Ls 3 -Plant Kingdom

Algae, Bryophytes,
Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms
and Angiosperms
Types of Classification
Artificial
Natural
Phylogenetic
Numerical Taxonomy
Cytotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy
 Types of Classification within
Angiosperms
1.Artificial
The earliest systems of classification were based mainly on vegetative characters used
only gross superficial morphological characters such as –
habit,
◦ colour,
◦ number and shape of leaves, etc.
◦ the androecium structure (system given by Linnaeus).
Such systems were artificial; -
1) They separated the closely related species since they were based on a few
characteristics.

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2) The artificial systems gave equal weight age to vegetative and sexual characteristics;

environment. A M
this is not acceptable since the vegetative characters are more easily affected by

2. Natural classification systems George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker

Natural classification systems were based on –
◦ natural affinities among the organisms
◦ the external features
◦ internal features, like ultra-structure, anatomy,
◦ embryology
◦ and phytochemistry.
 Types of Classification within angiosperms

3. Phylogenetic classification systems

 It is based on evolutionary relationships between the various organisms.

This assumes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have a common ancestor.
 Information from many other sources too to help resolve difficulties in classification.

These become more important when there is no supporting fossil evidence.

 4, Numerical Taxonomy
 which is now easily carried out using computers
 Is based on all observable characteristics.

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Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed.


characters can be considered. A M

In this way each character is given equal importance and at the same time hundreds of

 5.Cytotaxonomy
 It is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour

 6.Chemotaxonomy
 Uses the chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions, are used by
taxonomists these days.
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What are the differences between cryptogams and
phanerogams?

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 Life cycle of plants
 The term “Ploidy” tells us the number of sets of
chromosomes that are found within the nucleus. 
 Haploid cells are those that have only a single set
of chromosomes .
  Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes.

 Cells divide and reproduce in two ways- 

 Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells,

Ploidy same as parental cell, spores formed by
mitosis are called mitospores (asexual spores)

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

parental cell. A M
 Meiosis results in four cells with ploidy half that of

 Each of these cells acts as a gamete .

 Spores formed by meiosis-meiospores (sexual
spores)
◦ MIcrospores meiospores that give rise to a male 
gametophyte, (pollen in seed plants).
◦ Megaspores (or macrospores): meiospores that give rise to
a female gametophyte, (in seed plants the gametophyte
forms within the ovule).
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Plant Life cycles
and Alternation of
generations

Life Cycle- series of changes in the life of an organism including reproduction.

Generations-
Plants have multicellular haploid and multicellular diploid stages in their life
cycle. The two phases, or generations, are often morphologically, and
sometimes chromosomally, distinct.
•Gametophyte is a haploid multicellular structure produced by meiosis.
•Sporophyte is a diploid multicellular structure produced by mitosis.
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Alternation of generations -plants have distinct haploid sexual (gametophytic)
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and diploid asexual (sporophytic) stages.
•A multicellular haploid gametophyte with n chromosomes alternates with a
multicellular diploid Sporophyte with 2n chromosomes.
• A mature Sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis, a process which
reduces the number of chromosomes to half, from 2n to n. These spores
germinate to form n gametophyte . The gametes produced by gametophyte
undergo syngamy to produce 2n zygote which forms 2n sporophyte .
The alternation of a sexual phase and an asexual phase in the life cycle of an
organism is called alternation of generations
Plant Life cycles and
Alternation of
generations

 The haploid spores germinate and grow into a haploid gametophyte.

 At maturity, the gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis, which

does not alter the number of chromosomes.

 Two gametes (originating from different organisms of the same 
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species or from the same organism) fuse to produce a diploid zygote
, which develops into a diploid sporophyte.
 This cycle, from gametophyte to sporophyte (or equally from

sporophyte to gametophyte), is the way in which all land plants and

many algae undergo sexual reproduction.
 The relationship between the sporophyte and gametophyte varies
among different groups of plants...
 Types of life cycle patterns in plants
 1)Haplontic-
 The main plant body, dominant photosynthetic phase is a free living N
gametophyte
 2)Haplodiplontic
 Both N gametophytic and 2N sporophytic phases are of almost equal duration,
main plant body is N gametophyte in Bryophytes and 2N sporophyte in
Pteridophytes
 3)Diplontic
 The main plant body, dominant photosynthetic phase is a free living ,2N
sporophyte.The N gametophyte is extremely reduced and depends upon the
sporophyte.

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1) HAPLONTIC- Algae-

The main plant body,

dominant photosynthetic
phase is a free living
gametophyte , undergoes
gametogenesis , forms N
gametes , undergo
syngamy ie fusion of
gametes form 2N zygote
 Sporophyte represented N

by a single celled 2N A
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zygote ,it undergoes
meiosis (Zygotic meiosis)
to form N , meiospores
called zygospores,
germinate in next season
to form N gametophyte
2)HAPLO DIPLONTIC-
Bryophytes
 Haplodiplontic-Both gametophytic
and sporophytic phases are of
almost equal duration, main plant
body is N gametophyte
 The main plant body, dominant

photosynthetic phase is a free

living gametophyte , undergoes
gametogenesis , forms N gametes ,
undergo syngamy ie fusion of
gametes form 2N zygote
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 Zygote divides by mitosis to form a

2N multicellular sporophyte
 The sporophyte is less well
A
developed than the gametophyte
and is largely dependent on it for
nutrition.
 Sporophyte is short lived ,forms N

spores by meiosis,
 Germinate to form N gametophyte.
 HAPLO DIPLONTIC-
Pteridiophytes
 The main plant body, dominant
photosynthetic phase is a free living 2N
sporophyte , it shows meiosis to form N
spores.
 Spores germinate ,divides by mitosis to
form a N multicellular ,independently
photosynthetic multicellular prohallus-
represents the Gametophyte.
In Pteridiophytes the gametophyte is a small
flattened autotrophic prothallus on which
the young sporophyte is briefly dependent
for its nutrition
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Gametophyte is short lived ,forms N
gametes, which undergo syngamy to form
2n zygote
 Zygote divides by mitosis to form-
multicellular 2N sporophyte.
 Haplodiplontic-Both gametophytic and
sporophytic phases are of almost equal
duration, main plant body is N
sporophythyte.
 In Pteridiophytes diploid sporophyte –main
DIPLONTIC
In Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms

 In Gymnosperms and Angiosperms,

The main plant body, dominant
photosynthetic phase is a free
living 2N sporophyte , it shows
meiosis to form N spores
 These N spores give rise to
multicellular N gametophytes,.
N
 The reduction of the gametophyte
A M
is extreme; it consists of just a few
cells which grow entirely inside the
sporophyte.
 Gametophytes bear N male and
female gamates,undergo
syngamy,form 2N zygote
 Zygote divides by mitosis-2N
sporophyte
 HABITAT
ALGAE
 Algae are chlorophyll-bearing,
simple, thalloid, autotrophic
and largely aquatic (both fresh
water and marine) organisms.
 They occur in a variety of
other habitats: moist stones,
soils and wood.
 Some of them also occur in
association with fungi (lichen)
and animals (e.g., on
slothbear).
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 THALLUS STRUCTURE
 The form and size of algae is
highly variable, ranging from-
 colonial forms like Volvox and the
 filamentous forms like Ulothrix and
Spirogyra(Figure
 A few of the marine forms such as kelps,
form massive plant bodies.
 Reproduction in Algae
 The algae reproduce by vegetative,
asexual and sexual methods.
 Vegetative reproduction is by

fragmentation. Each fragment

develops into a thallus.

Asexual reproduction isNby the

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production of different
A types of
spores, the most common being
the zoospores.
 They are flagellated(motile) and

on germination gives rise to new

plants.
 Types of sexual
reproduction

 Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of two gametes.

 Isogamous
 These gametes can be flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix)

or non-flagellated (non-motile)but similar in size (as in Spirogyra).

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Anisogamous A M
Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species of Eudorina.

Oogamous Fusion between one large, non-motile (static) female

gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete , e.g., Volvox, Fucus.
 Classes of Algae
 The algae are divided into three main classes:
Chlorophyceae , Phaeophyceae and
Rhodophyceae

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1)Chlorophyceae-green algae.
Chlamydomonas,Volvox,Ulothrix,
Spirogyra and Chara.

a) Habitat-Fresh water , marine

b) Thallus structure
◦ The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
◦ They have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer of
pectose
◦ They are green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b.
◦ The pigments are localized in definite chloroplasts.
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◦ The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-
shaped indifferent species.
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◦ Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in
the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch.
◦ Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets ..
 c) Vegetative reproduction -by fragmentation or by formation of different
types of spores.
 d) Asexual reproduction -is by flagellated zoospores ,2-8 equal

flagella,apical
 e) The sexual reproduction -shows considerable variation in the type and
2)Phaeophyceae -brown
algae- Ectocarpus, Dictyota,Laminaria,
Sargassum and Fucus

 A) Habitat- marine
 B) Thallus structure-

◦ great variation in size and form, simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to
profusely branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of100
metres.
◦ The plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk, the
stipe and leaf like photosynthetic organ –the frond
◦ Cell wall- inner layer of cellulose covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin.
◦ They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.They vary in colour from
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olive green to various shades of brown depending upon the amount of the xanthophyll

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pigment, fucoxanthin present in them.
◦ Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in of laminarin or mannitol.
◦ The protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole and nucleus. .
 C) Vegetative reproduction -takes place by fragmentation.

 D) Asexual reproduction - by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped and have two

unequal laterally attached flagella .

 E) Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.

 Union of gametes may take place in water or within the oogonium(oogamous species).

 The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear two laterally attached flagella.
3)Rhodophyce ae - red algae:
Polysiphonia , Porphyra
,Gracilaria and Gelidium

 1) Habitat-Mostly marine with greater concentrations found in the

warmer areas.
 They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water

and also at great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
 2) Thallus structure-

◦ The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular.

◦ Some of them have complex body organisation.
◦ They possess chlorophyll a, d N
◦
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Called red algae because of the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin
in their body
◦ The food is stored as floridean starch which is very similar to amylopectin and
glycogen in structure.
 3) Vegetative reproduction-by fragmentation.
 4) Asexual reproduction-by non-motile zoospores, no flagella
 5) Sexual reproduction- by non-motile gametes.

◦ Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex post fertilization

developments.
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 Algae-Haplontic Life Cycle

In Algae- The plant body is gametophyte (haploid) and sporophyte (diploid)

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stage is represented only by zygote.
•The gametophytic plant develops hapoid gametes in the gametangium.
•The fusion between gametes results the formation of zygote,thick walled
zygospore,resting cell,germinates under favourable conditions, the only diploid
stage i.e., sporophytic phase of the life cycle.
•The zygote undergoes meiotic division and forms four meiospores. These
meiospores develop into haploid plants.

The alternation of generations can be interpreted by chromosome number 

 Economic Importance of Algae
 Algae contribute to half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on the Earth. They
increase the oxygen content of their habitat
 They are important primary producers in an ecosystem
 Algae are used as fodder and also in pisciculture
 Algae have medicinal properties and also used to prepare antibiotics,

e.g. Chlorella, Ascophyllum, Polysyphonia,  etc.

 Alginates like sodium laminarin sulphate and fucoidan are used as a blood

anticoagulants
 Many algae are used as food, e.g. Laminaria, Sargassum, Porphyra, Ulva  (Sea

lettuce), etc.
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 Chlorella (unicellular alga) has a rich protein content and frequently used by

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space travellers as a food supplement (single-cell protein – SCP)
 Hydrocolloids are commercially produced from certain brown and red algae,

e.g. algin produced by brown algae and carageen is produced by red algae

 Agar (China grass), obtained from red algae such as  Gracilaria and Gelidium, is

widely used in laboratories as a solidifying agent in medium for the tissue

culture of microorganism and to prepare various desserts, jellies and icecreams
(Agar is a mixture of agarose (a polysaccharide) and agaropectin present in the
cell wall of certain red algae)
 Algae are also used in sewage treatment processes to increase the alkalinity and
 Bryophytes
 Habitat-
◦ Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts
that are found commonly growing in moist shaded areas
in the hills
◦ They usually occur in damp, humid and shaded
localities. They play an important role in plant
succession on bare rocks/soil
 Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant
kingdom because-these plants can live in soil but
are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.

 The plant body of bryophytes is more

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differentiated than that of algae.


A M
It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and
attached to the substratum by unicellular or
multicellular rhizoids.
 They lack true roots, stem or leaves. They may
possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like
structures
 The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid.
 It produces gametes, hence is called a
gametophyte
 Bryophytes
 The sex organs in bryophytes are
multicellular.
 The male sex organ is called antheridium.
They produce biflagellate antherozoids.
 The female sex organ called archegonium is
flask-shapedand produces a single egg.
 The antherozoids are released into water
where they come in contact with
archegonium.
 An antherozoid fuses with the egg to
produce the zygote.
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Zygotes do not undergo reduction division
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


immediately.
A
They produce a multicellular body called a
sporophyte.
 The sporophyte is not free-living but
attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte
and derives nourishment from it.
 Some cells of the sporophyte undergo
reduction division (meiosis) to produce
haploid spores. These spores germinate to
produce gametophyte.
Liverwort-Marchantia

 The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses

 The liverworts grow usually in moist, shady habitats such

N ground, damp soil, bark of
as banks of streams, marshy
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trees and deep in theAwoods.
 The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia.
 The thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the
substrate.
 The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two
rows on the stem-like structures.
 Asexual reproduction in liverworts takes place by-
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◦ 1)fragmentation of thalli,
M specialized structures called
◦ 2) by the formationAof
gemmae(sing. gemma).
 Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which
develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located on
the thalli along mid dorsal line
 The gemmae become detached from the parent body and
germinate to form new individuals.
 During sexual reproduction, male
and female organs are produced
either on the same or on different
thalli.
 The male sex organ is club

shaped and is called antheridium.

They produce biflagellate
antherozoids.
 The female sex organ is called

archegonium is flask-shaped and

produces a single egg.
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 The antherozoids are released

into water where they A

come in
contact with archegonium.
 An antherozoid fuses with the

egg to produce the zygote(2N)

 Zygotes do not undergo

reduction division immediately

 Zygote divides by mitosis to produce a multicellular body
called a sporophyte.
 The Sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and

capsule. N
 The sporophyte is notA
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free-living but attached to the
photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment from
it.
 Some cells of the sporophyte called spore mother cells,

undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid

spores within the capsule. These spores germinate to
produce haploid gametophyte.
Mosses

 They consist of upright, slender axes bearing

spirally arranged leaves. They are attached to
the soil through multicellular and branched
rhizoids. This stage bears the sex organs—
anthredia and archegonia,
◦ Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by –
fragmentation M
N
A
◦ and budding in the secondary protonema.
 Common examples of mosses are Funaria,
Polytrichum and Sphagnum
 Funaria
 In sexual reproduction, the sex organs-
antheridia and archegonia are produced at the
apex of the leafy shoots.
 After fertilisation, the zygote(2N) develops into a
sporophyte(2N) consisting of a foot, seta and
capsule.
 It remains attached to the gametophyte and
depends on it for nutrition
 The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate
than that in liverworts. The capsule contains
spore mother cells which form spores after
meiosis.

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 The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of


spore dispersal
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The spores after germination give rise to
protonema stage.
 It is a creeping, green, branched and frequently
filamentous stage.It represents the 1st stage of
gametophyte. The second stage is the leafy
stage, which develops from the secondary
protonema as a lateral bud.
 Thus,the predominant stage of the life cycle of a
moss is the gametophyte which consists of two
stages-Protonema and leafy stage.
 Economic importance
 1. Some mosses provide food for herbaceous
mammals, birds and other animals.
 2.Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that

have long been used as fuel, and as packing

material for trans-shipment of living material
because of their capacity to hold water.
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 3. Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms
to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological
importance . They decompose rocks making the
substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants.
 4. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they

reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil

erosion.
Haplo diplontic life cycle in Bryophytes

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Pteridophytes

4 Classes
Psilopsida
Lycopsida
Sphenopsida
Pteropsida
Pteridophytes

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Gymnosperms

N
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Female Gametophyte in Gymnosperms

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Angiosperms

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Angiosperms

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Diplontic life cycle

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