Lecture 1: Importance, divisions and classification of horticultural crops

Horticulture
The term horticulture is derived from Latin words: “hortus” meaning “garden” and
“cultura” meaning “cultivation”. According to the modern world, horticulture is defined as the
crop science which deals with the production, utilization and improvement of fruits, vegetables,
ornamental plants, spices and plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic plants.
Scope and Importance of Horticultural crops
 Horticultural crops highly contributes to national income
 Fresh fruits, vegetables, their processed products, spices and plantation crops, cut flowers
and live plants are exported
 Development in horticulture is often called as Golden Revolution
 Horticulture produces are utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable. In contrast,
agricultural field crops are often utilized in the dried state of are usually high in dry
matter content.
 Horticultural crops generally require intensive cultivation warranting a large input,
capital, labour and technology per unit area of land.
 Cultural operations such as propagation, fertilization, training pruning, harvesting and
marketing are skilled operations and are specific to each and every horticulture crops.
 Horticulture crops are rich in sources of vitamins and minerals where as agricultural
crops are generally rich in carbohydrates or protein.
 Aesthetic sense is an exclusive phenomenon for horticulture science.
 Horticulture crops occupy only 7.0% of the total cropped area. But its contribution to
natural income is 18-20% of total value of agricultural produce.
 The export of agricultural crops contributes 25% of our export out of this, horticulture
crops alone contributes 56% of total earnings from agricultural sector.
 Horticulture crops fetch 20-30 times more foreign exchange/unit are than creates due to
higher yields of price.
 Fruits and Vegetables are regarded as ‘protected foods’ since they supply minerals such
as calcium, iron and phosphorus. Vitamins like A, B, C. Fruits and Vegetables are good
laxatives.
  The nutrition expert group presents a daily a minimum of 2400-3900 calories of energy,
55g protein, 0.4-0.5 g calcium, 20g of Iron, 3000 mg of B carotene (Vit A) 1.2-2.0 mg
thiamine, 1-2.2 mg riboflavin, 16-26 mg nicotinic acid, 50 mg ascorbic acid.
 To obtain this, dieticians recommended 300g of vegetables i-e. 125 g of leafy vegetables,
100g of roots and tubers, 75 g of other vegetables, 90 g of fruits.
Branches of Horticulture
Horticulture is a wide field and includes a great variety and diversity of crops. The
science of horticulture can be divided into several branches depending upon the crops it deals
with. The following are the branches.
1. Pomology: refers to cultivation of fruit crops.
2. Olericulture: refers to cultivation of vegetables.
3. Floriculture: refers to cultivation of flower crops.
4. Plantation Crops: refers to cultivation of crops like coconut, arecanut, rubber, coffee etc.
5. Spices Crops: refers to cultivation of crops like, cardamom, pepper, nutmeg etc.
6. Medicinal and Aromatic Crops: deals with cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops.
7. Post Harvest Technology: deals with post harvest handling, grading, packaging, storage,
processing, value addition, marketing etc. of horticulture crops.
8. Plant Propagation: deals with propagation of plants.
Fruit crops
 India is the second largest producer of fruit crops. A large variety of fruit crops are grown in

India. Of these, mango, banana, citrus, papaya, guava, pineapple, sapota, jackfruit, litchi,
grapes, apple, pear, peach, plum, walnut etc. are important ones.
 India accounts for 10 per cent of the total world production of fruits. It leads the world in

production of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime besides recording highest productivity in
grape. The leading fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh.
Vegetable crops
 More than 40 vegetables belonging to Solanaceaeous, cucurbitaceous, leguminous,
cruciferous, root crops and leafy vegetables are grown in Indian tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate region.
 Important vegetables grown in India are onion, tomato, potato, brinjal, peas, beans, okra,
chilli, cabbage, cauliflower, bottle gourd, cucumber, watermelon, carrot, radish etc.
 India is second in vegetable production. West Bengal, Orissa, U.P, Bihar, Maharashtra,
Karnataka are the important states for Horticultural crop production.
Flower Crops
 Flower cultivation is being practiced in India. Since ages it is an important/integral part
of socio-cultural and religious life of Indian people. It has taken a shape of industry in recent
years.
 India is known for growing traditional flowers such as jasmine, marigold,
chrysanthemum, tuberose, crossandra, aster, etc. Commercial cultivation of cut flowers like,
rose, orchids, gladiolus, carnation, anthurium, gerbera etc.
 The important flower growing states are Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, AP, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Sikkim, J&K, and Meghalaya etc.
Plantation crops
 This is one of the important sector contributing to export earning. The major plantation
crops include coconut, arecanut, oilpalm, Cashew, tea coffee, rubber cocoa, betel vine,
vanilla etc. The leading states are Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, A.P., Maharashtra, Goa,
Assam etc.
Spices
 They constitute an important group of horticulture crops. India is known as home of
spices producing a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric,
chilli, Coriander etc.
 Major spice producing states are Kerala, A.P., Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Orissa, T.N. etc.
Medicinal and Aromatic plants
 India has diverse collection of medicinal and aromatic plants species distributed
throughout the country.
 It has more than 9500 species with medicinal properties. Demand for these crop is
increasing progressively in both domestic and export market.
 Important medicinal plants are Isabgol, Periwinkle, coleus, ashwagandha, etc. and
aromatic plants are mint, grasses, davana, patchouli etc.
Features of Horticulture
 Horticultural produces are mostly utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable.
 Horticultural crops need intensive cultivation requiring a large input of capital, labour
and technology per unit area.
 Cultural operations like propagation, training, pruning and harvesting are skilled and
specific to horticultural crops.
 Horticultural produce are rich source of vitamins and minerals and alkaloids.
 Aesthetic gratification is an exclusive phenomenon to horticultural science.
Classification of Horticultural crops
1. Based on seasonal growth cycle:
Annuals – Tomato, Brinjal
Biennials - Onion
Perennials – Mango
2. Based onWoody Plants
Evergreen – Acid lime, Litchi, Mango
Deciduous – Apple, pear
Herbaceous perennial – Strawberry, Banana, Pineapple
3. Based on kind of stem
Herbs – Greens
Shrubs – Hibiscus
Trees – Citrus
4. Based on stem growth
Erect – Hibiscus
Decumbent – Groundnut
Creeping – Strawberry
Climbing – Jasminum sp
5. Based on climate requirement
Tropical crops – Banana, Sapota
Subtropical crops – Mandarin orange
Temperate crops – Apple, plum
I. Fruit crops
Fruits borne on woody plants
Tree fruits
i. Deciduous (Temperate)
a. Pome - Apple, Pear, Quince
b. Drupe (Stone fruits) – Peach, Plum , Apricot
ii. Evergreen
a. Sub tropical – Mangostean, Litchi, Sweet Oranges
b. Tropical – Mango, Sapota, Guava
Small fruits
i. Deciduous - Raspberry, Black berry
ii. Evergreen – West Indian Cherry
II. Fruits borne on herbaceous perennial plants
Fruits borne on woody plants
a. Prostrate growth - Strawberry
b. Upright growth – Banana, Pineapple
II. Vegetable crops
a. Solanaceous vegetables – Tomato, Brinjal, Chillies
b. Cucurbitaceous vegetables
Gourds – Pumpkin, Bitter gourd, Snake gourd
Melons – Water melons, Musk melons, Tinda
c. Peas and beans – Cow pea, Peas, French beans
d. Cole vegetables – Cabbage, Cauliflower
e. Root and Tuber vegetables – Carrot, Radish, Elephant yam, Colocasia
f. Bulb vegetables - Onion
g. Leafy vegetables - Amaranthus
h. Minor vegetables
III. Spices and Condiments
a. Major spices – Pepper, Cardamom, Clove
b. Condiments – Coriander, Garlic, Tamarind, Turmeric, ginger
c. Minor spices
IV.Plantation crops
Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Cashew nut, Arecanut, Cocoa, Betelvine
V. Medicinal & Aromatic crops
Medicinal crops - Senna, Periwinkle, Aswagandha, Coleus, Gloriosa, Aloe
Aromatic crops - Lemon grass, Citronella grass, Geranium, Patchouli, Mint,
VI. Flower Crops
Loose Flowers - Rose, Jasmine, Tuberose, Crossandra, Marigold, Nerium
Cut flowers - Rose, Carnation, Gerbera, Chrysanthemum, Anthurium, Orchids, Gladiolus,
Lilium, Tulips
Ornamental plants - Annuals, Trees, Shrubs, Herbaceous perennials, Climbers and
creepers
 Lecture 2. Commercial orchards, garden and plantations
Orchard refers to an area where intensive cultivation of fruit crops is done. Or it is an area
where fruit crops like mango, citrus, papaya, banana etc. are cultivated. Or it is an enclosed area
where a fruit /group of fruit trees are grown.
Orcharding refers to growing of fruit plants in an orderly manner and maintain them for
successive economic returns.
Garden: The term garden refers to fruit farm, where sophisticated agro-techniques are employed
for commercial cultivation. Eg: Grape garden. Specific crops:
1. Vineyard/vinery—grape garden
2. Pinery- Pineapple
3. Orangery—Orange garden
Plantation refers to a fairly large area where cultivation is done with a particular type of fruit
crop. Eg: Mango plantation, apple plantation, coconut plantation etc.
Estate refers to large area (more than 1000 acres) of sole crop cultivation. This terminology was
used in earlier days (British empire). Eg: Coffee estate and Tea estate.
 Lecture 3. Orchard Management
 Orchard is an area, often enclosed, devoted to the cultivation of fruit trees and as a unit it
encompasses various resources like land, water, trees and external inputs.
 All these resources have to be well utilized to the best advantage for higher production
per unit area on sustainable basis without adversely affecting the quality of environment.
 We should also understand that a good manager is one who gets maximum out of various
inputs consistently without any loss of fertilizers and manure, plant, plant protection
chemicals, produce etc.
 Therefore, one should understand the management of these qualities of both resource and
output. Various resources are soil and water.
Orchard Planning
Orchard is a long-term investment and needs lot of planning and expertise. While planning
and planting a new orchard, one should give utmost attention and care to various aspects like
selection of location and site, nature of soil and subsoil, planning of suitable kinds and varieties of
fruits, proper planting distance and purchasing of plants from reliable nurseries.
Preparation of land
 The land should be cleaned properly for free movement of men and machinery.
 All the trees, bushes and creepers should be removed.
 The soil of the area designed for growing fruit plants needs thorough preparation.
 A virgin land requires a deep ploughing and harrowing.
 The land should be repeatedly ploughed and bring the soil to a fine tilth.
Layout plan
 The marking of position of the plant in the field is referred as layout.
 The layout plan of the orchard should be prepared carefully, preferably in consultation with
horticultural experts.
 The orchard layout plan includes the system of planning provision for orchard paths, roads,
water channels and farm building.
 A sketch of the proposed orchard should be prepared before the actual planting is taken up.
Method of layout
 For laying out an orchard, according to square system, a base line is first established and
position of the trees is marked along this line by laying wooden stakes in the ground.
  Another base line at right angle to the first base line, is then marked along with the other
edge of the field with the help of a carpenter square or a cross staff.
 The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape.
 One end of this tape is fixed at three metre distance from the corner along the first line and
the tape is then stretched along the second base line for a distance of four metre.
 The diagonal distance between these two points should be five metre.
 The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the second line.
 All the four rows are thus established and staked.
 Three men, one putting the peg in the field and others correcting alignment while moving
along the base line, can easily stake the whole field.
 The marking of position of the plant in the field is called “layout”.
Aims
1. To provide adequate space to plants.
2. To accommodate more number of plants.
3. Easy intercultural operations.
4. System of planting

Planting Systems
Square system
It is the most commonly used method and easy to layout in the field. In this system, plant to
plant and row to row distance is the same. The plants are at the right angle to each other, every unit
of four plants forming a square. This system facilitates the interculture in two directions after the
orchard is planted.
Advantages
1. Most easy and popular one.
2. In this row to row and plant to plant distance is kept similar.
3. Plants are exactly at right angle to each other.
4. Interculture operations can be done in both the directions.
5. Adequate space for inter-cultivation of remunerative crops like vegetables.
Rectangular system
In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees are planted at
the four corners of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles. Like square system, this
system also facilitates the interculture in two directions. The only difference is that in this system
more plants can be accommodated in the row keeping more space between the rows.
Advantages
1. Lay out in rectangular shape.
2. More space between row to row.
3. Inter-cultural operations can be done in both the ways.
4. Plants get proper space and sunlight.
Hexagonal system
In hexagonal system, the trees are planted in the corners of equilateral triangles. Six trees
thus form a hexagon with another tree at its centre. This system, though a little difficult for execution
but accommodates 15 percent more plants. Cultivation of land between the tree rows is possible in
three directions with this system. This system is generally followed where the land is costly and very
fertile with ample provision of irrigation water.
Advantages
1. Accommodates 15 % more plants than the square system.
2. Plants are planted at the corner of equilateral triangle.
3. Six trees are planted making a hexagon.
4. The seventh tree is planted in the centre and called septule.
5. This requires fertile land.
Disadvantage
1. Lay out is difficult and cumbersome.
Quincunx system
 This system is exactly like the square system but one additional tree is planted in the centre
of each square.
 The number of plants per acre by this system is almost doubled than the square system.
 Fruit trees like papaya, kinnow, phalsa, guava, peach, plum etc. can be planted as fillers in
the permanent trees provides an additional income to the grower in the early life of the
orchard.
  The filler trees are uprooted when the main orchard trees start commercial fruiting.
Contour system
 This system is usually followed in the hilly areas with high slopes but it is very much similar
to the square/rectangular system.
 Under such circumstances, the trees may be well planted in lines following the contour of the
soil with only a slight slope.
 Irrigation and cultivation are then practiced only across the slope of the land as this practice
reduces the chances of soil erosion.
 In this system layout is done as in square/rectangular system, first by establishing the base
line at the lowest level and then marking for the trees should be done from the base to the
top.
 Bench terraces are used where the slope is greater than 10 per cent.
Triangular system
 In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th and
such other alternate rows are planted midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such other
alternative rows.
 This system provides more open space for the trees and for intercrop.

Methods of layout
For laying out an orchard, according to square system, a base line is first established and
position of the trees is marked along this line putting wooden stakes in the ground. Another base line
at right angle to the first base line, is then marked along with the other edge of the field with the help
of a carpenter square or a cross staff.
The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape. One end of this tape is
fixed at 3 metre distance from the corner along the first line and the tape is then stretched along the
second base line for a distance of 4metre. The diagonal distance between these two points should be
5 meter. The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the second line. All
the four rows are thus established and staked. Three men, one putting the peg in the field and other
correcting alignment while moving along the base line, can easily stake the whole field.
The marking of position of the plant in the field is called “layout”.
Aims of layout
1. To provide adequate space to plants.
2. To accommodate more number of plants.
3. Easy intercultural operations.
4. To improve aesthetic view of the land.
Digging and Filling of Pits
 Marking of pits and planting should always be done with the help of planting board.
 The guide pegs are installed at both the ends. One meter deep pits of one meter diameter should
be dug.
 Top 30 cm soil should be kept on one side, which is used for refilling the pits as it is fertile soil.
 Bottom 70 cm soil should be kept on other side, which is discarded.
 The pits should be left exposed for a few days before actual planting.
 These pits should be refilled with mixture of topsoil, 2-3 baskets of silt and 2-3 baskets of well-
decomposed farmyard manure.
 The refilled pits should be watered a few days before planting the tree. To each pit add
carbofuron (25g) for control of white ants.
Method of planting
 Bore holes of suitable size are made in the centre of the filled pits with the help of planting
board.
 Place the earth ball of a plant in it in such a way that the upper surface has the same level as
ground.
 Fill loose earth around the ball and press it firmly with the handle of a spade or khurpi.
 Apply water soon after planting the plants in the pits.
Planting distance of fruit plants
 The spacing given to the fruit trees is generally governed by the different factors like climate and
soil, choice of varieties, growth habit of tree, rootstock used, nature of irrigation and pruning
technique followed.
 The spacing may vary according to different systems of planting.
 Provision of optimum spacing to fruit trees is one of the most important aspects of successful
fruit culture.
 Optimum spacing regulates the proper utilization of sunlight, avoids competition in the uptake of
nutrients caused by the collision of root systems and facilitates proper irrigation.
 The latest technology on high-density plantation system where trees are planted at critical
spacing for maximum utilization of space is becoming popular.
 It will be very difficult to suggest exact spacing for fruit trees, which will suit every locality or
soil.

Spacing of some of the important fruit plants, which serve as basic guideline for establishing
a new orchard:
Number of plants/ha
Name of fruit tree Planting distance (m)
(square system)
Mango 10 x 10 100
Citrus & Pomegranate 6x6 275
1. Head System 2.0 x 1.5 3300
Grape 2. Kniffin System 4.0 x 3.0 1100
3. Bower System 3.1 x 6.0 550
Guava, Peach & Loquat 6.5 x 6.5 225
Litchi & Sapota 7.5 x 7.5 to 9.0 x 9.0 180-123
Ber & Pear 7.5 x 7.5 180
Date-palm & Almond 6 x 6 to 7 x 7 275-202
Jamun 10 x 10 to 12 x 12 105-75
Phalsa & Papaya 1.5 x 1.5 4400
1. Tall varieties 2.7 x 3.0 1210
Banana
2. Dwarf varieties 1.8 x 1.8 3052
Pineapple 30 x 60 x 90 cm 43500
Custard apple 5x5 390
Jack fruit 10 x 10 100
Planting season
 The planting season of different fruit crops vary on the basis of their evergreen or deciduous
nature.
Evergreen fruit plants
 There are two planting times for evergreen fruits ie., beginning of monsoon and end of rainy
season in heavy rainfall areas.
 The fruit plants such as citrus, mango and litchi should preferably be planted during September
or in the beginning of October when the weather becomes mild and more favourable and there is
enough moisture in the soil.
 Guava can also be planted bare-rooted during February-March or August-September.
 The plant should be defoliated and the roots covered with moist material.
 Most of the sub-tropical and tropical evergreen fruit plants are suitably transplanted during the
rainy season when the atmospheric humidity is high and sufficient supply of soil moisture is
obtained.
 During this active period of growth, the plants easily penetrate their roots in the soil and get
established.
 High atmospheric humidity during the rainy season helps them to minimize the transpiration
loss.
 The evergreen plants can also be transplanted during the onset of spring with equal success
provided an ample quantity of irrigation water is available.
 Early regeneration of rootlets due to high temperature and available moisture during this period
helps in early establishment of the plants in most of the cases.
Deciduous fruit plants
 The deciduous fruit plants are planted during winter when they are dormant.
 Their planting must be completed before the start of new growth i.e., up to middle January in
case of peach and plum and up to middle of February in case of pear and grapes.
 The bare rooted ber can also be planted during January and up to middle of February.
 It would be wise, if the planting operation in deciduous fruit plants could be done well before the
dormancy is broken and the plants start their growth afresh during subsequent period.
 Planting should be avoided during hot and dry spells of weather.
 The fruit trees should preferably be planted in the afternoon and on cloudy and humid days rather
than in bright sunshine and dry weather.
Intercropping
Intercropping refers to process of cultivating crops wherein different types of crops are
cultivated together in a specified pattern.
Mixed cropping
Mixed Cropping is defined as a method of cropping in which two or more crops are grown
simultaneously in the same piece of land.
 Lecture 4. Training and training systems
Horticultural plants are grown for their produce like fruits, vegetable, flowers, medicinal
components, spices (oleoresins), aromatic (essential oils) etc. Therefore, these plants should be
managed in such a way that human desires for the purpose of growing them are fully satisfied in
terms of quality and quantity of produce. This demands direct manipulation of plant growth itself
or plant environment through various inputs.
In manipulation of plant development, training and pruning are important for which our
knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete. These practices are
important in fruit crops.
Training
Physical techniques that control the shape, size and direction of plant growth are known
as training or in other words training in effect is orientation of plant in space through techniques
like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning
of some parts.
Objectives
1. To improve appearance and usefulness of plant/tree through providing different shapes and
securing balanced distribution.
2. To ease cultural practices including intercultivation, plant protection and harvesting.
3. To improve performance like planting at an angle of 45° and horizontal orientation of
branches make them fruiting better.
Methods of Training
Method of training of a plant is determined by the nature of plant, climate, purpose of
growing, planting method, mechanization, etc. and therefore, intelligent choice is necessary.
Training in herbaceous annuals and biennials
 These plants are usually grown without any attempt to alter their growth patterns because
even if useful not practical being in large number in field.
 However, for some of ornamental value and creeping nature following types of training is
affected.
1. Staking or supporting of vine like plants.
2. Training on pergola or trellis of vine type fruit plants or even indeterminate type
tomatoes.
 3. Nipping of apices for encouraging lateral growth to give bushy appearance or fulsome
appearance in pot plants like Aster, Marigold and Chrysanthemum.
4. De-shooting or removal of lateral buds for making single stem for large flowers as in
Chrysanthemum and Dahlia.
5. Staking with bamboo sticks and tying together various shoots in potted Chrysanthemum.
Training of woody perennials
 The woody perennials, which are widely spaced and remain on a place for a long duration,
are trained for develop strong framework for sustainable production of quality produce and
for ornamental beauty in different shapes (topiary).
 In these plants following types of training are followed.
Open Centre System (Vase Shaped System)
In this system the main stem is allowed to grow to a certain height and the leader is cut to
encourage lateral scaffold from near the ground giving a vase shaped plant. This is common in
peaches, apricots and ber
Central Leader System
In this system the central axis of plant is allowed to grow unhindered permitting branches
all around. This system is also known as closed centre system and common in use in apple, pear,
mango and sapota
Modified Leader System
This system is in between open centre and central leader system wherein central axis is
allowed to grow unhindered upto 4—5 years and then the central stem is headed back and
laterals are permitted. It is common in apple, pear, cherry, plum, guava.
Cordon System
 This is a system wherein espalier is allowed with the help of training on wires.
 This system is followed in vines incapable of standing on their stem.
 This can be trained in single cordon or double cordon and commonly followed in crops like
grape and passion fruit
Other Training Methods
Training on pergola
 To support perennial vine crops pergola is developed by a network of criss-cross wires
supported by RCC/angle iron poles on which vines are trained.
 This is common for crops like grape, passion fruit, small gourd, pointed gourd and even
peaches.
Training in different shapes
 Generally ornamental bushes are trained in different shapes for the purpose of enhancing
beauty of places.
 These shapes could be vase, cone, cylindrical and rectangular, box, flat and trapezoid.
 Presently for the convenience of mechanization these shapes are being utilized in fruit trees.
 Such shapes are given to adjust the geometry of plantation like hedge row system, box,
unclipped natural in fruits like guava, mango, sapota and citrus.
Details of Training
1. Height of the Head: This is the height from ground to first branching or scaffolding.
Depending on the height the trees could be divided in three groups.
2. Low Head : 0.7—0.9 m. This is common in windy areas. Such plants are easy to maintain.
3. Medium Head : 0.9—1.2 m. This is the most common height which combines both effects,
ability to stand against wind and easy management.
4. High Head: More than 1.2 m. Common in tropics in wind free areas. Operations under the
canopy are easy to perform.
5. Number of Scaffold Branches: It refers to allowing of number of scaffolds on the primary
axis of the tree which vary from 2 to 15 but extremes are undesirable. In fruit trees 5 to 8
scaffolds are preferred to make the tree mechanically strong and open enough to facilitate
cultural operations.
6. Distribution of Scaffolds: Scaffolds should be distributed in all the directions spaced at 45-60
cm allowing strong crotches through wide angles of emergence.
7. A well trained tree is an asset to the farmer and therefore, efforts should be made for training
trees appropriately in formative years for sustainable production. In fact the process should
have begun from nursery itself.
 Lecture 5. Pruning
It refers to removal of plant part like bud, shoot, root etc. to strike a balance between
vegetative growth and production. This may also be done to adjust fruit load on the tree.
Objectives
1. To control plant size and form.
2. For plant performance like
 Establishment of transplant where leaves/shoots are pruned to strike a balance between
root and shoot so that plants lose less water against restricted root system lost during
lifting of plants.
 Improvement in productivity and quality by regulating the load of the crop and extent of
flowering.
 For flower and fruit quality.
 Elimination of non-productive vegetative growth like water sprouts, suckers, dead and
diseased wood.
 In case of forest trees production of knot free timber.
Types of Pruning
Basically there are three types of pruning with definite purposes.
1. Frame Pruning.
2. Maintenance Pruning.
3. Renewal Pruning.
Frame Pruning
 This pruning is done to provide shape and form to a plant in its formative years so that
tree develops strong framework and a shape for ease of operations.
 This process begins from nursery itself and continues up to fruiting stage.
 This is done continuously irrespective of the season.
Maintenance Pruning
 To maintain status- in production level and for uniform performance this pruning is done.
 In some plants like grapes, apple, pear, peach etc. (deciduous trees) it is an annual feature
and in others (evergreen like mango, sapota) it is rare confining to removal of water
sprouts and unproductive growth and opening of the tree.
Renewal Pruning
 This pruning is done in old trees like mangoes which shows decline.
 In this case severe pruning is required.
Factors to be considered during pruning
 In some of the tree species pruning as a regular feature in bearing trees is done to strike a
balance between vegetative growth and production so that farmers get sustained
production uniformly with optimum quality of produce.
To achieve this one should consider the following factors
1. Time at which buds are differentiated in relation to blooming.
2. The age of the wood that produces the most abundant and highest quality of fruit buds.
3. In consideration of these factors our knowledge about bearing habit of the tree/plant
should be complete.
4. Bearing habit means relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential bud giving
rise to flower or inflorescence in the shoot.
5. This habit varies from plant to plant.
 Lecture 6: Special Pruning techniques & Thinning
Special pruning techniques
1. Root pruning: A circular trench of 45 cm away from the stem is dugout
annually and the roots are cut-off every year with a sharp knife - Eg. guava.
2. Ringing: To increase fruit bud formation. Removal of a complete ring of bark
from a branch (or) the trunk – Eg. grapes.
3. Notching: Partial ringing of a branch above a dormant lateral bud. Removing
of a small narrow strip of bark just above and close to a dormant bud –
grapes.
4. Smudging: Practice of smoking to induce early blossom in mango trees by
burning branches and fallen leaves and smoked heavily for a week
continuously - smoking eg. Eg. mango
5. Bending : is practiced in erect varieties to imcrease the fruity area in the
branches on the lower parts of the main limbs - Eg. guava
6. Coppicing ; Complete removal of the trunk leaving 30-35 cm stemp alone.
The coppiced stump starts producing many vigorous shoots in about 6
months time. Only 2-3 shoots retained per stump and rest are thinned out -
Eg. Eucalyptus
7. Pollarding ; Removing the growing point is shade trees in order to encourage
side branches - Eg. Silver oak
8. Lopping : Reducing the canopy cover in shade trees in order to permit more
light. - Eg. all tress
9. Pinching – Removal of terminal growing point to induce more lateral (or) side
shoots - Eg. Tipping – bud pinching
10. Dis budding – Removal unevanted flower buds in a cluster to encourage the
remaining buds to develop into a large, greatly bloom - Eg. Rose.
11. Containment pruning – Heading back technique is applied and trained in
such a way that most of the bearing woods are within the small canopy of tree
- Eg. grapes
12. Alternate differential pruning – Light and severe pruning to control the
alternate bearing.
Thinning – is the removal of a part of flower buds, flower (or) fruits (before it matures
on the tree) with the following objectives –
1) increase annual yield of marketable fruit
2) improve fruit size
3) improve colour of fruit
4) improve eating quality (TSS)
5) reduce the limb breakage
6) promote tree vigour and regular cropping
7) Permits thorough spraying and dusting of fruits during the late season
application
8) Ensures uniform ripening.
Amount of thinning :
Depends upon
1) Crop set
2) Response of the variety to thinning
3) Nature of pruning
4) Age of tree
5) Value of increased size of fruit in the market
Methods :
1) Hand thinning – removal of some branches / strands / or some berries,
etc.
2) Chemical thinning – Thinning of blossoms by spray chemical substances
NAA  100 ppm in grapes decrease 50% fruit setting
NAA  600 ppm mandarin decrease over bearing fruits – increase size
and quality of fruit.
 Polyembryony, apomixis, chimeras and bud- sports
Polyembryony
Polyembryony means that more than one embryo develops within a single seed. It is also
known as adventitious embryony (Nucellar embryony or Nucellar budding).
 Polyembryony can develop from several distinct causes. Specific cells in the nucellus or
sometimes with integument have embryos. Genetically, these embryos have the same
genotype as the parental plant and are apomictic.
 Adventitious embryony occurs in many plant species but is most common in citrus and
mango. In these species, both zygotic and apomictic embryos are produced. In other
species (e.g. Opuntia), no pollination or fertilization is needed.
 Polyembryony is common in mango and citrus. In trifoliate orange (Poincirus trifoliata)
several seedlings arise from one seed.
 Of these seedlings, one seedling, usually the weakest may be sexual, and the others arise
apomictically from cells in the nucellus, which are diploid copies of the mother plant.
Horticultural significance of polyembryony
Nucellar seedlings in citrus are completely free from viruses, because the embryo sac and
adjoining tissues are impregnated at flowering time with some unknown powerful substances
which kills all the viruses. For immediate requirement of planting material, development of
nucellar lines is the quickest and easiest method. The major possible horticultural applications of
polyembryony are:
 Nucellar seedlings are true-to-type seedlings
 Such seedlings are genetically uniform and can be used as virus free rootstocks
 More vigorous seedlings – continuous vegetative propagation leads to decline in vigour
in citrus
 Development of virus free seedlings and bud wood
 Significance in breeding programme
Apomixis
In some species of plants, an embryo develops from the diploid cells of the seed and not
as a result of fertilization between ovule and pollen. This type of reproduction is known as
apomixis and the seedlings produced in this manner are known as apomicts.
 Apomictic seedlings are identical to mother plant and similar to plants raised by other
vegetative means, because such plants have the same genetic make-up as that of the mother
plant. Such seedlings are completely free from viruses. Plants that produces only apomictic
embryo and are known as obligate apomicts and those which produce both apomictic and sexual
seedlings are called facultative apomicts.
Types of Apomixis: Maheshwari (1950) classified apomixis into four groups:
1. Recurrent Apomixis: In this type of apomixis, the embryo develops from the diploid egg cell
or from the diploid cells of the embryo sac without fertilization. As a result, the egg has normal
diploid number of chromosomes, just like the mother plant. The species, where recurrent
apomixis commonly occur are, Parthenium, Rubus, Malus, Allium , Rudbeckia, Poa, Taraxacum
,etc.
2. Non-Recurrent Apomixis: In this case, the embryo develops either from the haploid egg cell
or from some other haploid cells of the embryo sac. In this case, haploid plants are produced,
which contain only one set of chromosome of the mother plant. Hence, the haploid plants are
sterile in nature and cannot be normally perpetuated into the next generation. Non-recurrent
apomixis occurs only in a few species such as Solanum nigrum, Lilium spp. etc.
3. Nucellar Embryony or Adventitious Embryony: In this type of apomixes, the embryos arise
from diploid sporophytic cells outside the embryo sac i.e. cells of the nucellus, integuments etc.
This type of apomixis is quite common in citrus and certain varieties of mango, where
fertilization occurs normally and sexual plus a number of apomictic (nucellar) embryos develop.
4. Vegetative apomixis or bulbils: In some species of plants, such as Allium, Agave, Poa etc.,
the flowers in an inflorescence are replaced by bulbils or vegetative buds, which sprout, while
still on the mother plant and turn into new daughter plants.
Advantages
 Assured reproduction in the absence of pollinators, such as in extreme environments
 Maternal energy not wasted in unfit offspring (cost of meiosis)
 Some apomictic plants (but not all) avoid the male energy cost of producing pollen
Disadvantages
 Can't control accumulation of deleterious genetic mutations
 Usually restricted to narrow ecological niches Lack ability to adapt to changing
environments
Clone
The term clone may be defined as a group of genetically uniform individuals, derived originally
from a sexually produced individual or from mutations and maintained exclusively by asexual
means from one ancestor.
 The common examples are Bartlett pear, Delicious apples, Sultana grapes and Dashehari
mango.
 The goal of vegetative propagation is to reproduce progeny plants identical in genotype
to a single plant. The biological process is known as cloning and the resulting population
of plants is called a clone.
 The uniformity of individual plants, within a clonal population is a major advantage of
clonal cultivars of fruit and nut crops.
 Clonal propagation helps in fixing genotypes, uniformity of population, facilitates
propagation and reduces juvenile phase, combine more than one genotype into single
plant (grafting) and control phases of development.
 If environmental conditions are favourable and the clone is managed properly, its
trueness-to-type can be maintained for hundreds of years.
Genetic variations in a clone
Mutation
Mutation is a single-step genetic change or sudden heritable change within cells of a clone. In
general, these changes take place spontaneously, in the plants regular but rare intervals.
 A mutation is a genetic change involving some part of the DNA molecule. Genetic
mutations result from structural changes in the nuclear DNA of the chromosome in the
nucleus. DNA also occurs in mitochondria and chloroplasts and defects here can produce
genetic changes.
 Chromosomal changes may be due to chance rearrangement of the four bases in the DNA
molecule (point mutation) rearrangement of different parts of the chromosomes (deletion,
duplication, translocations and inversions), addition or subtraction of individual
chromosome (aneuploidy), or the multiplication of entire set of chromosome
(polyploidy).
 The rate of mutation can be increased by treatment with specific mutagenic agents
e.g. X-ray, gamma rays and certain chemicals.
Bud- sports or bud mutations
When mutation occur and suddenly appear as a chance in the branch of a plant, is called bud
sport or bud mutations, because they appear to have originated within a single bud.
 Detection of a new mutant within a clone may require a series of vegetative propagated
generations and multiple propagations from many buds of the same plant.
 Many ‘sports’ have become commercial cultivars. Mutations may affect fruit (colour,
shape, time of maturity), tree structure (spur type), time of bloom, and as a host of other
traits. Sometimes these mutants have highly useful horticultural traits and have given rise
to important new cultivars (‘Ruby Red’ grapefruit, red coloured sports of apple and pear.)
 On the other hand, mutations may be undesirable and give rise to misshapen fruits, low
production and susceptibility to diseases.
Chimeras
When a mutation occurs within a single cell of a clone, it initially produces an ‘island ‘of mutant
cells within a growing point of a stem. The plant becomes a, mixture of two different genotypes.
This structural arrangement is known as chimeras.
 It is the most important kind of genetic variant within clones typified by various kinds of
variation. The name chimera was historically given to certain unique clonal variants now
known to have arisen as graft chimeras.
 Chimeras develop because of the unique architecture of the apical meristem and the
strategic location of the mutation in a dividing cell near the apex of the apical meristem.
 The three important types of chimeras are based upon the distribution patterns of mutated
and non-mutated cells.
 Buds arising at different positions on a sectorial chimera may produce shoots consisting
of mutated and non-mutated cells, entirely of mutated cells or entirely of non- mutated
cells or sectorial (rarely), mericlinal or periclinal chimeras as described herewith.

1. Periclinal chimera: The mutated tissues occupy layers of cells that completely surround
an inner core of non mutated tissue. For examples in many red colored fruit cultivars in
apple, the red pigment is located only in the epidermal layers; whereas the cells of the
inner tissue have alleles for green or yellow colour. Similarly, some black berry (Rubus
 spp.) cultivars are thorn less; because the cells making up the epidermis do not have this
allele. Periclinal chimeras are relatively stable if propagated stem or grafting.
2. Mericlinal chimera: This combination is similar to the periclinal expect that the cells
carrying the mutant gene occupy only a part of the outer cell layer. In case of a red
mutant on a yellow delicious fruit, the surface of the fruit may have longitudinal streaks
or sectors of red on an otherwise yellow surface. This type is unstable and tends to
change into periclinal chimeras, revert to the non-mutated form, or continue to produce
mericlinal shoots.
3. Sectorial chimera: The mutated cells in this combination occupy an entire sector of the
stem including all layers of the shoot apex. Sectorial chimeras appear if the mutation
occurs in roots and very early stages of embryos where the cells of the growing point do
not occur in layers. In general, this type is unstable and tends to revert to mericlinal and
periclinal chimeras.
 Methods of asexual propagation of horticultural crops and their advantages and
disadvantages
Asexual Propagation
 Asexual propagation is the method of multiplication of a plant from a tissue other than
zygote which is formed by the combination of male and female gametes.
 The cellular basis for this method of multiplication is mitosis viz., regeneration of a
daughter plant from the somatic tissue. The different methods of asexual propagation
are.
A) Cuttings
B) Layerings
C) Budding
D) Grafting

A. CUTTINGS
In propagation by cuttings, a portion of stem, root or leaf is cut from the parent or
stock plant and induced to form roots and shoots by chemical, mechanical and / or
environmental manipulation.
Advantages
 It is very easy to perform and economical
 Rapid multiplication is possible within a short time
 Doesn’t require much space
 The complicated stock scionic relation can be avoided.
 Cuttings can be transported to any place because the stem or root pieces remain fresh
for 5-7 days if packed properly.
Disadvantages
 All the plant species do not root very easily
 The benefits of the stalk plant cannot be exploited
1. Root cutting – Red raspberry, Bread fruit etc.,
2. Stem cuttings
a. Hardwood –fig, grape, gooseberry, rose etc.,
b. Semi hard wood – coleus, geranium, sweet potato etc.,
c. Softwood-lilac, jasmine etc.,
d. Herbaceous – coleus, geranium, sweet potato etc.,
 3. Leaf cutting
Begonia, Bryophyllum, Sansevieria etc.,
4. Leaf bud cuttings – eg. Hydrangea
B) Layering
 Layering is a propagation method by which adventitious roots are caused to form on a
stem while it is still attached to the parent plant.
 The layer is supported by the parent plant until it develops its own root system.
 The rooted or layered stem is detached when enough roots have formed to become a
new plant growing on its own roots.
Principle
The downward flow of metabolites and hormones in phloem is checked at the point of
treatment, causing accumulation of carbohydrates. It is the region where roots are produced.
This is dependable method of inducing rooting, as water and minerals are continuously
supplied.
i) Ground layering
1. Tip layering
Tip layering is a natural method of reproduction in some trailing plants. The tips of
current season’s shoots are buried in the soil. The tip of the shoot recurves upward to
produce a sharp bend in the stem from which roots develop. eg. Black berry and Rasp
berry. eg. Black berry
2. Simple layering
It consists of bending down a shoot and burying a part of it in the soil so that the tip is
in air.
eg. Rose, Jasmine, Guava etc.
3. Mound layering or Stooling
Stooling is a form of layering, in which the already established parent plant is cut
back to the ground and resulting growths from the stud or stool are covered with soil to
one-half its height. The soil is applied at intervals as the shoots grow. The base of these
shoots will produce roots and the rooted shoots are separated from the parent stool after
sufficient rooting. eg. Apple and Pear.

4. Compound layering
 This is similar to simple layering except that the flexible branches are covered with
soil in several places.
eg. American grapes, Clematis, Peperomia.
5. Trench layering
Etiolation refers to growing in darkness and in this method; a branch is
covered over its entire length to produce from all nodes or buds, wherein roots are
formed. One year old plant is planted slantingly at an angle of 30º to 45º and about
1m apart in the ground. Once these plants are established, they are bent and laid flat
over the bottom of a trench of about 5 cm deep. When buds start to swell, a layer of
2.5 cm soil is placed on the branch. As the shoots grow, more soil is added until they
are covered to a depth of about 12-15 cm so that the shoots are etiolated to form roots.
eg. Cherry, Plum and Apple rootstocks.
ii) Air layering (Gootee (or) marcotage) : Litchi, guava, crotons etc.
This method is also known as Chinese layering, pot layerage, gootee, marcottage or
circumposition. In this method, the roots are induced to form on the aerial part of the plant
where the stem is girdled or slit at an upward angle. Girdling consists of removal of a strip of
bark of 2.5 to 3 cm wide around the stem. Scraping the exposed surface to ensure complete
removal of phloem and cambium is desirable to retard healing. Another procedure is to make
a slanting upward cut of the stem about 3 cm long and keeping out surfaces apart by a piece
of wood.
The injured portion is enclosed at the point of injury with rooting medium like
sphagnum moss or vermiculite which is maintained continuously moist by wrapping with
polythene sheets. The polythene sheets permit gaseous exchange but are impervious to water.
The roots are formed on the upper portion of the cut end of the ring. When the stem or
shoot has produced a good root system, a first cut is given half way through the stem just
below the point of rooting. Next cut is given 15 days later and the rooted stem removed. As
the root system is small when compared to the shoot system, the rooted layer is planted in
pots to produce more roots before planting in the field.
Advantages
 It is an easy method and does not require much care and arrangements like cuttings.
 The mother plant supplies nutrient and other metabolites as it remains attached while
rooting.
 Some of the species which do not root by cuttings can be propagated by layering
Disadvantages
 A number of new plants that can be produced from any given number of plants or
mother plants by layering is low when compared with cutting
 It is very costly method where labour charges are very high
C) Grafting
i) Root grafting
a) Whip graft - apple and pear
ii) Crown grafting
a) Whip and tongue graft – Persian walnut, apple
b) Cleft graft – camellia, plums
c) Side graft - Narrow leaved evergreen, mango
ii) Top grafting
a) Cleft – various fruit trees
b) Notch graft
c) Bark graft
d) Side graft
e) Whip and tongue graft
f) Veneer grafting

Grafting or graftage
It is an art of inserting a part of one plant into another plant by exposing the actively
growing tissue so that they will unite and continue their growth as one plant.
Scion: It is the upper part of the graft and from which stem and branches will grow into a plant.
Root stock
It is the lower part of the graft and this forms the root system of the grafted plant. Root
stock is also called as stock or under stock.
Types of rootstock
There are two types (1) Seedling root stock (2) Clonal root stock
The seedling root stock exhibit variations in growth and used in crops like mango, plum
and peaches. The clonal root stock are used to avoid variation and these are propagated by
cutting or layers, root stock propagated asexually are termed as clonal rootstock. Eg. apple and
pear.
Types of grafting
1. Inarching or approach grafting :- In this method root stock are raised in pots. Then
they are brought near the mother plant. Here scion remains in mother plant.
One year old seedling of pencil thickness are selected. Above ground level at 15 to
20cm height in root stock, 5 to 8cm long slice of bark with wood is removed. This cut should
be smooth and it tapers gently towards the tip and bottom. Same type of cut is made on scion
and the two cuts are placed face to face and tied firmly with banana fibre and then with twine
over it. After that union is covered with a mixture of cow dung and mud in equal parts. After 6-
8 weeks top of root stock is removed above graft union and base of scion below the graft
union. First half cut is given and another half cut is given after an interval of 10 days.
Pot stands, bamboo clefts and platforms are employed to accommodate the root stocks
or the mother trees are trained to produce low spreading branches. Eg. mango and sapota.
Tongued approach grafting, is a modified method of approach grafting after the first cut is
made in each stem to be joined, a second downward cut on the stock and upward cut on the
scion is made, thus providing a thin tongue on each piece. By interlocking these tongues, a
very tight, closely fitting graft union can be obtained.
2. Epicotyl or stone grafting
Seeds are raised in bed and the germinated seedlings of 8 to 15 days old are taken out
and grafted indoor by beheading the seedling about 5cm above the seed and then inserting the
wedge shape scion in the vertical split at the beheaded stock. Polythene tape at 200 gauge
thickness are utilised for tying the graft. The grafts are planted in polybags filled with 1:1 (Soil
& FYM) pot mixture.Eg.Mango
3. Softwood grafting
The top of rootstock are beheaded where the wood is soft and green with the help of a
sharp knife and a slit of 5cm deep is made to accommodate the precured scion. The lower
portion of the scion is made to a wedge shape with equal faces on both sides to a length of
5cm. After inserting the scion into the root stock, the union is tied with polythene strip. The
scions are covered with a polythene bag of 100 gauge thickness and tied with a thread to keep
the scions fresh till the union is completed. When the scions are sprouting (20-30 days after
grafting) the polythene cover is removed. When the leaves on the graft are fully matured, the
bandage is removed to prevent girdling of the graft.
Other types of grafting are side grafting, whip and tongue grafting, cleft grafting,
veneer grafting etc. which are not of commercial importance.
4. Side grafting : In this methods, the scion is inserted into the side of the stock, which is
generally larger in diameter than the scion. The scion is prepared from the terminal shoots of
the past season's growth and used when it is still on the tree. Procuring is done by removing all
the leaves except those at the top 20cm are retaining their petiole intact. Buds in the axils of
these will swell and these precured scion will be cut and used as scion after a week.
The scion is inserted into the side of the rootstock. In the stock, a slanting cut of 2.5 cm
is made at the base, at an angle of 20 to 250. After insertion of the scion, it is tied well. After a
month, the buds in the scion begin to grow. When they grow to 7.5-9cm long, the rootstock
stem above the joint is removed. Eg. Mango, Sapota, Fig and Mangosteen.
5. Whip or splice grafting : In the scion shoot, a slanting cut of 7.5-9 cm long is given at the
basal end. A corresponding cut of same length is made on the rootstock. The two cut surfaces
are placed together and secured tightly in position by proper tying or some times
sealed with grafting wax.
6. In the whip and tongue grafting, a tongue like cut upward on the scion and downward on
the stock is made after the first cut, which helps holding the stock and scion more tightly. It
heals quickly and makes a strong union because of more close contact between the cambia
regions. Eg. Apple and Pear.
7. Cleft grafting : The base of the scion is prepared in the form of a wedge. The rootstock is
split in which the scion is inserted. This method is usually done on thick stocks of 2-8 cm in
diameter. This is the common method followed in top working of trees. The stock is given a
smooth cut and then it is split at the centre and two scions are inserted at the ends in such a way
that the cambial layers of stock and scion are in contact. After the successful graft union, one
of the scions, which is well developed is allowed to grow. Eg. Pear
8. Veneer grafting : This is modification of side grafting. In this method, a shallow
downward and inward cut of 2.5-4 cm long is made in a smooth area just above the crown of
the stock plant. At the base of this cut, a second short inward and downward cut is made
intersecting the first cut, so as to remove a piece of wood and bark. The scion is prepared with
a long cut along one side and a very short one at the base of the scion on the opposite side. The
scion cuts should be the same length and width as those made in the stock so that the cambium
layers can be matched as closely as possible.
9. Bark grafting : In this method, vertical cuts of 2.5-5 cm long are made at the top end of the
shoot through the bark to the wood. The bark is then lifted slightly along both sides. In the
scion, one cut of about 5 cm long is made along one side at the base. On the opposite side, a
second shorter cut is made, thereby bringing the basal end of the scion to a wedge shape. The
scion is then inserted between the bark and wood of the stock directly under the vertical cut
through the bark.
D) Budding

It is an art of inserting a bud on the root stock in such a way that both will unite and
continue to grow as a single individual plant”
i) T budding (Shield budding) – Pomefruits, rose, ber etc.
ii) Patch budding – Citrus
iii) Ring budding – Walnut and pecan
iv) Flute budding – Walnut and pecan
v) Chip budding – citrus
Budding
It is an art of inserting a bud on the root stock in such a way that both will unite and
continue to grow as a single individual plant.

Advantages of budding
(1) The economy in the use of scion material. From single shoot more number of buds
can be taken and more number of buddings can be done.
Characters of rootstock for budding
1) It should be vigorous in its growth habit
2) Disease resistance
3) Easily propagated through seeds
4) Usually one year old root stock
5) Pencil thickness root stock should be selected but seedlings of slow growing nature
may require two seasons.
6) Root stock should be free from diseases
Bud wood
The shoots of mother plant from which buds are taken for use as scion material for
budding are called bud wood.
Characters of bud wood
1. It should be collected from selected mother plant.
2. It should be well matured past season’s growth.
3. Plumpy and well developed buds which should be dormant but ready to grow.
4. Ten to fifteen days before the removal of bud the shoots should be defoliated so as to
activate the buds.
5. Budding should be done when the root stock is still in active growing condition with
free flow of sap which will help in easy lifting of bark in budding operation for proper
union.
6. Bud wood should be free from pest and diseases.
Types of budding
1. Shield or ‘T’ budding or '' budding
In this method, the appearance of the bud resemble shield and 'T' or ‘’ shaped
incision is made in root stock and so it is called shield or 'T' or ‘’ budding.
Steps involved in ‘T’ budding
1. In the root stock, a transverse or horizontal cut of 1 to 1.5cm length is made first.
2. Below or above this cut, a vertical cut of 2.5 to 3cm length is made and connected to
the horizontal cut.
3. Two flaps of the bark should be opened with help of knife (ivory edge).
4. The cuts are given in the stock at a height of 5 to 25cm above the soil in a smooth
bark surface.
5. In the scion, 1.25cm above the bud, a slanting cut is made and 2.5cm long bud is
taken in the shape of a shield.
6. Insert the bud by pushing it downward under the two flaps of bark (Horizontal cut of
stock and scion should be even).
7. Then budded portion is covered with plastic tape or adhesive tape.
Season: Temperate crops – July-September or in March in some species.
If budding is done in late May or early June it is called June budding. Eg. sweet orange,
roses, plum and peach.
2. Patch budding
It is called so because a patch of scion and root stock are used in this method.
Steps involved in patch budding
1. A rectangular patch of bark of about 3cm length and 1.5cm width is removed from the
root stock.
2. Similar patch with prominent bud is removed from the bud stick
3. After removal from bud stick, it must be placed in position immediately on stock.
4. Then covered the budded portion by exposing the bud with tape or wax cloth.
Season : Late summer or early monsoon season.
Eg. citrus, mango, rubber, annona, walnut, pecan nut and cashew.
3. Chip budding
It is being practised at time when bark is not slipping from mother plant. In this
method bark with some wood is removed from but stick as scion and used for budding.
4. Flap or forket budding
A transverse incision is made in the bark of the root stock and then bark is peeled off
carefully to a length of 5cm. The bud shield is removed from scion and inserted under the
flap till the exposed edges of root stocks meet. Then flap is cut to half and is brought to cover
the bud shield partially and then wrapped. If the flap is not cut and used to wrap the bud then
this method is called modified flap or forket. Eg. grapes.
5. Ring budding
The bud is prepared by taking a ring bark of 3 cm length with a bud in the centre. In
the stock two circular cuts of 1.5cm apart are made and these are connected by vertical cut
and ring of bark is removed. The prepared scion bud with the ring of bark is fitted in the
exposed portion of stock and tied with plastic tape.
Eg. Cinchona.
6. Flute budding
The root stock plant is topped off at 25cm height and at the top about 2.5 – 3cm of
bark is removed leaving the wood exposed. The bud in the form of flute is inserted in the
stock. The diameter of stock and scion should be same. Otherwise the contact between them
will not be proper. It is similar to ring budding, the difference being that the ringed bark can
be removed easily in the form of a flute.
ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
1. In most horticultural plants, the genetic make up (genotype) is highly heterozygous.
The unique characters of such plants are immediately lost if they are propagated
though seed
2. It is necessary to grow cultivars that produce non viable seeds, eg. Bananas, fig and
grape
3. Propagation of some species may not be easier through seeds . For eg. Cotoneaster
seed – it has complex dormancy condition but it is easily propagated through cuttings
4. To reduce prebearing period/or to reduce long juvenile stage.
5. To induce dwarfness eg.in apple
6. To induce disease and pest resistance.‘Troyer citrange’ is used as a rootstock for
citrus. It is resistant to tristeza virus.
7. To induce hardiness in cultivars
DISADVANTAGES
1. Longevity is not high when compared to the seedling progeny.
2. Asexual method is uneconomical and impractical in the case of vegetable crop
propagation and grains (eg.tomato, brinjal, amaranthus etc.) since cost of cultivation
is high when compared to sexual method
3. Most of the virus disease are not seed borne. When propagated vegetatively the virus
are carried to the next generation eg. ‘Katte’ disease of cardamom.
 Assessment of bearing habits

Depending on the position of fruit bud and the kind of flower bearing shoots it produces, fruit
trees can be classified into following eight groups. Basically there are two types of flowering:
terminal and lateral and within each category there is variation depending on flower shoot: pure
or mix, terminal or lateral

Group-1: Fruit buds borne terminally and unfold to produce inflorescence without leaves.
Example: Mango.

Group-2: Fruit buds borne terminally unfolding to produce leafy shoots hat terminate into flower
clusters e.g. Apple.

Group—3: Fruit buds borne terminally unfolding to produce leafy shoots with flowers or flower
cluster in the axil of leaf. Example: Guava

Group-4: Fruit buds borne laterally unfolding to produce flowers without leafy parts.
Example: Citrus, Coconut, Papaya and Coffee.

Group-5: Fruit buds borne laterally unfolding to produce leafy shoot terminating in flower
clusters. Example: Grapes.

Group-6: Fruit buds borne laterally and unfolding to produce leafy shoot with flower cluster in
the leaf axils. Example: Fig and Avocado

Group-7: Fruit buds borne both terminally and laterally but unfolding to produce inflorescence
terminally. Example: Walnut.

Group-8: Fruit buds always borne adventitiously in old trunk or shoots. Example: Jackfruit,
Cocoa, Indian star goose berry.
 Layout of different irrigation systems

Irrigation: It is defined as the artificial application of water to the plants in the event of shortage
of natural rains in order to obtain rapid growth and increased yields. It is an essential item in the
cultivation of crops. Success in gardening depends on how efficiently irrigation is provided to
gardens because it is governed by many factors such as frequency, duration, intensity, source and
method of supply.

Factors affecting the supply of irrigation water to plants: 1. Topography and soil characteristics.
2. Kind of plant (root depth, water absorption capacity, growth habit, etc.). 3. Weather condition.

Systems of irrigations: Different systems of irrigation are followed in different parts of the
country. The best system is the one which meets the moisture seepage and evaporation.
Principally, irrigation systems can be divided under three broad headings:

I. Surface irrigation: a. Flooding b. Basin type c. Furrow type d. Ring type

II. Sub-surface irrigation: a. Trench method b. Through underground pipelines c.

Perforated pipelines.

III. Overhead or aerial irrigation : a. Sprinkler b. Revolving nozzles

IV. Drip or trickle irrigation

I. Surface irrigation:

a. Flooding: When the land is flat, letting in water from one end floods the entire area. This
system is commonly practiced in canal or tank bed areas. It is the easiest method and permits the
use of bullock drawn implements in the orchards. But in this there is wastage of water and leads
to soil erosion also. It encourages growth of weeds and spread of diseases like gummosis in
citrus and collar rot in papaya.

b. Basin system: In this system, circular basins are provided around the trunk of the tree. The
basins are inter-connected in series and are fed through the main channel running perpendicular
to the tree rows. When compared to flooding, this system minimises the loss of water. In this
system of irrigation, the water close to trunk may bring about certain diseases like gummosis and
nutrients are likely to be carried over from one basin to the other.

c. Furrow system: Unlike the flood system, here the entire land surface is not covered with
irrigation water. The furrows are opened in the entire orchard at 4” or less apart, depending upon
the age of the trees. Water is let in these furrows from the main channels. In orchards, two
furrows on each side of the rows are generally made. It is suited to such lands, which have a
moderate slope to the extent of 1-2% if the water is to run freely and reach the ends of the
furrows. Where the slope is sharp, the furrows are made to follow the contour more or less
closely. This method has disadvantage of excess of water penetration at the head than at the
farther end, which may result in variation in vigour and growth of trees.

d. Ring system: this is an improvement over the basin system. In this system, a ring is formed
close and around the tree and water is let into the basin .This method is recommended for citrus
trees thereby reducing the chances of collar rot to which these trees are often susceptible. The
size of the ring will increase as the tree grows .In this system, the spread of diseases like collar
rot, etc., are prevented. However, it involves more labour and capital and it does not permit
uniform distribution of water throughout the bed or basin as in the basin system of irrigation.

II. Sub-surface irrigation: This system consists of conducting water in number of furrows or
ditches underground in perforated pipelines until sufficient water is taken into the soil so as to
retain the water table near the root zone. In limited situation, this may be a very desirable system
of irrigation. In general, however, it must be used with great caution because of the danger of
water logging and salt accumulation. If the sub-strata are so slowly permeable that practically no
water moves through, water added may stand in soil sufficiently for long time resulting an injury
to the plant root due to poor aeration. Where irrigation water or the sub-soil contains appreciable
amount of salt, sub-soil irrigation is usually not advisable. Land must be carefully levelled for
successful subsoil irrigation so that raising the water table will wet all parts of the field equally.

III. Over head or aerial irrigation: In this system, water is applied in the form of spring,
somewhat resembling rainfall. This is accomplished by pumping water from original source into
the main supply line from where it is distributed to perforated pipes, which operate at low
 pressure (80 to 120 lb per square inch) and supply the water in a fairly uniform rectangular
pattern.

a) Sprinkler irrigation: This system is best adopted for areas where ordinary surface systems are
inefficient. It can be used where the land is rough or the soil is too much porous, shallow or
highly erodible. It is quite useful where only small streams are available, such as irrigation wells
of small capacity. It is helpful in irrigating at the seedling stage when the furrowing is difficult
and flooding leads to crusting of soil. Fertilizer materials may be evenly applied by this method.
This is usually done by drawing liquid fertilizer solutions slowly into the pipe. It has several
disadvantages like high initial cost, difficult to work in windy location, trouble from clogging of
nozzle, interference in pollination process and requirement of more labours while removing or
resetting.

b) Revolving nozzle: It is also at times used, which operated on either low or high pressure.
Usually the rate of application followed in the rate of 0.2” to 0.3” per hour.

IV. Drip or trickle system: This is the most recent system of irrigating the plants. It is usually
practise for high value crops, especially in green houses and glass houses. There will be an
installation of pipelines with nozzles very close to the soil. The nozzle is fitted in such a way that
water is dripped almost in the root-zone of the plants. Water is allowed to move in pipes under
very low or no pressure and it drop at regular interval. This system of irrigation has advantages
like no disturbance of the soil; soil moisture is maintained, lesser leaching of nutrients from the
soil.
 Nursery
Nursery
Nursery is a place where seedlings are raised for transplanting in the main field (annuals)
and used as rootstock (budding and grafting) and also where cuttings, layers, grafts and budding
are produced and maintained till they are planted in the main field. It also possesses infra
structural facilities (mist chamber, green house, glass house, micro propagation unit) for easy and
fast perpetuation of plants.
Planning of nursery
One has to decide which type of nursery is to be started. At the same time the durations
and type of plants propagated should be finalized.
Selection of nursery site
The following points have to be considered while selecting the site for nursery
establishment
1. The nursery area should be under partial shade, preferably under trees; otherwise,
artificial shade could be created by using shade nets, coconut leaves, banana trash, etc.
2. The area should be located near the source of adequate soft water throughout the year
(>1400m mhos). The quality of irrigation water decides the growth and vigour of the
plants.
3. The soil should be fertile with adequate humus, porous and neutral in reaction with
proper drainage facilities.
4. Sufficient labourers should be available round the year.
5. Optimum temperature range between 23 - 280C
6. Nursery location should be approachable with proper transport facilities either by road or
by rail.
7. Nursery site should be located near the market.
8. The location should be in a well established fruit growing region as one could get the
benefit of experience of other growers.
9. The nursery should be well protected against animals and trespassers, by fencing either
using barbed wires or using live fences such as Caronda, Prosopis, etc., which are
amenable for pruning and training and have thorns.
10. Wind breaks from strong and hot winds must protect the nursery site.
 11. The site should be a well drained and elevated area.
12. The nursery should be located nearer to farm office for effective supervision.
13. Optimum soil conditions are essential for the success and economy of nursery operation.
Clayey soil should not be selected as they are ill drained and poorly aerated, and crack
during summer. Well drained loamy soils are suitable. The depth of the soil should be 50
- 60 cm for better development of roots.
Different features of the nursery
1. Scion banks - Mother plant nursery
2. Production yard - Production of plants through seeds, cuttings, budding, grafting and
bio technology
3. Propagation structures - mist chambers, green houses
4. Hardening chambers and establishment structures
5. Sale point.

Propagation structures
Some vegetable crops like cabbage, cauliflower, brinjal, chillies, tomato and few others
are usually started in well prepared nursery beds and the young plants are transplanted later in
the main field. This is the normal practice followed in most of the tropical countries where
severe winter season is absent. But in countries having long cold winters and short growing
seasons, these kinds of vegetables and some flower crops are grown in some plant growing
structures. These plant growing structures are also used for starting solely for an early crop in
certain areas where winters are not so severe. These plant growing structures include hot beds,
cold frames, green houses or glass houses.
1. Increasing the length of the growing season and making it possible to grow long season crops
in regions where summer is short.
2. Making it possible to grow more than one crop on the same land in one growing season.
3. Protecting the plants from unfavourable weather.
4. Obtaining more yields of long season tender crops in places where summers are short.
5. Making it possible to produce an earlier crop by planting seed before it would be safe to
plant in the open.
Mist chamber
 Mist chamber is an enclosed space covered by polyethylene sheet or fibre glass in which
a sterile medium is provided for planting cuttings. Water is sprayed in the form of a mist through
fine nozzles periodically so as to maintain the humidity at very high level (95 – 98%). It is used
for propagation of plants through cuttings, hardening of layers, grafts etc.
It is well known that increase in relative humidity prevents desiccation of cuttings and
provides more favorable environmental condition for root formation. As the humid condition
facilities root formation in cuttings and layers, plants are usually propagated in the monsoon.
Plants, which fail to root from cuttings or develop low percentage of rooting under ordinary
condition or even in a alkathane chamber have shown satisfactory rooting under mist. Mist
propagation of fruit and ornamental plants has been taken up systematically probably for the first
time in India at the Birla Laboratory, Agricultural and Horticulture Society of India.
Mist chamber is a propagation structure provided with mist system and covered with high
density polyethylene sheets. Intermittent mist systems are widely used for rooting of softwood,
semi-hardwood, hardwood and herbaceous cuttings. Mist sprays provide a film of water over the
cuttings and media. Intermittent mist controls water loss from cuttings by reducing both
leaf and surrounding air temperature via evaporative cooling, and raising relative humidity.
In some species where a sheath of lignified tissue in stems or a continuous ring of
sclerenchyma acts as a mechanical barrier to root emergence, intermittent mist causes
considerable cell expansion and proliferation in the cortex, phloem and cambium resulting in
breaks in continuous sclerenchyma rings. This facilitates emergence of root primordia.
Mist arrangement
Flow of water from the overhead tank is forced by a automatic pressure pump in the pipe-
line and then through the solenoid valve into distribution system, when the coil of the valve is
energized by the current coming from the mains through the Time Switch. The on and off
periods of the Time Switch are regulated by changing the Selector Knob. During the 'on' period
of Time Switch water is forced through the jets in the form of fine mist. The installation,
operation and management of mist unit do not require any specialised technical knowledge. It
has also been possible to develop very efficient automatic Time Switch to regulate the spray of
water and other components of mist arrangement locally. Students, research workers and
nurserymen can easily manage or maintain it. The nozzles should be fitted on the propagation
frame in a glass-house or alkathene chamber.
Preparation of cuttings for mist propagation
For mist propagation, cuttings are made usually from top shoot 20-30 cm in length
depending on the type of the plant and 4-6 leaves are retained in each cutting. Basal cut is given
by a sharp Knife about 0.5 cm below the node. In order to examine root formation in cuttings
and also to facilitate removal of the rooted cuttings they are planted in 12-16 cm earthenware pot
containing coarse washed sand placed on raised platforms or propagation frame in the mist
chamber.
The cuttings can also be planted directly in sand bed. Planting of cuttings 5-10 cm basal
portion should be inserted in the sand and very close planting should also be avoided for
exposing maximum leaf surface to receive the line spray of water.
Season of propagation
As the humidity in the mist chamber is under control, cuttings can be planted throughout
the year, if the temperature is not very high or too low. Because of the radiation, temperature
inside the glasshouse or alkathene chamber is higher than in the open, in the summer months,
temperature can be minimized considerably by covering the top with a sunblind made of gunny
cloth painted green. The range of temperature in the mist chamber which show satisfactory root
formation is arises between 22-25°C.
Cuttings can be taken from evergreen plants at any time of the year, while in case of
deciduous plants, dormant and leafless shoots show less rooting even when the temperature of
the mist chamber is favorable. Under local conditions, satisfactory root formation in cuttings has
been recorded during 9 months in a year except in January, April and May. As most of plants
develop roots in 4-6 week in mist chamber, 4-5 sets of cuttings can be taken during a year.
Green houses
There are number of types of green houses namely low cost green house and commercial
green houses. In green house construction, a wood or metal frame work is built to which wood or
metal bars are fixed to support panes of glass embedded in putty. In all polyhouses / green
houses means of providing air movement and air exchange is necessary to aid in controlling
temperature and humidity. It is best, if possible to have in the green house heating and self
opening ventilators and evaporative cooling systems.
Plastic green houses
 Green houses covered with various types of plastic film have become very popular for
small home garden as well as for large commercial installations. Several kinds of plastic
materials are available and are cheaper than glass. Plastic houses are usually of temporary
construction except when permanent high cost coverings are used. Plastic covered green houses
tend to be much lighter than glass covered ones with a build up of excessive high humidity.
Polythene film: This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is the short lasting one.
However, UV ray resisting polyethylene film of various thickness is usually recommended
which lasts longer.
a) PVC film: This material is pliable and comes in various thickness and widths upto 6 ft. It is
longer lasting than polythene and is more expensive PVC surface of film tends to collect
dust and lower the light intensity in due course of time.
b) Polyester film: This is a strong material with excellent weathering properties lasting for 3
– 5 years and is unaffected by extremes of heat or cold. But is usually costlier than
polythene film / PVC film.
c) Fiberglass: Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiber glass sheets embedded in plastic are
widely used for green house construction. Fibre glass is strong, long lasting, light weight
and easily applied which is coming in a variety of widths, lengths and thickness. It is
costlier than polythene film / PVC film.
Hot beds
The hot bed is often used for the same purpose as a green house but in a smaller scale.
Amateur operations and seedlings can be started and leafy cuttings root early in the season in
such structures. Heat is provided artificially below the propagating medium by electric heating
cables, pot water, steam pipes or hot air blows. As in the green house, in the hot beds attention
must be paid for shading and ventilation as well as temperature and humidity control. Hot beds
have different heating systems : (i) Manure heated, (ii) Flue heated (iii) Hot water heated
depending upon the sources through which heat is developed in the hot bed.
Lath houses
These structures are very useful in providing protection from the sun for container grown
nursery stock in areas of high summer temperatures and high light intensity. Well established
plants also can require lath house protection including shade loving plants. Lathhouses
construction varies widely depending on the material used. Aluminium pre-fabricated lathhouses
are available but may be more costly than wood structures. Shade is provided by appropriate
structures and use of shade nets of different densities allow various intensities of light in the
lathhouses.
Cold frames
Cold frames are satisfactory for starting plants provided little protection is necessary.
The cold frames are constructed in very much the same way as hot beds except that no pit is
required and therefore, no heat is required in the cold frame except that provided by the sun.
This is the main difference between cold frames and hot beds. Permanent cold frames are made
of concrete and temporary ones are made of boards. They are covered with glass sash canvas or
cloth. These cold frames are used (i) to start the plants in the spring, (ii) to harden the plants that
have been started in the hot bed or green house, (iii) to grow certain vegetable crops like lettuce,
celery, radish, beetroot to maturity.
Mist beds
These are valuable propagating units both in the green house and out doors and are useful
mainly in rooting of leafy cuttings.
Nursery bed
These are raised beds or boxes made of brick and mortar, provided with drainage holes at
the bottom. The dimensions of the boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm broad and length as required
preferably not exceeding 10 m. Roof structures for planting on both sides and forming ridges at
the centre are constructed on the top of the nursery beds. These structures may be made
permanent with angle iron or may be made of wood. Moveable bamboo mats, palm leaf mats are
placed over these structures to protect the seedling from hot sun and heavy rains. Even shade
roofing can be used for this purpose for raising seedlings.
Fluorescent light boxes
Young plants of many species grow satisfactorily under artificial light from fluorescent
lamp units. Although adequate growth of many plant species may be obtained under fluorescent
lamps but not upto the mark compared to good green house conditions.
Propagating cases
Even in green house, humidity conditions are often not sufficiently high for rooting. The
use of enclosed frames or cases covered with glass or plastic materials may be necessary for
successful rooting. In using such structures, care is necessary to avoid the build up of disease
organisms due to high humidity.
 Preparation and application of growth regulators

Introduction

The naturally occurring (endogenous) growth substances are commonly known as plant
hormones, while the synthetic ones are called growth regulator. Plant hormone is an organic
compound synthesised in one part of the plant and translocated to another part, where in very
low concentrations it causes a physiological response. The plant hormones are identified as
promoters (auxins, gibberellin and cytokinin), inhibitors (abscissic acid and ethylene) and other
hypothetical growth substance (florigen, flowering hormone, etc.,)

Classification
1. Auxins
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokinenins
4. Abscisic Acid
5. Ethylene
6. Flowering Hormones {Florigin, Anthesin, Vernalin}

1) Auxins: Auxins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range of 0.01-10.0
mg/L. When added in appropriate concentrations they regulate cell elongation, tissue swelling,
cell division, formation of adventitious roots, inhibition of adventitious and auxillary shoot
formation, callus initiation and growth, and induction of embryogenesis.

2) Cytokinins: Cytokinins are generally used in plant cell culture at a concentration range of 0.1-
10.0 mg/L. When added in appropriate concentrations they may regulate cell division, stimulate
auxiliary and adventitious shoot proliferation, regulate differentiation, inhibit root formation,
activate RNA synthesis, and stimulate protein and enzyme activity.

3) Gibberellins: Gibberellins are generally used to promote flowering, break dormancy of seeds,
buds, corms, and bulbs, and causes stem elongation. There are over 90 forms of gibberellins, but
GA3 is the most commonly used form. Compounds like paclobutrazol and ancymidol inhibit the
synthesis of gibberellins.
4) Abscisic Acid: Abscisic Acid (ABA) plays a role in dormancy development in embryos, buds
and bulbs, and in leaf abscission. When used in tissue culture, ABA inhibits the growth of shoots
and the germination of embryos.

5) Ethylene: Ethylene plays role in breaking dormancy, induce ripening of fruits, induce
abscission of leaves and inhibit elongation and lateral bud growth. Synthetic chemical known as
Etherel, Ethephon, Chloroethyl phosphonic acid (CEPA) has been reported to release ethylene
when applied on plants.

Methods of preparation: To prepare a 1 mg/ml stock solution: Add 100 mg of the plant growth
regulator to a 100 ml volumetric flask or other glass container. Add 2-5 ml of solvent to dissolve
the powder. Once completely dissolved, bring to volume with double processed water. Stirring
the solution while adding water may be required. Add 1.0 ml of the stock solution to 1 liter of
medium to obtain a final concentration of 1.0 mg/L of the plant growth regulator in the culture
medium.

Methods of Application:
Growth regulators can be applied in different ways like:
1. Spraying method.
2. Injection of solution into internal tissues.
3. Root feeding method.
4. Powder form.
5. Dipping of cuttings in solution.
6. Soaking in dilute aqueous solution.