plants.
3. Nursery plants/bedding plants- plants grown for ground cover e.g.
turf grass
c) Miscellaneous plants

Miscellaneous plants –involves herbs and spices and also beverage crops.

2.0 SCOPE OF HORTICULTURE IN KENYA

2.1 Introduction
Horticulture is the largest foreign exchange earner and has undergone a transformation over the
last 50 years garnering around 150 billion annually and contributes significantly to the Kenyan
economy.

The industry provides employment opportunities to about 350,000 directly and supports over six
million livelihoods.

In Kenya, only 4% of all the fruits and Vegetables is being exported while 96% is being
consumed locally. Over 90% of all this produce consumed locally is being produced by small
scale farmers.

95% of flowers grown locally are exported to various international markets. Recently, more
opportunities have been created for our farmers to access international markets like the UAE,
USA and more.

Despite the challenges brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Horticulture sector
performed fairly well. Export earnings for the year 2020 stood at Ksh.151Bn. Flowers earned the
country Ksh 108B, Fruits Ksh 18B while Vegetables earned Ksh 24B.

Challenges facing horticulture industry especially during the Covid-19 period

1. Reduced market demand due to lock downs especially in European Union and The
United Kingdom
2. High cost of airfreight. Freight charges are very high and this leads to marginal profit
3. High cost of doing business as a result of government levies and taxes, high cost of
utilities etc. The production cost is very high due to hiked input prices.
4. Cash flow problems among the exporters.
5. Strict market requirements especially on sanitary and Phytosanitary matters (these are
quarantine and biosecurity measures which are applied to protect human, animals or
plant life or health from risks arising from the introduction, establishment and spread of
pest and diseases and risks arising from additives, toxins and contaminants in food or
feed) .
6. There is stiff competition on the international market by producers such as the
Netherlands and Israel.
 7. Pests and diseases often destroy crops such as tomatoes.
2.2 Main Features of Horticulture Farming in Kenya

1. The activity is scientifically oriented as advanced methods of crop production are employed.
Such methods include, use of high yielding seeds, regular spraying to control pests and diseases
and heavy application of fertilisers. All these ensure high yields.

2. The practice is capital intensive. Therefore a lot of farm inputs are required.

3. It is also labour intensive considering that much of the farm work is done using human labour.

4. In order to maximize on the produce, land is intensively used. This is mainly because
horticulture is practiced in areas with land scarcity, hence farm sizes are small.

5. Due to the perishability of the products, it mainly involves quick and expensive modes of
transport e. g., the airplanes.

6. The activity is export oriented, in that most of the products are grown for export, due to their
increasing demand.

2.3.1 Conditions Favoring the Development of horticulture in Kenya

The following conditions favor horticultural farming in Kenya:

(i) Climate: The hot and wet climate favors the growth of tropical crops, while the cool and wet
conditions prevailing in Kenya Highlands especially in areas like Limuru favors the growth of
temperate crops like plums, pears, apples and grapes.

(ii) Soil: The fertile soils of volcanic origin favor growth of a variety of crops. This fertility is
sustained by the liberal application of fertilisers.

(iii) Market: The high demand for the products both locally and internationally has led to the
rapid development of the industry. The sprawling and mushrooming of old and new urban
centres provide ready markets for horticultural products locally. The temperate lands in Western
Europe offer good market for Kenyan horticultural products, especially in winter when tropical
vegetables, fruits and flowers are in high demand.
(iv).Capital: Investment by large companies has led to the development of horticulture
especially growing of fruits and vegetables. For instance, the Del Monte Company of Thika has
large farms and exports most of canned products to Europe and Middle East.

Secondly, a wide range of vegetables and flowers are cultivated under irrigation around Lake
Naivasha managed by the Pan African Foods Company and the Danish Chrysanthemum
Company respectively.

The Kabazi Canners Company finances the vegetables and fruit farming in Bahati area of
Nakuru county. The Sulmac Ltd. and Oserian Development Company handles flower industry in
Lake Naivasha area.

(v) Marketing systems: The farmers operate under well-organized marketing systems managed
by Horticultural Co-operative Union and Horticultural Crop Development Authority (HCDA).
HCDA helps the fanners to export their products.

(vi) Transport: Most growing areas are accessible to the markets through roads and air
transport.

(Vii). Use of the latest technology

Some of these technologies include:- drip irrigation, fertigation systems, greenhouse ventilation
systems, net shading, pre-cooling, cold storage facilities, grading, fertilizer recycling systems to
prevent wastage, artificial lighting to increase day length, grading/packaging sheds, and
refrigerated trucks.

(Viii). Availability of technical training. To enhance the quality of our produce, industry
associations and other players have trained and supported producers and exporters on
requirements for international accreditations on food safety and traceability.

2.3.2 Crops Grown and their Distribution

(i) Vegetables. There are five types of vegetables namely:

The starchy tubers: These are vegetables which have stems which swell and ripen underground
e.g. potatoes. They are mainly for local consumption.

The root crops: These are types of vegetables which store food in swollen roots, for example,
carrots, turnips, parsnips, beet and swedes.

Pulses: These are leguminous vegetables which include plants such as peas, beans, lentils, soya
beans and groundnuts.

Green vegetables: These include cabbages, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, green grams,
Swiss chard, spruce, kales (sukuma wiki)

Miscellaneous vegetables: These include onions, tomatoes, chillies and mushrooms.

The major vegetables grown in the horticultural farms in Kenya are divided into two categories,
namely the Asian vegetables and European vegetables.

The European vegetables which are exported from Kenya include French beans, cauliflower and
several cabbage families.

The Asian vegetables include Karela (bitter gourd), Dudhi (Bottle gourd), Turia, curry-leaves,
okra, Gwar (winged beans), Papri, Tindori (ivy gourd) and Siragwa.

(ii) Fruits: Most of the fruits grown in Kenya are for local consumption. A few are exported.
Generally fruits grown in Kenya include:

Citrus fruits: oranges, lemons and tangerines produced in Eastern and Coastal regions.

Deciduous fruits: Apples, pears, peaches, plums and apricots. They are also called
temperate fruits. Produced in Kiambu, Rift valley, Meru

Tropical fruits: Banana, loquat, dates, pawpaw, pineapple and avocado produced in
Central, Rift valley, Nyanza.

(iii) Flowers: The flowers grown in Kenya include roses, orchids, carnations and gladioli.
Floriculture (growing of flowers) is concentrated in Central, Eastern and parts of Rift Valley
regions. The major growing areas are Limuru, Naivasha, parts of Embu, Kirinyaga, Kiambu.
Murang’ a, Nyeri, and Kericho.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Growth and Development

The quantitative increase in plant body such as increase in the length of stem and root, the
number of leaves etc., is referred to as plant growth

Whereas, the qualitative changes such as germination of seed, formation of leaves, flowers and
fruits, falling of leaves and fruits is referred as development.

Growth Curve

The rate of growth of a plant or plant part is not always the same during its life span. Sometimes
it is slow and at other times rapid. If we plot the increase in cell number (growth rate) against
time, a typical S-shaped curve is obtained. This is called growth curve or sigmoid growth curve.
This curve has three phases of growth.

(i) Lag Phase – This is the initial phase of growth when the rate of growth is very slow.
(ii) Log Phase – It shows rapid growth and is maximum during the entire life span.
(iii) Stationary Phase – Here the rate of growth starts decreasing and finally it stops.
Sigmoid curve
The total time period during which the fastest growth of the organ or organism occurs is
called grand period of growth.

Measurement of Growth

Growth in plants being a quantitative phenomenon can be measured in relation to time.

It can be measured in terms of

1. Increase in length or growth – in case of stem and root;

2. Increase in area or volume – in case of leaves and fruits;
3. Increase in the number of cells – in algae, yeast and bacteria.

Factors Affecting Plant Growth and development

Generally plant growth is influenced by a number of factors both external and internal.

a) External growth factors

External factors are those factors present in the environment that affect the growth of the plants
directly or indirectly. These factors are (i) Light (ii) Temperature (iii) Water (iv) Mineral
nutrients

(i) Light

Light is necessary for the process of photosynthesis. Besides photosynthesis, light is also
essential for seed germination, growth of seedling, differentiation of various tissues and organs,
and reproduction.

(ii) Temperature

Some plants grow in cold climate and some in hot climate. The optimum temperature required
for growth of plants ranges between 28-30°C, but it may occur in the temperature range of 4-
45°C. All metabolic activities of plants are directly affected by variation of temperature. A very
low temperature causes injuries to the plant due to chilling and freezing, and very high
temperature stops its growth.

(iii). Water Plant absorbs water by its roots, uses it in photosynthesis and other biochemical
processes and some of it is lost through transpiration. For proper growth of plants a particular
quantity of water is required. Both deficiency and excess of water retards the growth of plants.

(iv) Mineral Nutrients

All metabolic processes require inorganic nutrients. Plant growth is adversely affected by the
deficiency of nutrients.

b) Internal Growth Factors

In addition to the external factors as discussed above, there are some substances produced in the
plant body itself, which affects the growth of the plant. These are called plant hormones or
phytohormones or growth hormones.
The growth of the plants can also be influenced by certain synthetic chemicals resembling plant
hormones both in structure and functions. These are called growth regulators. They are not
produced by plants naturally.

Growth regulators are chemical substances, other than naturally produced hormones, which
promote, inhibit or modify growth and development in plants.

The naturally produced growth hormones are broadly grouped under five major classes.

They are: (i) Auxin (ii) Gibberellins (iii) Cytokinins (iv) Ethylene (v) Abscissic acid

AUXINS

Auxin is a growth promoter. The naturally produced auxins is Indole-3-Acetic Acid (IAA). They
are also produced by chemical synthesis, which show same physiological responses like Auxin.
Some of the synthetic auxin are Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), 2,4- Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid
(2,4-D), and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA).

Site of Auxin synthesis: Auxins are synthesized in stem tips and in young tissues and move
mainly down stem (Basipetal movement) i.e., from shoot tip to root.

Role of Auxin:

1. Cell division and enlargement: IAA + GA, example - cambial growth in diameter.

2. Tissue culture: Shoot multiplications (IBA and BAP), callus growth (2, 4-D), root
multiplication

IAA and IBA (1-2 mg).

3. Breaking dormancy and apical dominance (inhibition of lateral buds): NAA

4. Shortening internodes: Apple trees (NAA) dwarf branch fruit.

5. Rooting of cutting: (10-1000 ppm-NAA, IAA, Phenyl acetic acid)

6. Prevent lodging: NAA develop woody and erect stem.

7. Prevent abscission: premature leaf, fruit and flower fall (NAA, IAA and 2,4-D).
8. Parthenocarpic fruit: Grapes, Banana and Orange (IAA).

9. Flower initiations: Pineapple uniform flowering and fruit ripening (NAA) and delay flowering
(2, 4-D).

10. Weed eradication: 2, 4-D

GIBBERELLINS:

It is the active principle isolated from the soil borne fungus Gibberella fujikuroi.

The concentration of GA3 is usually the highest in immature seeds, reaching up to 18 mg/kg
fresh weight in Phaseolus species, but it decreases rapidly as the seeds mature.

In general, roots contain higher amounts of GA3 than shoots. Gibberellins have also been found
effective in overcoming both kinds of dormancy in buds as well as seeds.

Role of Gibberellins:

1. GA: Synthesis in leaf and induce shoot elongation (IAA + GA3), by effecting cell elongation
or cell division or both.

2. Enhance metabolic activity: Mobilization of reserved food material, promote growth and
height, increase root activity and kinetin production in root- translocate to growing bud.

3. Shoot elongation: GA3 spray increases height of seedlings.

4. Delay senescence: Increase photosynthetic and protein synthesis so decrease abscission.

5. Increase cambial growth and differentiation:

6. Induce flower and fruit set (IAA+GA3).

7. Dwarf plant (genetically) to normal height: GA3.

8. Promote flowering in Long Day Plants: Substitute for long day condition and cold treatment
(vernalization).
9. Induction of parthenocarpy in grapes: Three physiological events: Rachis cell elongation,
flower thinning and berry enlargement.

10. Breaking dormancy and leaf expansion

CYTOKININS:

First endogenous cytokinin was isolated from maize kernels named as zeatin.

Germinating seeds, roots, sap streams, developing fruits and tumor tissues are rich in cytokinins.

Cytokinins imbibed seeds germinate better in dark than unimbibed lettuce seeds.

Synthetic cytokinins are: Kinetin, Benzyladenine and Ethoxy ethyladenine.

Role of cytokinin:

1. Cell division, elongation and enlargement.

2. Tissue culture morphogenesis.

3. Induction of flowering and fruit development.

4. Parthenocarpy.

5. Apical dominance overcoming.

6. Breaking dormancy.

7. Delay senescence.

8. Improves N2 metabolism.

ETHYLENE:

the active growth regulating component of

the illuminating gas as ethylene.

and it might be considered as plant hormones.

 as ethrel, ethephon, chloroethyl phosphonic acid
(CEPA) has been reported to release ethylene when applied to plants.

Role of Ethylene:

1. Breaking dormancy.

2. Induce ripening of fruits.

3. Induce abscission of leaves.

4. Inhibit elongation and lateral bud growth.

4. Inhibit growth process.

(v) Abscisic acid

Abscisic acid also known as Dormin is a naturally occurring growth inhibitor found in wide
variety of plants. It is synthesized in leaves.

Functions of Abscisic acid:

(a) It induces dormancy of buds and seeds as opposed to Gibberellin, which breaks dormancy.

(b) It promotes the senescence of leaf, i.e., fall of leaves happen due to abscisic acid.

(c) It inhibits seed germination and development.

(d) It causes closing of Stomata.

Methods of Application:

Growth regulators can be applied in different ways like:

1. Spraying method.

2. Root feeding method.

3. Powder form.

4. Dipping of cuttings in solution.

5. Soaking in dilute aqueous solution.