PR2 Q2 Mod4

SHS
Practical
Research 2
Quarter 2 – Module 4:
Understanding Data
and Ways to
Systematically
Collect Data
GOVERNMENT PROPERTY | NOT FOR SALE
0 0
Practical Research 2
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter – Module 4: Title
First Edition, 2020
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of the Government
of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office wherein the work is
created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among
other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks, etc.)
included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted
to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their respective copyright owners. The
publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio
Development Team of the Module
Writers: Karl Erickson I. Ebora, Melanie P. Hernandez, and Blande C. Tullao

Editors: Reicon C. Condes
Reviewers: Reicon C. Condes, Rejulios M. Villenes
Illustrator: Name
Layout Artist: Name
Management Team: Elias A. Alicaya, Jr., Ed.D, OIC - Schools Division Superintendent
Gregorio T. Mueco, OIC – ASDS In-charge of CID
Lorena S. Walangsumbat, Ed.D, Chief, CID
Jee-Ann O. Borines, EPS – LR
Juanito A. Merle, EdD, EPS – SHS
Rejulios M. Villenes, PSDS
Joe Angelo L. Basco, PDO II LR
Printed in the Philippines by SDO QUEZON
Department of Education – Region IV - CALABARZON - SDO QUEZON

Office Address: Sitio Fori, Brgy. Talipan, Pagbilao, Quezon
Telefax: (042) 784-0366, (042) 784-0164, (042) 784-0391, (042) 784-0321
E-mail Address: quezon@deped.gov.ph
0 0
Practical Research 2
Quarter – Module 4: Understanding
Data and Ways to Systematically
Collect Data
0 0
0 0
Introductory Message
For the facilitator:
Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data!
This module was collaboratively designed, developed, and reviewed by educators both from
public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher, or facilitator in helping the learners
meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal, social,
and economic constraints in schooling.
This learning resource hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent learning
activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help learners acquire the
needed 21st-century skills while taking into consideration their needs and circumstances.
In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of the
module:
Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.
As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You also
need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their learning.
Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they do the tasks
included in the module.
ii
0 0
For the learner:
Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data!
The hand is one of the most symbolized parts of the human body. It is often used to depict
skill, action, and purpose. Through our hands, we may learn, create, and accomplish. Hence,
the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner is capable and empowered
to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and skills at your own pace and time. Your
academic success lies in your own hands!
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided
and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the
contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.
This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:
iii
0 0
What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the module.
What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to check what you
already know about the lesson to take.
If you get all the answers correct (100%), you may decide to skip this module.
What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link the current
lesson with the previous one.
What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced to you in
various ways such as a story, a song, a
poem, a problem opener, an activity, or a situation.
What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the lesson. This

aims to help you discover and understand new concepts and skills.
What’s More This comprises activities for independent practice to

solidify your understanding and skills of the
topic. You may check the answers to the exercises using the Answer Key at the
end of the module.
What I Have Learned This includes questions or

blank sentences/paragraphs to be filled in to process what you learned from
the lesson.
What I Can Do This section provides an activity that will help you
transfer your new knowledge or skill in real-life situations or concerns.
Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of mastery in

achieving the learning competency.
Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given to you to enrich your
knowledge or skill of the lesson
learned. This also tends to the retention of learned

concepts.
Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the module.
At the end of this module you will also find:
References This is a list of all sources used in developing this

module.
iv
0 0
The following are some reminders in using this module:
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the module.
Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities included
in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to
consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain a
deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
0 0
What I Need to Know
This module was intended to help you understand the research

methodology as well as the processes and techniques used to identify, select, process, and
analyze information about a topic. The module also talks about data and ways to
systematically collect data with an end view that you will be able to plan and apply appropriate
research design, sampling technique, data gathering procedures, and data analysis using the
data in your research paper.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are
arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into eight lessons, namely:

Lesson 1: The Quantitative Research Design
Lesson 2: The Sample and Sampling Procedures
Lesson 3: Construct an Instrument and Establishes its Validity and Reliability
Lesson 4: Describe an Intervention
Lesson 5: Data Collection Procedures
Lesson 6: Data Analysis
Lesson 7: Present Written Research Methodology
Lesson 8: Research Design Principles and Ethical Standards in Conducting A Study
After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. chooses appropriate quantitative research design
2. describes the sampling procedure and the sample
3. constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability
4. describes intervention (if applicable)
5. plans data collection procedure
6. plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate)
7. presents the written research methodology
8. implements design principles to produce creative work
What I Know
0 0
Write the letter of the correct answer on the space provided.
_____1. Which research design is exemplified by the research entitled, Attitudes of SHS
Learners towards General Community Quarantine (GCQ)?
a. correlational research c. descriptive research

b. causal- comparative research d. experimental research
_____2. Which among the given quantitative research design attempts to establish cause
and effect relationships among the variables?
a. correlational research c. descriptive research

b. causal- comparative research d. experimental research
_____ 3. What do you call the process of measuring a small portion of something and
then making a general statement about the whole thing?
a. Sampling c. Probability sampling

b. Sample d. Non- probability sampling
_____ 4. Which type of non-probability sampling uses no system of selection but only
includes those samples that the researcher or interviewer meet by chance?
a. Accidental sampling c. Pure random sampling

b. Systematic sampling d. Quota sampling
_____5. What do you call those data that are gathered from primary sources?
a. variables c. primary data

b. numerical data d. secondary data
_____6. What do you call the data that are gathered from books, magazines, and
newspapers?
a. variables c. primary data

b. numerical data d. secondary data
_____7. Which statistical treatment will you use for the situation below?
Teacher A conducted a research to identify if there is a significant difference

between low-fat food and high-fat food intake among children. In the study, a
sample of children was provided with a breakfast of low-fat foods on one day
and high-fat foods on another.
a. paired T-test c. two- sample T-test

b. ANOVA d. repeated-measures ANOVA
_____8. Which of the following could be described like the steps you will undergo to collect
data of your study?
a. research locale c. research design
0 0
b. research instrument d. collection procedure
_____9. Which section outlines the instruments you will use in the study such as
interview questions, interview protocols, observation, guide, survey form,
focus group discussion questions, and others?
a. research locale c. research design

b. research instrument d. data
_____10. Which type of validity concerned with the font size, spacing, the size of the
paper used, and other necessary details that will not distract respondents
from answering the questionnaire?
a. face validity c. construct validity

b. content validity d. criterion-related validity
_____ 11. Which refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated trials?
a. validity b. reliability c. stability d. specificity
_____12. This research is used for improving practice. It involves action, evaluation,
and critical reflection and – based on the evidence gathered – changes in
practice are then implemented.
a. action research c. developmental research

b. experimental research d. case study
_____13. Which of the following pertains to ethical consideration?

a. making sure you research does not cause harm or offense
b. when people are of different colors
c. making sure your research causes harm or offense
d. when you are polite to people
_____14. What is informed consent?

a. when people involved in research are told of the details of the study
b. when people involved in your research are not told of the details of the study
c. when people involved in your research are paid for their participation
d. when people involved in your research are not paid for their participation
_____15. What is confidentiality in research?

a. not putting someone’s name on their research
b. need for researchers to tell people that they are being studied
c. need for researchers not to publish personal details of respondents
d. to only research people that you know
0 0
Lesson
The Quantitative Research
1 Design
The research design will guide you in choosing the strategy, data collection,
measurement, and data analysis that you will use in your research to answer your
research problem. In this lesson, the focus is on the quantitative research design, its
types, and its strengths and weaknesses.
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. choose an appropriate quantitative research design

2. identify the different kinds of quantitative research design
3. differentiate the kinds of variables; and
4. write a draft discussion of your chosen quantitative design
What’s In
Write your research topic. Identify the key issues that you want to know from
your topic. Use the form below as a scaffolding to clearly articulate your answer.
Research Topic: _________________________________________________________
Write the aim of your study below: Identify the key issues that you want to
find out. Write them in question form:
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________

Ensure that the objectives of the learners’ research are clear to
them. By this time, the learners should have an approved set of
research question.
0 0
What’s New
The quantitative research design focuses on gathering

numerical data. Its methods highlight objective measurements and
the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data. In this design, data are
collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys(LeTourneau University, 2020).
Table 1. The Quantitative Research Design
Evaluative research
Sources: Johnson & Christensen (2017), www. wssu.edu, and www.esrpc.com
What is It
Quantitative research can be experimental or nonexperimental. In

experimental research, an independent variable is manipulated to see the effects on
the dependent variables while in non-experimental research, the independent variable
is not manipulated and there is no random assignment to groups. With the given
examples categorized as experimental and nonexperimental, it can be said that in
descriptive research, causal-comparative research, and correlation research there is
no manipulation of independent variables, thus they are classified as
nonexperimental researches.
0 0
Quantitative research usually finds answers using variables. It also demonstrates
the relationships among the variables.
A variable is a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or

categories. It is an independent variable (IV) when it is being manipulated by the
researcher while the dependent variable (DV) is the one being observed and
measured by the researcher (www.scribbr.com.n.d.).
According to de Belen and Feliciano (2015) variables can also be discrete or

continuous. A discrete variable implies that the numbers are whole numbers that
are separate, individual, and indivisible and do not contain fractions. Examples:
Grade level of students, the number of cars in a parking lot, baby’s age in months.
Continuous variables are those that can be gathered through measurement and have
an infinite number of possible values such as person’s weight/age/height; travel time
from Sariaya to Pagbilao, price of commodities, family income, etc.
Types of Quantitative Research
1. Experimental research
In experimental research, an independent variable is manipulated to determine
the effects on the dependent variables (www.scribber.com). An independent variable
(IV) is a variable that is presumed to cause a change to occur in another variable. A
dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is presumed to be influenced by one or
more independent variables (Johnson & Christensen,2014).
Example:
A teacher wants to test the effectiveness of a new technique of teaching how to
solve problems in mathematics. Before the start of the experiment, the group to be
used is given an achievement test about the problems to be covered. After the
experimental period, the same test in another form is given to the group as a posttest.
a. Pre-experimental research design

In this research design, a single group is usually studied but no
comparison between the same non-treatment group is made
(www.esrpc.com,2009).
a.1. Type of Pre- Experimental Design
a.1.1. One-shot case study design

• One group is exposed to treatment and measured
subsequently to determine if there were any effects.
• There is no control group for
comparison
(AlleyDog.com, 2020)
Example:
A teacher is using a new instructional method for his class. The

class will be measured at the end of the semester to see if the
new instructional method is effective.
0 0
a.1.2. One Group Pretest Posttest Study
• In this design, a single case is observed one (1) before the

treatment and one (1) after the treatment.
• Changes in the outcome are supposed to be the result of
the intervention or treatment.
• No control or comparison group is employed
Example:
A teacher compares the performance of SHS in the work

immersion subject before gaining work experience and
after completing the work immersion.
a.1.3. Static-group comparison
• In this design, a group that has been exposed to treatment

is compared with one that has not.
• Observed differences between the two groups are presumed
to be a result of the treatment (Researchconnections.org,
2020).
Example:
A teacher wants to determine the effectiveness of an

intervention. He uses two (2) groups as subjects, one (1)
is exposed to the intervention, the other is not. He
compares the posttest scores of the exposed group
against the score of the non-exposed group.
b. Quasi-experimental research design
In a quasi-experimental research design, the independent variable is

manipulated and the subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions
or orders of conditions (Cook & Campbell, 1979).
Example:
A researcher wants to evaluate a new method of teaching fractions to

fourth graders. He conducts the study with a treatment group
consisting of one class of grade 4 pupils and a control group consisting
of another class of grade 4 pupils. In this study, the pupils are not
randomly assigned to classes by the teacher (Price, Jhangiani, &
Chiang,n.d).
0 0
c. True experiment
• In this design, the researcher has to manipulate the variable that is
hypothesized to affect the dependent variable that is being studied.
• In this design, research subjects have to be randomly assigned to
the sample groups.
Example:
A pharmacist has come up with a hypothesis as to what the

relationship between Drug B and anxiety are. He hypothesizes that
Drug X causes a reduction in anxiety. His independent variable is
Drug X while his dependent variable is anxiety. He will manipulate
the dose of Drug X to see if it causes a decrease in anxiety (Study.com,
2003).
2. Non-experimental research
In non-experimental research, the independent variable is not manipulated
and there is no random assignment to groups. Non-experimental research can be
descriptive, causal-comparative, or correlational research.
a. Descriptive research
It describes the current status of an identified variable. Descriptive
research projects are designed to provide information about a phenomenon
without doing any comparison or findings of the relationship between variables.
It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist, practices that
prevail, beliefs, processes that are going on, effects that are being felt, or trends
that are developing. The most common descriptive research method is the
survey, which includes questionnaires, personal interviews, phone surveys,
and normative surveys (Koh & Owen, 2020).
Example:
Teacher A wants to determine the beliefs of the SHS students about the
Alternative Delivery Mode.
b. Correlational research
Correlational research tries to determine the extent of a relationship
between two or more variables using statistical data. It also seeks to figure out
if two or more variables are connected and in what way (Study.com, 2003).
b.1. Types of Correlational Research
b.1.1. Positive correlational research
A type of correlational research comprising two (2) variables that are

statistically parallel where an increase or decrease in one (1) variable
causes a like change in the other (formplus, 2020).
Example:
0 0
A researcher wants to find out if an increase in workers' salaries will
increase the prices of commodities and services and vice versa.
b.1.2. Negative correlational research
A type of correlational research involving two (2) variables that are

statistically opposite where an increase in one of the variables causes
another effect or decrease in the other variable.
Example:
Researcher E is researching to determine if the rise in goods and services

will cause a reduction in demand and vice versa.
b.1.3. Negligible or zero correlational research
This correlational research includes two (2) variables that are not
statistically related. This means that a change in one of the variables
may not cause a corresponding or alternate change in the other
variable. Also, negligible or zero correlational research caters for
variables with unclear statistical relationships.
Example:
A researcher is researching the patience of the affluent families.
c. Causal-comparative
It attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the

variables. This type of design is very similar to true experiments, but with
some key differences because an independent variable is identified but not
manipulated by the experimenter.
Example:
Teacher E wants to know the effects of corporal punishment on

students’ absences. He measured the frequency of student’s absences at
schools that use corporal punishment and compared that to schools that
did not use corporal punishment.
d. Evaluative research
• The methodical assessment of the worth of time, money, effort, and

resources spent to achieve a goal.
0 0
• The process of evaluative research consists of data analysis and that
involves collecting data about organizations, processes, projects, services,
and/or resources (Baht, 2020).
• Evaluative research enhances knowledge and decision-making and leads to
practical applications.
Example:
A company launches a new program. It wants to see if the program produces

the intended outcomes.
Strengths of Quantitative Research
1. Fast speed data collection (sampling methods)

2. Findings can be generalized (if the sample is from a population)
3. Easy to analyze data (use of statistical data)
4. Consistent and reliable data (use of research manipulations—experiment,
surveys, etc)
5. Can be anonymous (for a sensitive topic)
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
1. Requires a large number of respondents

2. Costly and expensive
3. Secondary data may be unavailable
4. Many information is difficult to answer (sensitive topic)
5. More structured research instruments
Writing the Research Design in your Research
In writing the research design, you need to discuss the specific research design
you have selected. You need to argue for the appropriateness of the research design
to answer the research questions. Research designs can be experimental, descriptive,
correlational, or causal-comparative. Remember that in writing the research design,
the procedural part of the design, its appropriateness to the study, and some of its
advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.
Example:
A descriptive research design was used in this study. A descriptive research

design is a fact-finding study with an adequate and accurate interpretation of the
findings. It describes the current conditions, practices, situations, or phenomena.
Since the present study was concerned with the present status of teaching in high
school province A, the descriptive research design was the most appropriate method
to use (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993).
10
0 0
What’s More
Activity 1. Finding Variables
Identify the variables in the research topics that you presented from the previous activity
(What’s In). Use the proper columns for your answer.
Research Topic Variables
1. 2.
3. 4.
5.
Activity 2. Independent or Dependent?
Choose the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) in the given research
topics. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. The effect of temperature on plant growth
IV __________________________ DV ___________________________
2. Effects of fertilizer on plant growth

IV _________________________ DV ____________________________
3. Effects of light brightness on moth attraction to light

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
4. Time spent studying and its effects the test scores of students
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
5. Relationship between educational attainment and work-life balance
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
6. Salary and job satisfaction among residents

IV _________________________ DV
___________________________
11
0 0
7. Effects of preschool attendance on social maturity of Grade 1 pupils
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
8. The relationship between punctuality and promotion

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
9. The relationship between smoking and lung disease

IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
10. The effect of positive reinforcement on the attitude toward school
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
Activity 3. Different Folks, Different Strokes
Identify the research design is being described. Write your answer in the proper column.
Research Design Description

1. In this research design, an independent
variable is manipulated to determine the
effects on the dependent variables.
2. This research design describes the current
status of an identified variable.
3. This research design attempts to establish
cause-effect relationships among the
variables.
4. This research design tries to determine the
extent of a relationship between two or more
variables using statistical data.
5. In this research design, the independent
variable is not manipulated and there is no
random assignment to groups.
Activity 4. Design the Questions
Determine the quantitative research design for each research question.
Research Questions Research Design

1. What are the teachers’ perceptions towards the newly
implemented reading assessment program?
2. What are the pretest and posttest scores of the grade
4 learners before and after the intervention?
3. What are the attitudes towards online banking of
Millennial adults and older people?
4. What is the relationship between gender and exam
results of Grade 12 students?
12
0 0
5. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and
salary?
6. What is the effect of using technology on millennial
and non-millennial learners?
7. What are the cellular phone brand preferences of SHS
learners?
8. What is the relationship between the age and learning
performance of SHS learners?
9. What are the causes of job satisfaction among the
employees?
10. What is the relationship between the quality of sleep
and fitness level?
Activity 5. Tell Me Why!
Given the research topics below, identify which quantitative research design will be used.
Use the appropriate columns for your answer.
Topics Research Design

1. Relationship between an aptitude
test and success in calculus
subject.
2. The perceptions of virologists to
malaria
3. Student’s hours of study and their
stress level
4. Solar purification for water
potability
5. Level of acceptance of students to
ADM
Activity 1.6. It’s Your Turn
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your research design.
Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you in your
writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
The research entitled (the title of research) will use the quantitative research
design particularly the (type of quantitative research design) . The (type of quantitative research design)
(description of the research design). Relatively, the current study (reasons for choosing the design and describe the
13
0 0
appropriateness to the present study).
Rubrics
1 point 2 points 3 points 4 points 5 points

The research The research The research The research The purpose,
design is design is design is design has been questions, and
inappropriate. confusing or described using identified and design are
described mutually
incomplete. standard
sufficiently. supportive and
terminology. The Appropriateness coherent.
reasons and of the design has Appropriates has
appropriateness been clearly
been identified.
of the present stated.
study are not
included.
BEST. Writing a high- quality research proposal. Sydney Australia. UNSW, 2019.
Lesson
The Sample and Sampling
2 Procedures
Lesson 2 of this module talks about sample and sampling procedures. In this
lesson, the general types of sampling and the steps to compute for the sample were
highlighted. It is deemed important that researchers are familiar with the basic
sampling techniques as this will save time and effort while doing the research.
1. describe the sampling procedure and the sample;

2. differentiate sampling procedures;
3. perform sampling technique;
4. compute the size of the sample; and
5. decide and discuss the sampling technique to be used in your study.
What’s In
Determine the quantitative research design illustrated in each situation.
Research Design Situation
14
0 0
1. A researcher wants to know the perceptions of teachers on
the newly implemented mathematics intervention program.
2. A researcher uses a pretest and posttest to know if a
program intervention is effective.
3. A company wants to know the attitudes of the middle class
towards a cashless transaction.
4. Researcher B is trying to find out the relationship between
socio-economic status and school performance of Grade 12
students?
5. A Gender and Development advocate is trying to determine
the relationship between work-life balance and job
satisfaction.
What’s New
In a quantitative research study, information is collected from various sources.

Most often than not, the source of data includes persons or a group of individuals.
You must be able to differentiate the terminology used to refer to these persons. Using
the proper terminology constitutes to a better understanding of your research.
Participants, respondents, and subjects are the people who the researcher selects for
their study.
Subjects are the people in the researcher's experiment - usually quantitative research.
The subject is a term used more in science (quizlet.com.,2020)
Respondents answer (respond/reply) to questionnaires - usually quantitative

research. Respondents generally answer (respond/reply to) the questions asked by
the researcher - no more, no less (quizlet.com.,2020).
Participants participate and answer questions in qualitative studies (eg. interviews

and focus groups). Because qualitative studies are more in-depth than quantitative,
the participant in qualitative studies contributes more (is more active) than
respondents to a survey or subjects in an experiment. The participant generally gives much
more detailed answers than a respondent would in a survey
(quizlet.com.,2020).
Sample and Sampling Technique
The research participants are the individuals who participate in a research study.
Sometimes there can be so many research participants which may not be so practical
during the data gathering process. Hence, researchers use samples of a population.
15
0 0
Table 1. General Types of Sampling Technique
Sources: Johnson & Christensen (2017) and Calderon & Gonzales, (1993)
What is It
What are sampling and samples?
Sampling may be defined as measuring a small portion of something and

then making a general statement about the whole thing. It produces samples
that are a part or portion of the whole population.
What is Population?
Population refers to the total number of people, objects, or things under

study. It is the totality of individuals that possesses some observable
characteristics also known as variables. The population can be finite or
infinite. It is a finite population when the universe from which the numbers of
a population are to be taken can be determined or counted immediately. It is an
infinite population when the universe from which the numbers of a population
are to be taken cannot be determined or counted immediately.
General Types of Sampling
There are two (2) general types of sampling: probability sampling and
nonprobability sampling.
1. Probability sampling means that a sample is taken as a proportion

from the population, every individual in the population has an equal
chance to be included in the sample. The types of probability sampling
are pure random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random
sampling, and cluster sampling (Fleetwood, 2020; de Belen & Feliciano,
2015).
16
0 0
Types of Probability Sampling
Sampling Description Example
Technique
Pure random is one in which Suppose there are 200 persons in
sampling everyone in the the population and 20 percent is the
population of the population to be chosen. Hence, 20
inquiry has an equal percent of 200 is 40. The names of
chance of being
all the 200 persons are written each
selected to be
included in the on a piece of paper. The pieces of
sample (McCombes, S. paper will then be placed in a
n.d). container. 40 pieces of the papers
will be drawn by chance. Those
whose names are drawn are
included in the sample.
This is also called the
lottery or raffle type of
sampling.
Systematic • a technique of If a listed population is 1000, and

sampling sampling in which the sample size is 100, the research
every nth name in a will select every 10th (1000 divided by
list may be selected to
100) person from the list where the
be included in a
sample. selection of a number between 1 and
10 is at random as the starting
• This is used when the
subjects or point.
respondents in the
study are arrayed or
arranged in some
systematic or logical
manner such as
alphabetical
arrangement,
residential or house
arrays, geographical
placement from north
to south, etc.
17
0 0
Stratified random • The process of Suppose the students of a college are
sampling selecting randomly, respondents in a study. The
samples from the students are stratified according to
different strata
the courses they are taking, their
(groups) of the
population used in sex, and the curricular years they
the study. are in. The sample of 20% is taken
• This is used when the from every stratum based on course,
population of the sex, and curricular year. For
inquiry has class instance, there are 50 male students
stratifications or in the first year taking education.
groupings. The sample is 20% of 50 is 10. There
• This method is used are 380 female students in the
when the population
is heterogeneous, second year taking up marketing.
where certain The sample is 20% of 380 is 76%.
homogenous groups,
or of similar
characteristics can be
isolated to form
strata
• A stratified sample is
obtained by taking
samples from each
stratum or group of
population.
Cluster sampling it is usually used In a survey of nurse- applicants in

when the population various employment agencies, the
is unknown or the researcher selects several agencies
researcher cannot at random and conducts an
complete the total list interview of very 10th nurse
of the members of the
applicants in the agencies.
population he wishes
to study but he can
only complete the list
of groups or clusters
of the population.
Source: Calderon & Gonzales, (1993)
2. Nonprobability Sampling takes place when the sample is not a

proportion of the population. Among the common nonprobability
sampling techniques are accidental, quota, convenience, and purposive
(Fleetwood, 2020; de Belen & Feliciano, 2015).
Nonprobability Sampling
Technique
18
0 0
Accidental • A method of selecting An interviewer stands in a street
sampling the subjects who corner and interviews everyone who
happen to be available passes by.
at that time or
volunteered
themselves to be the
subjects of the study.
• This is said to be the
weakest of all
sampling procedures
because it is
impossible to estimate
the error from the
sampling in the
process of selection.
Quota sampling • In this method, a Suppose the reactions of the people

specified number of towards a certain issue is to be
persons of certain determined. It might be decided that
types are included in
ten doctors, eight lawyers, 15
the sample.
businessmen, 20 vendors, and 25
• This is the most
commonly used in farmers constitute the sample.
opinion polling
surveys and market
research.
• It is also called a
street-based market
research survey
because the
researcher interviews
members of the public
up to a given quota.
Convenience It is the process of In an instance that there is a hot and

sampling picking out people in controversial issue about the raising
the most convenient of the price of gasoline, the most
and fastest way to convenient and fastest way of
immediately get their reaching people is by social media to
reactions to a certain get their opinion.
hot and controversial
issue.
19
0 0
Purposive sampling • This is also called If research is to be conducted on the
judgment sampling history of a place, the old people of
because sample the place must be consulted.
groups are judged to If methods and techniques of
be typical of the teaching are the subjects of an
chosen population.
inquiry, teachers are the ones to be
• This method simply
contacted.
means choosing the
sample with a
specific purpose or
objective in mind.
Thus, you must
decide the criteria
for choosing your
samples.
• It determines the
target population,
those to be involved
in the study.
• In this technique,
the respondents are
chosen based on
their knowledge of
the information
desired.
Steps in Computing the Size of a Sample (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993; and wikihow.com)
The steps in computing the size of a sample:
1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined by the scope
and delimitation of the study.
2. Decide on the margin of error. As much as possible the margin of error should be
not higher than 5%.
3. Use the Slovin’s formula,
n= the size of the sample

N= the size of the
population
e= the margin of error
4. If the sampling is clustered, or if the population is stratified, compute the sample
proportion (percent) by dividing the result in No. 3 by the population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling stratum by the rate
(percent) to find the sample from each final sampling stratum.
20
0 0
6. Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total sample.
Note: If the population (N) is not given but the sample size (n) and the percentage/
proportion (%) are identified, we can use n/% to get the N.
Example: A study of the teaching of science in the high schools of the division
will be conducted, and science teachers will be the respondents. There are 245
teachers of biology, 245 teachers of chemistry, and 123 teachers of physics. There is
a total of 613 respondents.
The sampling procedure follows:
Step 1: The population is 613 (N)
Step 2: The margin of error to be used is 5% (e2) Step 3:

Using the formula
n= 613
1+ 613 (.05)2
n= 613
1+ 613 (.0025)
n= 613
1 + 1.5325
n= 613
2.5325
n= 242.05 (this may be rounded to 242 since there is no 0.05
individual). This is the sample which is always a whole number.
IF the researcher will use stratified sampling, the process will involve:
Step 4. The teachers are grouped into three categories according to the branch of science
they are teaching, so we use stratified sampling.
Step 5: Get the sample proportion or the percentage per group using the formula:
Sample proportion/ percentage (%)= n = 242 = 0.394 or 39%

N 613
Step 6
Subject Number of Teachers Percentage Sample
Biology 245 39 96
Chemistry 245 39 96
21
0 0
Physics 123 39 48
Total 613 240
Writing the Sampling Technique in Your Research Paper
In writing the sampling technique, you need to specify how do you select your
samples. You need to reason for the benefits and limitations of your selected sampling
design. You need also to include the strength of the sample design or its practicality.
Always consider the practicality and plausibility of your sampling design.
You may also consider these questions: - Who are the samples of your study? -
Why choose these samples? - How many? - How will you select them?
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Complete the diagram below by providing the necessary details.
Sampling
1 . _______ 6.________
2. ______ 9. _______
4. _______ 7 . _______
3 . _______ 10. ______

8. _______
5. _______
Activity 2. Say Something!
Identify the types of sampling being described in the second column

Concept/ terminology Description/ Hint
Example: Sampling It is measuring a small portion of something and
then making a general statement about the
whole thing.
22
0 0
1. A sample is taken as a proportion of the
population.
2. Everyone in the population of the inquiry has an
equal chance of being selected.
3. Every nth name in a list may be selected to be
included in a sample.
4. Selecting randomly, samples from the different
strata
5. This can only be completed through the list of
groups or clusters of the population.
6. It takes place when the sample is not a
proportion of the population.
7. The subjects are available at that time or
volunteered to be the subjects of the study.
8. A specified number of persons of certain types
are included in the sample.
9. Picking out people in the fastest way to be the
respondents
10. Another term for judgment sampling
Activity 3. First Things First!
Arrange the steps by writing 1-5 on the space before the number.
_________Use the Slovin’s formula.

_________Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total sample.
_________Determine the size of the study population.
_________Compute the sample proportion (percent), if the sampling is clustered.
_________Decide on the margin of error.
Activity 4. Do Your Math
Using Slovin’s Formula, compute for the sample size by identifying the population size,
and margin for error based on the given data.
Situation Population (N) Margin of Sample Size (n)
Error (e)
An urban planner plans to
conduct a survey. If the
population of the City of Manila
is 1,000,000, find the sample
size if the margin of error is 3%.
Suppose that you have a group
of 1,000 government employees
and you want to survey them to
find out which tools are best
suited to their jobs. You decide
23
0 0
that you are happy with a
margin of error of 0.05.
Calculate the necessary survey

size for a population of 240,
allowing for a 4% margin of
error.
In your research, if the
population is 9,000 and the
margin of error is 2%, what will
be the sample size?
Suppose that there are 2,243
English teachers, 1,406 Filipino
teachers, and 992 Science
teachers in a school to be
included in a study, what will be
the sample size at 3% margin of
error?
Activity 5. Sample! Sample!
Identify the sampling technique to be used in the given situations. Write your answer
on the space before the number.
___________1. In a school with 500 teachers, if the HR team decides on conducting

team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of
a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being
selected.
___________2. A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a

population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000
and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/
Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
___________3. A researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging

to different annual income divisions, will create strata (groups) according to annual
family income such as – Less than P20,000, P21,000 – P30,000, P31,000 to P40,000,
P41,000 to P50,000.
___________4. A newly established company distributes leaflets of its products in a

mall. They do that by standing at the entrance of the mall and giving out pamphlets
randomly.
___________5. Researcher A is conducting research about people who are interested in

studying for their master’s degree. He uses questions like: “Are you interested in
studying for Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be excluded from
the sample.
_____________6. Researcher B already completed his target sample of 50 cheerleaders for

his research.
24
0 0
_____________7. You assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1
to 1000 and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers. _____________8. From
number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and
you end up with a sample of 100 people.
_____________9. From the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup.
___________10. You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled
students at your university, so you purposefully select several students with different
support needs to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your sampling technique.
The researcher will use (sampling technique) to determine the samples of the
study. The (sampling technique) (description of the sampling technique) .
Since the samples of the study are the (who are the samples?) (why choose these samples?).
A total of (how many samples?) will be included in the study which was selected through
the (formula to compute the sample) where: discuss the parts of the formula. .
Rubrics:
1 2 3 4 5
The context, The sampling The description of The context, The description of
population, or strategy is the context, population, and the context and
sample is not inappropriate. population, or sampling strategy population is
identified or sampling strategy are adequately meaningful,
described. is confusing, identified and including both
lacked relevance described. The quantitative
to the purpose, is size of the descriptions. The
incomplete. population, sampling process
sample, and is reasonable to
comparison recruit a
groups are representative
identified. sample of the
population.
Attention is given
to controlling for
extraneous
factors and
sampling error.
25
0 0
Lesson
Construct an Instrument and

3 Establishes its Validity and Reliability
This lesson talks about the essentials of validity and reliability of the
instrument to be used in researches. In doing so, research topics that have qualitative
themes utilize quantitative methods in establishing the credibility of its results. This
enables you to constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability. It
is expected that in this lesson that learners can recognize both reliability and validity
in the instrument to be utilized in the research study.
1. differentiate validity from reliability;

2. establish the validity and reliability of an instrument; and
3. construct a research questionnaire or instrument based on the research study.
What’s In
Let us recall your knowledge of sampling in research. Identify the sampling

techniques used in the given examples. Write the answer on the space provided.
A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students.
The researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior levels.
1. _______________________________
In the study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students and
chooses the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other students.
2.__________________________________
A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding their thoughts

on the company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have representatives from
all departments in his sample, but one department is so small that doing a random
26
0 0
sampling might result in that department not being represented. The researcher
then set a quota of respondents from the department to ensure their inclusion in
the sample.
3. _________________________________

This lesson contains activities that will help the learners
understand the importance of instrument validity and reliability.
Guarantee that the objectives of the learners’ research are clear to
them. With this lesson, see to it that the learners will be a ble to
produce their draft research instrument which are aligned to their
research’s objectives.
What’s New
Read the vignette below. Then, answer the following guide questions.
A Christmas party on December 15 was scheduled for Grade 11 students at

Saint Maura academy. One of the highlights of the said celebration is the Christmas
dance contest. The four sections of the grade level prepared for the contest. As early
as December 1, the students started planning their steps, costumes, props, and
schedule for the practices. The parents of the students also assisted in designing
and making their costumes and props. The class advisers supervised the practice
of the students after class hours.
During the contest proper, the friends of the PE teacher serve as the panel of
the judges. The presentations were exemplary and the section of Cathriona became
the crowd’s favorite due to the polished execution of the steps, synchronization of
the costume, and the props. However, another group that performed rather poorly
became the winner.
Because of this, the section Cathriona and other sections wanted to know the
bases for the judging and raised their concerns to the Vice Principal for Students’
Activities. After conducting an investigation, it turned out no judging criteria were
set and no judging sheets were used.
Cristobal, Amadeo, and Maura Consolacion D. Cristobal. Practical Research. Diwa Learning System, 2017
Guide Questions:
27
0 0
1. What are the facts of the story?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
2. How did the students prepare for the event?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
3. What was the overall quality of the presentation witnessed by the students?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________
4. Were the students satisfied with the result of the contest? Why?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
5. What do you think are the things that must be done to avoid said concern?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
6. How can you determine if the result of the contest was valid and reliable?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
7. What do you think are the criteria used in assessing the dance contest?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
The activity you have answered will give you the opportunities to develop your
ability to evaluate and to make judgments about your performance and improve upon
it. Thus, this lesson highlights how you can construct and establish validity and
reliability in the instrument that you will be using in your research study. As a
learner, you will understand that both validity and reliability are to consider when
you are creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing up your
results.
What is It
28
0 0
In research, the concern of a researcher is how to minimize possible errors and
biases by maximizing the reliability and validity of data. This then requires that the
tool for the collection of data is valid and reliable. This lesson explains the technical
meaning of these two concepts. The types of and methods of reliability as well as
validity. This also provides examples and the research instrument as well as relating
validity and reliability that can be helpful to the researchers.
Validity refers to the quality of the instrument being functionally only when it’s
a specific purpose. That is when an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure. Since the instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the
methodology to obtain the data, the validity of each one should be established
beforehand. This is to set the credibility of the findings and the correctness and accuracy
of the following data analysis. For instance, when a study investigates the common
causes of absences, the content of the instrument must focus on these variables and
indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about the behavior of the
students during school assemblies, the instrument must consist of the indicators or
measures of the behavior of students during such time.
Types of Validity
In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice,

Kubiszyn and Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.
1. Face Validity. This is also known as logical validity. It involves whether the
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment just
by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It includes
the font, size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details that
will not distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.
2. Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions

to see whether they’re able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with
high content validity has to meet the objective of the research. This type of validity is
not measured by the numerical index but instead relies on logical judgment as to
whether the test measures its intended subject.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a

group of field experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject.
Three to five experts would suffice. The expert assesses the items of the questionnaire
and determines if the items measure the variables being studied. Then, the experts’
criticism will be considered in the revision of the instrument.
3. Construct Validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds
with its theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular
measure relates to other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically
– derived hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is theory-laden.
Factor analysis, a relevant technique to construct validity, is a refined statistical
procedure that is used to analyze the interrelationship of behavior data.
4. Criterion-related Validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an

expression of how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion. There
are two types of this kind of validity.
a. Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be

administered and validated at the same time. It is determined by administering
29
0 0
both the new test and the established test to a group of respondents, then
finding a correlation between the two sets of the scores. Validity established
with an accepted and availed the second test that measures what the
researcher is trying to measure.
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to determine

the IQ of nursing students. The researcher published a design for a short screening test
that measures the same. The scores on the Standard- Binet V and the short screening test
are compared to assess the relationship between scores.
b. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the

future behavior of the examinees. This particularly useful in aptitude tests,
which are tests to predict how well test-takers in some future settings will
perform in some future settings.
It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for validation,

a rating sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for the experts
to mark and give his judgment. The markings and comments for the experts that
validated the proposed questionnaire will be the basis of the revision of the proposed
instrument or questionnaire.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated

trials. A reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the subject if
the latter yield the same results in several tests. However, this is only true if the
instrument used is valid. It is important to note that, while a valid instrument is
always reliable, a reliable instrument is not always necessarily valid. This is most
especially true when the subjects are human, who are governed by judgment and
prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of an instrument is very crucial in
research studies that deal with a lot of samples.
For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale. She
weighed herself in the morning, afternoon, and evening and recorded the results
afterward. Her recorded weights are 65 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The weighing
scale can be considered reliable since the deviation of the results is small and
negligible.
Methods in Establishing Reliability
1. Test-retest or stability. In this method, the same test is given to a group of

respondents twice. The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores with the
second test. When there is a high correlation index, it means that there is also high
reliability of the test. Some of the problems here are the observations that some
subjects may be able to recall certain items given during the first administration of
the test, and that the scores may differ because the students have adapted to the
test.
Carmines and Zeller (1979), in the book Reliability and Validity Assessment, list
the weaknesses identified using the test-retest method:
a. Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its

interpretation is not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation
may not indicate that the reliability of the test is low but rather signify instead
that the underlying theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time
interval between measurements, the more likely that the concept change.
30
0 0
b. Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not
done logically and that phenomenon can induce a change in itself.
c. Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-

retest method. The person’s mental recollection of his or her responses which
he or she gives during the first measurement is quite likely to influence the
responses which he or she gives during the second measurement. Memory
effects that may influence reliability estimates.
2. Internal Consistency. If the test question is designed to measure a single

basic concept, it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right
is likely to be right in another similar item. In other words, items should be correlated
with each other and the test ought to be internally consistent.
Relating Reliability and Validity
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several
important principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider
the SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores
relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due to the
lack of structured environment-class attendance, parent-regulated study, and
sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example,
college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid
measure of other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism,
and civic involvement. The combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more
valid measure of the applicant’s potential for graduation, later social involvement, and
generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of
the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success
and a moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical
Reading, and Writing.
There are other criteria in assessing validity and reliability that can be used in
assessing the literature. (Polt& Beck, 2004). These are sensitivity; specificity’
comprehensibility; precision; speed; range; linearity and reactivity.
Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case study correctly, i.e., to screen
or diagnose a condition correctly.
Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly, i.e. to screen
out those without the conditions correctly.
Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the behavior

required for accurate and valid measurements.
Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying degrees
of an attribute as precisely as possible.
31
0 0
Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can obtain
a reliable measurement.
Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value of
the variable to the largest, to obtain meaningful measurements.
Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally
accurate and sensitive over the entire range of values.
Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the attribute
being measured.
The following are examples of establishing the validity and reliability of an

instrument.
Example 1
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High

school Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija ( Valenton, 2009)
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students
and the teachers. This was developed by the researcher of the approval of the
advisory committee. Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaires for
the students of Dońa Juana Chico National High School and the teachers of Rizal
National High School. They did not serve as respondents.
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine
whether they could yield data needed in the study. The pre-test results showed a
Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient of 0.923 indicating good reliability of the
instrument. As a rule, Cronbach Alpha must be at least .80 to be considered
reliable.
Example 2
Staff Nurses’ Role on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected

Government and Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work
Performace (Reyes,2007)
The instrument underwent validation. It was pre-tested at Dr. Gloria D. Lacson

General Hospital in San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, which is not included in the study.
A group of seven staff nurses and two nurse supervisors were requested to answer
the questionnaires upon approval of the permit addressed to the hospital director. The
results were checked and analyzed. After 15 days, the corrected questionnaire was
administered to the same respondents. The reliability coefficient of 80% and above
indicated that the instrument is already valid, reliable, and ready to use.
Adopting or Adapting an Instrument
Adopting an Instrument
32
0 0
What are sampling and samples?
Sampling may be defined as measuring a small portion of something and

then making a general statement about the whole thing. It produces samples
that are a part or portion of the whole population.
What is Population?
Population refers to the total number of people, objects, or things under

study. It is the totality of individuals that possesses some observable
characteristics also known as variables. The population can be finite or
infinite. It is a finite population when the universe from which the numbers of
a population are to be taken can be determined or counted immediately. It is an
infinite population when the universe from which the numbers of a population
are to be taken cannot be determined or counted immediately.
General Types of Sampling
There are two (2) general types of sampling: probability sampling and
nonprobability sampling.
1. Probability sampling means that a sample is taken as a proportion

from the population, every individual in the population has an equal
chance to be included in the sample. The types of probability sampling
are pure random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random
sampling, and cluster sampling (Fleetwood, 2020; de Belen & Feliciano,
2015).
16
0 0
Types of Probability Sampling
Technique
Pure random is one in which Suppose there are 200 persons in
sampling everyone in the the population and 20 percent is the
population of the population to be chosen. Hence, 20
inquiry has an equal percent of 200 is 40. The names of
chance of being
all the 200 persons are written each
selected to be
included in the on a piece of paper. The pieces of
sample (McCombes, S. paper will then be placed in a
n.d). container. 40 pieces of the papers
will be drawn by chance. Those
whose names are drawn are
included in the sample.
This is also called the
lottery or raffle type of
sampling.
Systematic • a technique of If a listed population is 1000, and

sampling sampling in which the sample size is 100, the research
every nth name in a will select every 10th (1000 divided by
list may be selected to
100) person from the list where the
be included in a
sample. selection of a number between 1 and
10 is at random as the starting
• This is used when the
subjects or point.
respondents in the
study are arrayed or
arranged in some
systematic or logical
manner such as
0
alphabetical 0
arrangement,
residential or house
arrays, geographical
placement from north
to south, etc.
17
0 0
Stratified random • The process of Suppose the students of a college are
sampling selecting randomly, respondents in a study. The
samples from the students are stratified according to
different strata
the courses they are taking, their
(groups) of the
population used in sex, and the curricular years they
the study. are in. The sample of 20% is taken
• This is used when the from every stratum based on course,
population of the sex, and curricular year. For
inquiry has class instance, there are 50 male students
stratifications or in the first year taking education.
groupings. The sample is 20% of 50 is 10. There
• This method is used are 380 female students in the
when the population
is heterogeneous, second year taking up marketing.
where certain The sample is 20% of 380 is 76%.
homogenous groups,
or of similar
characteristics can be
isolated to form
strata
• A stratified sample is
obtained by taking
samples from each
stratum or group of
population.
Cluster sampling it is usually used In a survey of nurse- applicants in

when the population various employment agencies, the
is unknown or the researcher selects several agencies
researcher cannot at random and conducts an
complete the total list interview of very 10th nurse
of the members of the
applicants in the agencies.
population he wishes
to study but he can
only complete the list
of groups or clusters
of the population.
2. Nonprobability Sampling takes place when the sample is not a

proportion of the population. Among the common nonprobability
sampling techniques are accidental, quota, convenience, and purposive
(Fleetwood, 2020; de Belen & Feliciano, 2015).
Nonprobability Sampling
0 0
Technique
18
Accidental • A method of selecting An interviewer stands in a street

sampling the subjects who corner and interviews everyone who
happen to be available passes by.
at that time or
volunteered
themselves to be the
subjects of the study.
• This is said0 to be0 the
weakest of all
sampling procedures
because it is
impossible to estimate
the error from the
sampling in the
process of selection.
Quota sampling • In this method, a Suppose the reactions of the people

specified number of towards a certain issue is to be
persons of certain determined. It might be decided that
types are included in
ten doctors, eight lawyers, 15
the sample.
businessmen, 20 vendors, and 25
• This is the most
commonly used in farmers constitute the sample.
opinion polling
surveys and market
research.
• It is also called a
street-based market
research survey
because the
researcher interviews
members of the public
up to a given quota.
Convenience It is the process of In an instance that there is a hot and

sampling picking out people in controversial issue about the raising
the most convenient of the price of gasoline, the most
and fastest way to convenient and fastest way of
immediately get their reaching people is by social media to
reactions to a certain get their opinion.
hot and controversial
issue.
19
0 0
Purposive sampling • This is also called If research is to be conducted on the
judgment sampling history of a place, the old people of
because sample the place must be consulted.
groups are judged to If methods and techniques of
be typical of the teaching are the subjects of an
chosen population.
inquiry, teachers are the ones to be
• This method simply
contacted.
means choosing the
sample with a
specific purpose or
objective in mind.
Thus, you must
decide the criteria
for choosing your
samples.
• It determines the
target population,
those to be involved
in the study.
• In this technique,
the respondents are
chosen based on
their knowledge of
the information
0 0
desired.
Steps in Computing the Size of a Sample (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993; and wikihow.com)
The steps in computing the size of a sample:
1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined by the scope
and delimitation of the study.
2. Decide on the margin of error. As much as possible the margin of error should be
not higher than 5%.
3. Use the Slovin’s formula,
n= the size of the sample

N= the size of the
population
e= the margin of error
4. If the sampling is clustered, or if the population is stratified, compute the sample
proportion (percent) by dividing the result in No. 3 by the population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling stratum by the rate
(percent) to find the sample from each final sampling stratum.
20
0 0
6. Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total sample.
Note: If the population (N) is not given but the sample size (n) and the percentage/
proportion (%) are identified, we can use n/% to get the N.
Example: A study of the teaching of science in the high schools of the division
will be conducted, and science teachers will be the respondents. There are 245
teachers of biology, 245 teachers of chemistry, and 123 teachers of physics. There is
a total of 613 respondents.
The sampling procedure follows:
Step 1: The population is 613 (N)
Step 2: The margin of error to be used is 5% (e2) Step 3:

Using the formula
n= 613
1+ 613 (.05)2
n= 613
1+ 613 (.0025)
n= 613
1 + 1.5325
n= 613
2.5325
n= 242.05 (this may be rounded to 242 since there is no 0.05
individual). This is the sample which is always a whole number.
IF the researcher will use stratified sampling, the process will involve:
0 three
Step 4. The teachers are grouped into 0 categories according to the branch of science
they are teaching, so we use stratified sampling.
Step 5: Get the sample proportion or the percentage per group using the formula:
Sample proportion/ percentage (%)= n = 242 = 0.394 or 39%

N 613
Step 6
Subject Number of Teachers Percentage Sample
Biology 245 39 96
Chemistry 245 39 96
21
0 0
Physics 123 39 48
Total 613 240
Writing the Sampling Technique in Your Research Paper
In writing the sampling technique, you need to specify how do you select your
samples. You need to reason for the benefits and limitations of your selected sampling
design. You need also to include the strength of the sample design or its practicality.
Always consider the practicality and plausibility of your sampling design.
You may also consider these questions: - Who are the samples of your study? -
Why choose these samples? - How many? - How will you select them?
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Complete the diagram below by providing the necessary details.
Sampling
1 . _______ 6.________
2. ______ 9. _______
4. _______ 7 . _______
3 . _______ 10. ______

8. _______
5. _______
Activity 2. Say Something!
Identify the types of sampling being described in the second column

Concept/ terminology Description/ Hint
Example: Sampling It is measuring a small portion of something and
then making a general statement about the
whole thing.
22
0 0
1. A sample is taken as a proportion of the
population.
2. Everyone in the population of the inquiry has an
equal chance of being selected.
3. Every nth name in a list may be selected to be
included in a sample.
4. Selecting randomly, samples from the different
strata
5. This can only be completed through the list of
groups or clusters of the population.
6. It takes place when the sample is not a
proportion of the population.
7. 0
The 0
subjects are available at that time or
volunteered to be the subjects of the study.
8.
8. A specified number of persons of certain types
are included in the sample.
9. Picking out people in the fastest way to be the
respondents
10. Another term for judgment sampling
Activity 3. First Things First!
Arrange the steps by writing 1-5 on the space before the number.
_________Use the Slovin’s formula.

_________Add the samples from all the final sampling strata to find the total sample.
_________Determine the size of the study population.
_________Compute the sample proportion (percent), if the sampling is clustered.
_________Decide on the margin of error.
Activity 4. Do Your Math
Using Slovin’s Formula, compute for the sample size by identifying the population size,
and margin for error based on the given data.
Situation Population (N) Margin of Sample Size (n)
Error (e)
An urban planner plans to
conduct a survey. If the
population of the City of Manila
is 1,000,000, find the sample
size if the margin of error is 3%.
Suppose that you have a group
of 1,000 government employees
and you want to survey them to
find out which tools are best
suited to their jobs. You decide
23
0 0
that you are happy with a
margin of error of 0.05.
Calculate the necessary survey

size for a population of 240,
allowing for a 4% margin of
error.
In your research, if the
population is 9,000 and the
margin of error is 2%, what will
be the sample size?
Suppose that there are 2,243
English teachers, 1,406 Filipino
teachers, and 992 Science
teachers in a school to be
included in a study, what will be
the sample size at 3% margin of
error?
Activity 5. Sample! Sample!
Identify the sampling technique to be used in the given situations. Write your answer
on the space before the number.
___________1. In a school with 500 teachers, if the HR team decides on conducting

team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of
a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being
0 0
selected.
___________2. A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a

population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000
and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/
Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
___________3. A researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging

to different annual income divisions, will create strata (groups) according to annual
family income such as – Less than P20,000, P21,000 – P30,000, P31,000 to P40,000,
P41,000 to P50,000.
___________4. A newly established company distributes leaflets of its products in a

mall. They do that by standing at the entrance of the mall and giving out pamphlets
randomly.
___________5. Researcher A is conducting research about people who are interested in

studying for their master’s degree. He uses questions like: “Are you interested in
studying for Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be excluded from
the sample.
_____________6. Researcher B already completed his target sample of 50 cheerleaders for

his research.
24
0 0
_____________7. You assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1
to 1000 and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers. _____________8. From
number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and
you end up with a sample of 100 people.
_____________9. From the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup.
___________10. You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled
students at your university, so you purposefully select several students with different
support needs to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your sampling technique.
The researcher will use (sampling technique) to determine the samples of the
study. The (sampling technique) (description of the sampling technique) .
Since the samples of the study are the (who are the samples?) (why choose these samples?).
A total of (how many samples?) will be included in the study which was selected through
the (formula to compute the sample) where: discuss the parts of the formula. .
Rubrics:
1 2 3 4 5
The context, The sampling The description of The context, The description of
population, or strategy is the context, population, and the context and
sample is not inappropriate. population, or sampling strategy population is
identified or sampling strategy are adequately meaningful,
described. is confusing, identified and including both
lacked relevance described. The quantitative
to the purpose, is size of the descriptions. The
incomplete. population, sampling process
sample, and is reasonable to
comparison recruit a
groups are representative
identified. sample of the
population.
Attention is given
to controlling for
0 0 extraneous
factors and
sampling error.
25
0 0
Lesson
Construct an Instrument and
3 Establishes its Validity and Reliability
This lesson talks about the essentials of validity and reliability of the
instrument to be used in researches. In doing so, research topics that have qualitative
themes utilize quantitative methods in establishing the credibility of its results. This
enables you to constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability. It
is expected that in this lesson that learners can recognize both reliability and validity
in the instrument to be utilized in the research study.
1. differentiate validity from reliability;

2. establish the validity and reliability of an instrument; and
3. construct a research questionnaire or instrument based on the research study.
What’s In
Let us recall your knowledge of sampling in research. Identify the sampling

techniques used in the given examples. Write the answer on the space provided.
A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students.
The researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior levels.
1. _______________________________
In the study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students and
chooses the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other students.
2.__________________________________
A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding their thoughts

on the company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have representatives from
all departments in his sample, but one department is so small that doing a random
26
0 0
sampling might result in that department not being represented. The researcher
then set a quota of respondents from the department to ensure their inclusion in
the sample.
3. _________________________________

This lesson contains activities that will help the learners
understand the importance of instrument validity and reliability.
Guarantee that the objectives of the learners’ research are clear to
them. With this lesson, see to it that the learners will be a ble to
produce their draft research instrument which are aligned to their
research’s objectives. 0 0
What’s New
Read the vignette below. Then, answer the following guide questions.
A Christmas party on December 15 was scheduled for Grade 11 students at

Saint Maura academy. One of the highlights of the said celebration is the Christmas
dance contest. The four sections of the grade level prepared for the contest. As early
as December 1, the students started planning their steps, costumes, props, and
schedule for the practices. The parents of the students also assisted in designing
and making their costumes and props. The class advisers supervised the practice
of the students after class hours.
During the contest proper, the friends of the PE teacher serve as the panel of
the judges. The presentations were exemplary and the section of Cathriona became
the crowd’s favorite due to the polished execution of the steps, synchronization of
the costume, and the props. However, another group that performed rather poorly
became the winner.
Because of this, the section Cathriona and other sections wanted to know the
bases for the judging and raised their concerns to the Vice Principal for Students’
Activities. After conducting an investigation, it turned out no judging criteria were
set and no judging sheets were used.
Guide Questions:
27
0 0
1. What are the facts of the story?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
2. How did the students prepare for the event?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
3. What was the overall quality of the presentation witnessed by the students?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________
4. Were the students satisfied with the result of the contest? Why?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
5. What do you think are the things that must be done to avoid said concern?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
6. How can you determine if the result of the contest was valid and reliable?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
7. What do you think are the criteria used in assessing the dance contest?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
0
________________________________ 0
The activity you have answered will give you the opportunities to develop your
ability to evaluate and to make judgments about your performance and improve upon
it. Thus, this lesson highlights how you can construct and establish validity and
reliability in the instrument that you will be using in your research study. As a
learner, you will understand that both validity and reliability are to consider when
you are creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing up your
results.
What is It
28
0 0
In research, the concern of a researcher is how to minimize possible errors and
biases by maximizing the reliability and validity of data. This then requires that the
tool for the collection of data is valid and reliable. This lesson explains the technical
meaning of these two concepts. The types of and methods of reliability as well as
validity. This also provides examples and the research instrument as well as relating
validity and reliability that can be helpful to the researchers.
Validity refers to the quality of the instrument being functionally only when it’s
a specific purpose. That is when an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure. Since the instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the
methodology to obtain the data, the validity of each one should be established
beforehand. This is to set the credibility of the findings and the correctness and accuracy
of the following data analysis. For instance, when a study investigates the common
causes of absences, the content of the instrument must focus on these variables and
indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about the behavior of the
students during school assemblies, the instrument must consist of the indicators or
measures of the behavior of students during such time.
Types of Validity
In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice,

Kubiszyn and Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.
1. Face Validity. This is also known as logical validity. It involves whether the
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment just
by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It includes
the font, size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details that
will not distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.
2. Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions

to see whether they’re able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with
high content validity has to meet the objective of the research. This type of validity is
not measured by the numerical index but instead relies on logical judgment as to
whether the test measures its intended subject.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a

group of field experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject.
Three to five experts would suffice. The expert assesses the items of the questionnaire
and determines if the items measure the variables being studied. Then, the experts’
criticism will be considered in the revision of the instrument.
3. Construct Validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds
with its theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular
measure relates to other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically
– derived hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is theory-laden.
Factor analysis, a relevant technique to construct validity, is a refined statistical
procedure that is used to analyze the interrelationship of behavior data.
4. Criterion-related Validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an

expression of how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion. There
are two types of this kind of validity.
a. Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be

0 the same
administered and validated at 0 time. It is determined by administering
29
both the new test and the established test to a group of respondents, then
finding a correlation between the two sets of the scores. Validity established
with an accepted and availed the second test that measures what the
researcher is trying to measure.
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to determine

the IQ of nursing students. The researcher published a design for a short screening test
that measures the same. The scores on the Standard- Binet V and the short screening test
are compared to assess the relationship between scores.
0 0
b. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the
future behavior of the examinees. This particularly useful in aptitude tests,
which are tests to predict how well test-takers in some future settings will
perform in some future settings.
It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for validation,

a rating sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for the experts
to mark and give his judgment. The markings and comments for the experts that
validated the proposed questionnaire will be the basis of the revision of the proposed
instrument or questionnaire.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated

trials. A reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the subject if
the latter yield the same results in several tests. However, this is only true if the
instrument used is valid. It is important to note that, while a valid instrument is
always reliable, a reliable instrument is not always necessarily valid. This is most
especially true when the subjects are human, who are governed by judgment and
prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of an instrument is very crucial in
research studies that deal with a lot of samples.
For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale. She
weighed herself in the morning, afternoon, and evening and recorded the results
afterward. Her recorded weights are 65 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The weighing
scale can be considered reliable since the deviation of the results is small and
negligible.
Methods in Establishing Reliability
1. Test-retest or stability. In this method, the same test is given to a group of

respondents twice. The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores with the
second test. When there is a high correlation index, it means that there is also high
reliability of the test. Some of the problems here are the observations that some
subjects may be able to recall certain items given during the first administration of
the test, and that the scores may differ because the students have adapted to the
test.
Carmines and Zeller (1979), in the book Reliability and Validity Assessment, list
the weaknesses identified using the test-retest method:
a. Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its

interpretation is not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation
may not indicate that the reliability of the test is low but rather signify instead
that the underlying theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time
interval between measurements, the more likely that the concept change.
30
0 0
b. Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not
done logically and that phenomenon can induce a change in itself.
c. Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-

retest method. The person’s mental recollection of his or her responses which
he or she gives during the first measurement is quite likely to influence the
responses which he or she gives during the second measurement. Memory
effects that may influence reliability estimates.
2. Internal Consistency. If the test question is designed to measure a single

basic concept, it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right
is likely to be right in another similar item. In other words, items should be correlated
with each other and the test ought to be internally consistent.
Relating Reliability and Validity
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several
important principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider
the SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores
relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due to the
lack of structured environment-class attendance, parent-regulated study, and
sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example,
college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid
measure of other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism,
0 0
and civic involvement. The combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more
valid measure of the applicant’s potential for graduation, later social involvement, and
generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of
the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success
and a moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical
Reading, and Writing.
There are other criteria in assessing validity and reliability that can be used in
assessing the literature. (Polt& Beck, 2004). These are sensitivity; specificity’
comprehensibility; precision; speed; range; linearity and reactivity.
Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case study correctly, i.e., to screen
or diagnose a condition correctly.
Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly, i.e. to screen
out those without the conditions correctly.
Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the behavior

required for accurate and valid measurements.
Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying degrees
of an attribute as precisely as possible.
31
0 0
Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can obtain
a reliable measurement.
Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value of
the variable to the largest, to obtain meaningful measurements.
Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally
accurate and sensitive over the entire range of values.
Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the attribute
being measured.
The following are examples of establishing the validity and reliability of an

instrument.
Example 1
Correlates of English Performance of Second Year Students in Selected High

school Congressional District II, Nueva Ecija ( Valenton, 2009)
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students
and the teachers. This was developed by the researcher of the approval of the
advisory committee. Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaires for
the students of Dońa Juana Chico National High School and the teachers of Rizal
National High School. They did not serve as respondents.
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine
whether they could yield data needed in the study. The pre-test results showed a
Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient of 0.923 indicating good reliability of the
instrument. As a rule, Cronbach Alpha must be at least .80 to be considered
reliable.
Example 2
Staff Nurses’ Role on the Accuracy of Specimen Collection in Selected

Government and Private Hospitals in Bulacan: Relations to Their Work
Performace (Reyes,2007)
The instrument underwent validation. It was pre-tested at Dr. Gloria D. Lacson

General Hospital in San Leonardo, Nueva Ecija, which is not included in the study.
A group of seven staff nurses and two nurse supervisors were requested to answer
the questionnaires upon approval of the permit addressed to the hospital director. The
0 0
results were checked and analyzed. After 15 days, the corrected questionnaire was
administered to the same respondents. The reliability coefficient of 80% and above
Adopting or Adapting an Instrument
Adopting an Instrument
32
Adopting an instrument is quite simple and requires very little effort. Even
when an instrument is adopted, 0 though, 0 there still might be a few necessary
modifications. For example, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory that measures intrinsic
motivation, which can be found here, needs to be slightly modified to reflect the
specific situation that the researcher is interested in. Intrinsic motivation is not a
general variable but is directed at a specific activity: intrinsic motivation in
Mathematics, intrinsic motivation in social studies, intrinsic motivation in playing a
sport, intrinsic motivation in reading a book, etc. Therefore, the items on the Intrinsic
Motivation inventory should reference that specific activity. For example, an item on
the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory reads, "I enjoyed doing this activity very much."
How will the participants know what "this activity" is? Therefore, the researcher
should modify the item to read "I enjoyed the math’s computer program very much."
Note that the substance of the item was not changed, only the reference of "this
activity."
Even though adopting an instrument requires little effort on behalf of the

researcher, the questionnaire still must be appropriately designed so you must know
how to develop a questionnaire.
When an instrument is adopted, it is important to appropriately describe the

instrument in the Instruments section of Chapter 3. In the description, include
• Who developed the instrument?

• Who validated the instrument?
• Other studies that have used the instrument
Here is an example portion of the Instruments section from an instrument that was
adopted:
Positive and negative affect were assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect
Scale (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegren, 1988)...Watson and colleagues report
reliability coefficient alphas as .89 for positive and .85 for negative affect. Validity
evidence for the instrument as a measure of state effect was found by correlating the
instrument with situations that should influence positive and negative affect. Positive
affect is related to social activity and negative affect is related to fluctuations in stress
(Watson et al., 1988). The PANAS has been used to assess the effect in other studies
with SDT (e.g., Elliot and Sheldon, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 2001; Sheldon, Ryan,
Deci, & Kasser, 2004).
Adapting an Instrument
Adapting an instrument requires more substantial changes than adopting an

instrument. In this situation, the researcher follows the general design of another
instrument but adds items, removes items, and/or substantially changes the content
33
0 0
of each item. Because adapting an instrument is similar to developing a new
instrument, a researcher must understand the key principles of developing an
instrument which will be described in the next step.
When adapting an instrument, the researcher should report the same
information in the Instruments section as when adopting the instrument, but should
also include what changes were made to the instrument and why. Below is a sample
description of an instrument that was adapted in Korb (2009).
This study adapted the Factors Influencing Teaching Choice (FIT-Choice) scale.
This instrument was developed by Watt and Richardson (2007). Validity evidence was
provided by factor analysis and the longitudinal relationship of the factors influencing
teaching to subsequent engagement in the teaching profession. The purpose of the
FIT-Choice is to determine the factors that preservice teachers identify as being most
influential in their choice of the teaching profession. The FITChoice scale was only
slightly modified to fit the Nigerian0context.
0 All factors were identical to the original
FIT-Choice instrument except for two. Watt and Richardson identified a job
transferability factor that included items such as "Teaching will be a useful job for me
to have when traveling." This factor was judged as not applicable to Nigerian pre-
service teachers. Additionally, an exploitation factor was added to the instrument to
represent choosing teaching as a lazy, easy career with items such as "Teaching will
allow me to work other jobs," "Teaching will allow me to collect a salary by doing little
work," and "When teaching, I can use the students for gaining money."
Research Instrument
These research instruments or tools are ways of gathering data. Without them,
data would be impossible to put in hand. The most common instrument or tool of
research for obtaining the data beyond the physical reach of the observer may be sent
to human beings who are thousands of miles away or just around the corner.
We often require information on a range of subjects and to obtain that information

may be acquired tom ask peoples’ questions. Questionnaires can be designed and
used to collect a vast quantity of data from a variety of respondents. They have many
benefits over other forms of data collection when they are usually inexpensive to
administer; very little training is needed to develop them, and they can be easily and
quickly analyzed once completed.
Two Forms of Questionnaire

1. Closed-form / Closed-ended are questions that allow someone to give a free-
form answer.
2. Open form / Open-ended can be answered with “Yes” or “No,” or they have a
limited set of possible answers (such as A, B, C, or All of the Above). Closed-ended
questions are often good for surveys because you get higher response rates when
users don’t have to type so much. Also, answers to closed-ended questions can easily
be analyzed statistically, which is what you usually want to do with survey data.
34
0 0
Guidelines in Using the Questionnaire
1. Clarity of language
2. Singleness of purpose
3. Relevant to the objective of the study
4. Correct grammar
Principles to consider in constructing a questionnaire
1. Define or qualify terms that could easily be misinterpreted

2. Be careful in using descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have no agreed-upon
meaning
3. Be careful of inadequate alternatives
4. Beware of a double negative
5. Avoid the double-barreled question
6. Underline the word if you wish to indicate special emphasis
7. When asking for rating or comparisons a point of reference is necessary
8. Avoid unwarranted assumptions
9. Phrase questions so that they are appropriate for all respondents
10. Design question that will give a complete answer
11. Provide for the systematic qualification of response
12. Consider the possibility of classifying the respondents yourself rather than having the
respondents choose categories
Characteristics of a good research instrument
• Valid and reliable

• Based on a conceptual framework, or the researcher's understanding of how the
particular variables in the study connect
• Must gather data suitable for0 and 0relevant to the research topic
• Able to test hypothesis and/or answer proposed research questions under
investigation
• Free of bias and appropriate for the context, culture, and diversity of the study site
● Contains clear and definite instructions to use the instrument
www.tc.columbia.edu/media/administration/institutional..
Quantitative Research Tools. The most used quantitative research technique is the
survey. In a quantitative survey, you may use short-answer responses or
dichotomous questions, multiple choice answers, paragraphs, checkboxes,
dropdown, linear scale, multiple choice grid, and more. As you can see various
question formats can be adapted to your research needs.
Here are some examples of dichotomous, multiple-choice, ranch ordering scaling,

rating scale, staple scale
Likert scale, rating system, used in questionnaires, that is designed to measure

people’s attitudes, opinions, or perceptions. Subjects choose from a range of possible
responses to a specific question or statement; responses typically include “strongly
35
0 0
agree,” “agree,” “neutral,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree.” Often, the categories of
response are coded numerically, in which case the numerical values must be defined
for that specific study, such as 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, and so on. The Likert
scale is named for American social scientist Rensis Likert, who devised the approach
in 1932.
Likert scales are widely used in social and educational research. When using
Likert scales, the researcher must consider issues such as categories of response
(values in the scale), size of the scale, the direction of the scale, the ordinal nature of
Likert-derived data, and appropriate statistical analysis of such data.
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
Rating Scale is defined as a closed-ended survey question used to represent

respondent feedback in a comparative form for specific particular
features/products/services. It is one of the most established question types for online
and offline surveys where survey respondents are expected to rate an attribute or
feature. A rating scale is a variant of the popular multiple-choice question which is
widely used to gather the information that provides relative information about a
specific topic.
Researchers use a rating scale in research when they intend to associate a

qualitative measure with the various aspects of a product or feature. Generally, this
0 0
scale is used to evaluate the performance of a product or service, employee skills,
customer service performances, processes followed for a particular goal, etc. Rating
36
scale survey question can be compared to a checkbox question but rating scale
provides more information than merely Yes/No.
0 0
37
0 0
The Multiple Choice Questions
Where do you get the news from?
Television Radio
Newspaper Magazine
Word-of-mouth Internet
Other: Please Specify _______________ “For this type of question it is important to

consider including an "other" category because there may be other avenues by which
the person first heard about your site that you might have overlooked” (Question Pro
Survey Software, 2017).
The Staple Scale The staple scale asks a person to rate a brand, product, or service
according to a certain characteristic on a scale from +5 to -5, indicating how well the
characteristic describes the product or service. The following is an example of a staple
scale question:
When thinking about Data Mining Technologies, Inc. (DMT), do you believe that the
word "innovative" aptly describes or poorly describes the company? On a scale of +5
to -5 with +5 being "a very good description of DMT" and -5 being "poor description
of DMT," how do you rank DMT according to the word "innovative"?
0 0
(+5) Describes very well
(+4)
(+3)
(+2)
(+1)
Innovative
(-1)
(-2)
(-3)
(-4)
(-5) Poorly describes
Checklist A checklist is also known as a tick list or chart works as an inventory

of behaviors or skills where the researcher checks indicators that are being observed
(Hodder Education & Hachette UK Company, 2017). A checklist can be a quantitative
or qualitative tool. If you look for specific criteria with a yes/no answer it becomes a
quantitative tool. On the other hand, if you look for specific criteria or indicators and
you want to deeply or briefly describe what you observe, it becomes a qualitative tool.
A checklist is a list of aspects to observe as content, abilities, and behavior. It is a
38
0 0
mechanism to verify if certain indicators or symptoms are present in a phenomenon.
A checklist provides more information if the researcher records additional comments
on the context (Hodder Education & Hachette UK Company,
2017)
0 0
39
0 0
What’s More
Activity 1: Do it Right!
Read carefully and analyze the table. Below, in the first column, enumerated are the
types of validity/reliability and on the second column, it indicates what does it assess.
On the last column identify the given examples below as to the type of
validity/reliability. Write only the letter of the answer.
A- There is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can

measure directly. But based on existing psychological research and theory, we can
measure depression based on a collection of symptoms and indicators, such as low
selfconfidence and low energy levels.
B- You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You
review the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks
eaten in between for every day of the week. On its surface, the survey seems like a
good representation of what you want to test.
C- A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class.

The test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types
of algebra are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of students’
understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she includes questions that are not related
to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge.
D - A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English writing

ability. To assess how well the test does measure students’ writing ability, she finds
an existing test that is considered a valid measurement of English writing ability and
compares the results when the same group of students takes both tests.
E- A group of participants complete a questionnaire designed to measure

personality traits. If they repeat the questionnaire days, weeks, or months apart and
give the same answers, this indicates high test-retest reliability.
F- You design a questionnaire to measure self-esteem. If you randomly split the

results into two halves, there should be a strong correlation between the two sets of
results. If the two results are very different, this indicates low internal consistency.
Types of Validity What does it assess? Example

1. Face validity It considers how suitable the
content of a test seems to be on
the surface.
2. Content It assesses whether a test is
Validity representative of all aspects of
the construct.
3. Construct It refers to a concept or
characteristic that can’t be
directly observed but can be
measured by observing other
40
0 0
indicators that are associated
with it.
4. Criterion It evaluates how closely the
results of your test correspond
to the results of a different test.
Methods in Reliability What does it assess? Example
5. Test-retest The consistency of a measure
across time: do you get the
same results when you repeat
the measurement?
6. Internal The consistency of the
consistency measurement itself: do you get
the same results from different
parts of a 0test that
0 are designed
to measure the same thing?
Activity 2 Think well!
For other criteria in assessing validity and reliability, the following are used in
assessing. Think for the appropriate criteria define or describe below. Choose from
the words given and write your answer on the space before the number. You may use
your reference in exploring the activity.
Reactivity Sensitivity Specificity Speed
Comprehensibility Precision Range Linearity
__________________1. It is a measure of the variation among survey estimates, over repeated

application of the same sampling procedures.
__________________2. It is known as the recall rate, is a measurement that determines the

probability of actual positives.
__________________3. The focus of this measurement is to find out the sample

members who are negative towards the tested property specificity
_________________4. It refers to whether or not inner and outer stimuli make sense to
us in terms of being coherent, ordered, cohesive, structured, and
clear.
_________________5. In these criteria the researcher doesn’t rush measuring process to

obtain the most reliable measurement.
_________________6. The range is the size of the smallest interval (statistics) which
contains all the data and provides an indication of statistical
dispersion.
_________________7. It is an indicator of the consistency of measurements over the entire

range of measurements.
_________________8. It is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their

performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being
41
0 0
observed. The change may be positive or negative and depends
on the situation.
Activity 3. Time to write!
• Your first task is to produce a write- up of your research instrument.

• Then, you are about to draft the research instrument based on your
research study.
• Remember to integrate all the things highlighted in this lesson to help
you in your writing.
• The steps listed below are the elements in your research instrument
that can help you or guide you in accomplishing your write up.
Step 1 Identify what you want to cover in a research questionnaire:

Step 2 Keep words simple and straightforward:
Step 3 Ask only one question at a time:
Step 4 Be flexible with your options:
Step 5 The open-ended or closed-ended question, it’s a tough choice:
Step 6 It is important to know your audience:
Step 7 7. Choosing the right tool is important
emgo.nl/kc . “Development measurement instruments”. Accessed June 19,2020.
https://www.emgo.nl/kc/developing-measurement-instruments-questionnaires
• Below is an example of a research instrument. You may use this as a

guide in crafting your research instrument.
0 0
42
0 0
0 0
43
Lesson
Describe an Intervention
4 0 0
This module describes an intervention in research. It discusses the specific
intervention content that is designed to measure how much better a situation is after
modification that is systematic and to measure or has been imposed. Though this
talks on finding solutions or alternatives in a research paper, you should also note
that not all quantitative research has or necessitates an intervention. But let us also
describe intervention as part of a research which generates findings that are useful
and applicable in different situations. This also focuses on writing a discussion
highlighting intervention in a research study.
1. describe intervention;
2. recognize the essentials of intervention in research;
3. cite related traditions that are particularly useful in conducting research with
intervention; and
4. write a discussion about an intervention applied in research.
What’s In
For this activity, supply the correct letters to complete the word being defined or
described.
1. It refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure
L I D Y
2. It is about the consistency of a measure.
L A B I Y
3. A research method in collecting data.
S R Y
44
0 0
4. This is also known as logical validity.
A C V L D Y
5. It refers to measurement tools (for example, questionnaires or scales) designed to

obtain data on a topic of interest.
E E R C I S T U
0 will0help the learners understand the

This contains activities that
topic. The activities were designed to highlight in an intervention
in the research. It also intends to note that not all researches need
an intervention. It is also vital to further discuss on the essentials
in describing an intervention and how probably this applies to the
learners’ research study.
What’s New
The following issues listed on the table need some solutions. Complete the
table by writing words/ phrases that will help resolve the problems.
Reading Program Feeding Program Attendance success plans
Teach the Anti-Bullying Tricks Online Platform in learning modalities
Problems Solution
1. malnutrition
2. poor in reading
3. bullying
4. online games
5. absenteeism
45
0 0
From this activity, you can discover a solution to the given problems. Now, what is
emphasized here is that we can seek a transformational change through the process of
intervention in our research undertakings. We also should note that intervention in
research is not another type of research. It pertains to the program in a research study to
create change, improvement, and development.
What is It
An intervention n is a combination of program elements or strategies designed

to produce behavior change or improve health status among individuals or an entire
population. Interventions may include educational programs, new stronger policies,
improvements in the environment, or a health promotion campaign, interventions
that include multiple strategies are typically the most effective in producing desired
and lasting change.
Interventions may be implemented in different settings including communities,

worksite, schools, and health care organizations or the home. Interventions
implemented in multiple settings and using multiple strategies may be the most
effective because of the potential to reach a large number of people in a variety of
ways.
Intervention in research is the systematic study of purposive change strategies.

It is characterized by both the design and development of interventions. Design
involves the specification of an intervention. This includes determining the extent to
which an intervention is defined by explicit practice principles, goals, and activities.
The term intervention in this module pertains to the independent variable or the
treatment variable in the research study. Moreover, intervention pertains also to the
program that will be introduced during the study to create change and development
or improvement. Some of the action research interventions are reading programs to
enhance the reading competence, 0 numeracy
0 program which improves the
mathematical skills, feeding program, and the like.
Some interventions are highly responsive to dialogue and the hermeneutics of
exchange between intervention agents and participants. For example, some
psychodynamic interventions tend to be less distinct and more dialogical. In contrast,
prescriptive interventions tend to be based on manuals that specify practice activities
and guide the exchange between intervention agents and participants.
One important aim of intervention in research is to create a means for

improving community life, health, and well-being. Intervention researchers attempt
as much as possible to fuse the dual purposes of applied science in the same endeavor
promoting understanding of individual and community conditions and contributing
to their improvement.
Book.google.com. Intervention Research”. Accessed May 23, 2020.
https;//www.books.google.com/books/about/Intervention_Research.html?id=
46
0 0
The following are some of the researches that need intervention.
Experimental Social Innovation- this is design to evaluate the effects of treatment

programs and other interventions designed to address social programs.
Social Research and development- this applies to an engineering model from

physical sciences to characterize the process of developing an intervention program
relevant to human services.
Developmental Research- this incorporates applied research method s empirically

oriented practice and other action research strategies to design interventions for
helping professions.
Model development Research- this examines how human services proceed from
innovation and standard practice.
Behavioral Community Research -this uses the methods of behavior

analysis and psychology to design and implement interventions relevant to
community change.
Action Research- This focuses of this research is to initiate and solve an immediate
problem.
Core Components of an Intervention:
This provides support for describing core components in writing and developing an
intervention project or research.
1. Identify the problem/goal. This includes goals, objectives, and specific

behaviors that need to change.
2. Assess the level of the problem or goal. Some types of assessments include
direct observation, survey interviews, and reviewing existing records.
3. Groups to benefit. This includes targets of change or prioritized groups for whom
behaviors or outcomes should change and an agent of change or those
implementing the intervention
4. Obtain clients' input. This considers how you will use: Personal contacts - Who
will you speak with about what? Interviews - What questions will you ask of whom
about the problem or goal and possible interventions? Focus groups - From what
groups will you seek what kinds of information? Community forums - What
public situations would present an opportunity for you to discuss the problem or
goal, and how will you use the opportunity? Concerns surveys - What questions
of whom will you ask about the problem or goal and potential solutions?
5. Analyze the problem or goal. This uses client input to specify the current
situation, the negative (positive) consequences for those directly affected and the
broader community, personal and environmental factors to be influenced (i.e.,
people's experience and history; knowledge and skills; barriers and opportunities;
social support and caring relationships; living conditions that put them at risk
for or protect them from experiencing certain problems, the behavior or lack of
behavior that causes or maintains the problem.
0 0 47
6. Set goals and objectives. A description of what success would look like. How
will the community or group be different if the intervention is successful? Those
goals the intervention is targeted to accomplish. How will you know if your
intervention is successful? The specific objectives the intervention will achieve.
What will change by how much and by when?
7. Evidence-based interventions. This indicates: Potential or promising “best

practices” for your situation (consider various available databases and lists of
“best” or evidence-based practices) How strong is the evidence that each potential
“best practice” caused the observed improvement? (Rather than other associated
conditions or potential influences) Whether the “best practice” could achieve the
desired results in your community whether the conditions (e.g., time, money,
0 that
people, and technical assistance) 0 affect success for the “best practice” are
present
8. Assessment. This provides information and enhancing, modifying access,
barriers, exposures, and opportunities, enhancing services and supports,
changing the consequences, and modifying policies and the broader system.
9. Develop an action plan for the intervention. This includes specific change or
aspects of the intervention, who to carry it out, when the intervention will be
implemented, the resources availability, and persons who know about it.
10. Pilot-test the intervention. This determines how to test the intervention and
with whom, assess the quality of implementation of the intervention, assess
results and consequences or side effects, and collect and use feedback to adapt
and improve the intervention.
11. Implementation. This includes the quality of implementation, satisfaction and

outcomes, and attainment of objectives.
Phases in an Intervention Research
Importance
Phases
Phase 1 • Identifying and Each operation involves
involving clients collaboration between
Problem Analysis • Gaining entry and researchers and clients,
and Project cooperation of the from helping gain the cooperation
Planning setting and support necessary for
• Identifying concerns of conducting intervention
the population
research.
• Analyzing identified
concerns
• Setting goals and
objectives
Once information is
Phase 2 Using existing gathered, researchers
information sources analyze the critical features
of the programs and
48
0 0
Information • Studying natural practices that have
gathering and examples previously addressed the
synthesis • Identifying functional problem of interest. Some
elements of successful questions to ask are: Is there
models a model program, policy, or
practice that has been
successful in changing
targeted behaviors or
outcomes.
• This outlines the operation
Phase 3 Designing as in the particularly
Design • observational system interrelated phases of design
Specifying procedural and early development of
elements of the pilot testing.
intervention
Developing prototype During the development and
Phase 4 • or preliminary pilot testing phase, the
interventions primitive design is evolving
Early Conducting a pilot test into a form that can be
Development and • Applying design evaluated under the field
criteria to the
Pilot Testing condition. This phase
preliminary
includes the most important
intervention concept
phase and operation of
developing a prototype or
preliminary intervention,
0 0 conducting a pilot test, and
applying design criteria to
the preliminary intervention
concept.
• The results of full-field
Phase 5 Selecting experimental testing are used to resolve
• design problems with the
Evaluation and Collecting and measurement system and
advanced • analyzing data intervention. Adaptation in
Development Replicating the the language, content, and
intervention under intervention methods may
• field conditions
produce desired behavior
Refining the
intervention changes and outcomes for
the full range of intended
beneficiaries.
49
0 0
• Preparing the product Once a community
Phase 6 for dissemination intervention has been
• Identifying potential fieldtested and evaluated, it
Dissemination markets for the
is ready to be disseminated
intervention
to community or
• Creating a demand for
organizations and other
the intervention
Encouraging target audiences. Several
•
appropriate adaptation operations help to make the
Providing technical process of dissemination and
•
support for adopters adaptation more successful;
preparing the product for
dissemination; identifying
potential markets for
intervention, creating a
demand for intervention,
encouraging appropriate
adaptation, and providing
technical support for
adopters.
What’s More
Research Questions. It helps to focus your attention on a specific problem. When

thinking about the purpose of the research. It is important to consider which
stakeholders will be using the research findings or how they will be using them. The
research question should be capable of being developed into plausible research
design. Choosing the most appropriate design and methods can enhance prospects
for obtaining meaningful results. You also need to consider the practicality of the
overall research design: whether, for example, you have access to the proposed
research setting and data.
The following are examples of research questions in an intervention project or

study. In a research study, it is important how research questions can be formulated
and help you distinguish if the research study is applying an intervention.
• What impact does collaborative learning have on elementary school students’

conflict resolution skills?
• 0
Can student handwriting improve 0without the use of rote instruction?
• Are portfolios effective forms of annotated research for building strong positive
relationships with students, parents, other teachers, and principals for elementary
school students?
• Does Writer’s Workshop strengthen students’ writing and will it affect the students’
enjoyment in the writing process?
• Will inquiry-based instruction help students make learning gains?
50
• Does best-practice teaching improve student outcomes and attitudes toward

science?
• How do read aloud motivate 0students
0 to read independently?
• Do students learn classroom material better through student-led teaching?
• Could the motivating power of choice and emphasis on the development of deeper
https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/
murraylax.org. “Research Methodology Rubric”. https://www.

murray.org./irpja/rubric_chapter3.pdf
Lesson Research Design Principles and

Ethical Standards in Conducting A
8 Study
You have already learned all about conducting research, now is your time to consider
doing the research, the past lessons will help you a lot in crafting every detail of your research
study, but before that please take your time to study this particular lesson about principles
and ethical standards in Conducting a research study.
Several ethical principles should be taken into account when performing

undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles
stress the need to (a) do good (known as beneficence) and (b) do no harm (known as
nonmalfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a researcher, you need to:
(a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; (b) minimize the risk of harm
to participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using deceptive
practices; and (e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research.
When you look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your
research study should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not
possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. Similarly, there
may be instances where you seek permission from participants not to protect their anonymity.
More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you adopt to guide
your dissertation
93
0 0
The research process is a bit like an eye exam. The doctor makes the best guess for
the most appropriate lens strength and then adjusts the lenses from there. Sometimes the
first option is the best and most appropriate; sometimes it takes a few tries with several
different options before finding the best one for you and your situation.

1. determine the ethical principles and standards in conducting research;
2. discuss the rudiments (before, during and after) of research; and
3. prepare the necessary documents (permits, letters) in conducting research.
What’s In
Define the following words and use them in a sentence.
1.Ethics
2. Morality
3. Honesty
4. Integrity
5. Confidentiality
Discussion
In doing research, how can we say that we have done the right thing? Can we
strike a balance between what is right and what is moral? Are things we have done
widely accepted by the community? Ethics is anchored on the moral standards that
we follow. Morality is a set of “unwritten” rules that guides us on the things that we
should or should not do to attain harmony and orderliness in any undertaking.
Ethics is important in research because it keeps the researcher from

committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth. It promotes essential values
that help researchers working on a topic to have a common understanding of how
things should go about. Since research may involve experts coming from different
fields of expertise, ethics bind them together by considering the important values such
94
0 0
as accountability, cooperation, coordination, mutual respect, and fairness among
others.
Research studies and scientific research are being conducted to provide results
that will help with social, professional, and scientific evolution. Gathering data and
information and analyzing them is the only way for a researcher to conclude. The
process of conducting a research study starts by focusing on tested hunches and
ideas. With the collection of all the necessary information, the results can come fast.
Either positive or negative.
Conducting a research study has certain very, important steps that need to be
taken for the research to be successful. Here are the 8 most important steps that you
are going to take to conduct your research study:
Step 1: Identifying the Subject
There is always a problem, subject, and issue or thematic that is being

analyzed in a research study. Do you have a clear view of what yours is? Unless
you have identified the subject of your research study, you cannot move on to
the next step.
95
0 0
Step 2: Find the literature
What is the current information on the topic? Surely some research has
already been conducted at some point. That research gave results, maybe
answers to some of the questions. You need to find that research and those
results. You need the current literature to create your own.
Step 3: Clarify the Subject
Once the literature has been reviewed and the details of the initial Subject
have been identified it is time to clarify the subject. What is the scope of the
study? If it is too big then it has to be broken down into categories and studied
separately. Many factors can affect a subject and many variables. All of that
needs to be taken into account.
Step 4: Definition of Terms and Concepts
Every subject has terms and Concepts. Either scientific, cultural, or social.
These words and phrases are going to be used in the study constantly. You
need to know exactly what they mean and how you should use them. Research
studies are not simple papers. The words you use will affect the outcome of
the paper itself and the way that people will understand the results and your
ideas. So always define the terms and concepts before you start using them.
Step 5: Who is your audience?
Your research study always has to do with an audience. Either directly or

indirectly. It is your responsibility to define that audience. In the beginning, it
can be rather confusing. Separating those that are immediately affected by
the results of your study, from those that are not so connected with your
results can help you clarify your audience and of course, focus on the most
important parts of the research study. After all, working with a very large
audience is not going to give you the results that you are looking for. The
bigger the audience, the harder it will be for the study to be conducted.
Step 6: Instrumentation Plan
Consider this to be the roadmap for your entire study. It will specify some of
the most important parts of the study like the participants, the main literature
focus, the how, when, and where the data is going to be collected and of course
analyzed. Everything you will do will be based on this particular plan. You can
choose when you are going to create it of course. However, the sooner you do
it the better the process of the research study and the faster the results.
Step 7: Collecting the Data
After you have gathered the literature, found your audience, and collected the
original data of the subject, you will conduct your own ‘’experiments’’ to make
sure that your results are the right ones. Those ‘’experiments’’ will give you
data of their own. Collecting that data and analyzing it is a very important
part of the process. You need to make sure that all that data will be safely
stored and properly analyzed. This will happen after the completion of the
instrumentation plan and during the start if the sturdy.
96
0 0
One important thing that you need to note here is where you are going to get
the data. Questionnaires and observation are always good places to start.
Step 8: Analyzing the Data
Finally is the analysis of the data itself. That will be the last step that will give
you the results and help you bind your research together. Take your time with
it. Double or even triple check your analysis. Compare it over and over again.
If a mistake is made here you will have to start over with the analysis. That
can take a long time and it is certainly not something that you will want to
do. This is the last step to make sure that you will do it correctly.
By following these 8 steps, you will find that conducting a research study
can be a lot easier than you think. But certainly not easy. Take your time to
familiarize yourself with these steps. Do not rush into anything. Proper research
studies require time to bring accurate and proper results. Always remember that
these studies can affect your future as a scientist or research either positively or
negatively. The more attention you pay to them, while you conduct them, the more
useful they will be for you and the future of your career!
PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH ETHICS
PRINCIPLE ONE
Minimizing the risk of harm
Research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that
participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong
justifications for this. Such scenarios will also require (a) additional planning to
illustrate how participant harm (or discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed consent,
and (c) detailed debriefing.
There are several types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These include:
▪ Physical harm to participants.

▪ Psychological distress and discomfort.
▪ Social disadvantage.
▪ Harm to participants? financial status.
▪ An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity.
Typically, it does not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does
not intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should
try to minimize. To minimize the risk of harm you should think about:
97
0 0
▪ Obtaining informed consent from participants.
▪ Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.
▪ Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
▪ Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any
time.
We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow, explaining (a)
what they mean, and (b) instances where they should (and should not) be followed.
PRINCIPLE TWO
Obtaining informed consent
One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent.

Simply put, informed consent means that participants should understand that (a)
they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them. Such
information may include the purpose of the research, the methods being used, the
possible outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands, discomforts,
inconveniences, and risks that the participants may face. Whilst is it not possible to
know exactly what information a potential participant would (or would not) want to
know, you should aim not to leave out any material information; that is, information
that you feel would influence whether consent would (or would not) be granted.
Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants

should be volunteers, taking part without having been coerced and deceived. Where
informed consent cannot be obtained from participants, you must explain why this
is the case. You should also be aware that there are instances informed consent is
not necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed. These include certain educational,
organizational, and naturalistic research settings. We discuss these in more detail
under the section: Avoiding deceptive practices.
PRINCIPLE THREE
Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is

another practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will typically
only be willing to volunteer information, especially information of a private or
sensitive nature, if the researcher agrees to hold such information in confidence.
Whilst it is possible that research participants may be hurt in some way if the data
collection methods used are somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger
that harm can be caused once data has been collected. This occurs when data is not
treated confidentially, whether in terms of the storage of data, its analysis, or during
the publication process (i.e., when submitting your dissertation to be marked).
However, this does not mean that all data collected from research participants need
to be kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the identity and
views of individuals at various stages of the research process (from data collection
through to publication of your dissertation). Nonetheless, permissions should be
sought before such confidential information is disclosed.
98
0 0
An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names,
geographical cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However, such stripping
of identifiable information may not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of
your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is not only a
consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design but also a
quantitative research design.
For example:
Imagine that your thesis used a quantitative research design and a survey as
your main research method. In the process of analyzing your data, it is
possible that when examining relationships between variables (i.e., questions
in your survey), a person's identity and responses could be inferred. For
instance, imagine that you were comparing responses amongst employees
within an organization based on specific age groups. There may only be a
small group (or just one employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over
70 years old), which could enable others to identify the responses of this
individual (or small group of employees). Therefore, you need to consider
ways of overcoming such problems, such as (a) aggregating data in tables
and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number of units are present
before data/information can be presented.
A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to

be restricted to the published material, perhaps only allowing it to be viewed by those
individuals marking your work. If the work is later published, adjustments would
then need to be made to protect the confidentiality of participants.
There is also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what
research you can and cannot perform, how you must treat the data of research
participants, and so forth. In other words, you don't simply have a duty to protect
the data you collect from participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal
responsibility to do so. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask
your dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice (or a legal professional).
PRINCIPLE FOUR
Avoiding deceptive practices
At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all,
how can participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the
research requires of them if they are being deceived? This is part of what makes the
use of deceptive practices controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances,
research should avoid any kind of deceptive practice. However, this is not always the
case.
Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be

justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of the
observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants. Cases,
where you may choose to engage in covert research, may include instances where:
99
0 0
▪ It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you
are doing.
▪ Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the
particular phenomenon that is being studied.
Let's take each of these in turn:
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing
By feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead,
we mean that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular
research setting know what you are doing. This is most likely to be the case
where research involves observation, rather than direct contact with
participants, especially in a public or online setting. There are several
obvious instances where this may be the case:
▪ Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.

▪ Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to
work, etc.).
Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may
simply be impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You may
not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices, but participants
are not giving you their informed consent.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the
particular phenomenon that is being studied
Where observations or participants? knowledge of the true purpose of the

research has the potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are
interested in, this is a major concern in terms of the quality of your findings.
Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and
possibly deceptive practices, you should think about the extent to which this
could be beneficial in your dissertation, not research in general; that is,
everything from the research paradigm that guides your dissertation
through to the data analysis techniques you choose affect issues of research
ethics in your dissertation. Imagine some of the following scenarios where
covert research may be considered justifiable: ▪ Scenario A
You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Whilst

participants are given a questionnaire to complete that measures
their prejudice, it is not obvious from the questions that this is the
case. Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is
about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses.
After all, few people would be happy if other people thought they were
100
0 0
prejudice. As a result, if participants knew that this is the purpose of
the study, they may well provide responses that they think will make
them appear less prejudice.
▪ Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organizational culture of a

single firm. You feel that observation would be an appropriate
research method in such a naturalistic setting. However, you feel
that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may
behave differently. Therefore, you may have received permission to
go undercover or provide a story to explain why you are there,
which is not the truth.
Whilst such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where

used intentionally, can be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they
have a place in research.
PRINCIPLE FIVE
Providing the right to withdraw
Except for those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let
every one that is being observed know what you are doing, research
participants should always have the right to withdraw from the research
process. Furthermore, participants should have the right to withdraw at any
stage in the research process. When a participant chooses to withdraw from
the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to
try and stop them from withdrawing.
If your supervisor and/or Ethics Committee expect you to complete an

Ethics Consent Form, you will likely have to let participants know that they
have the right to withdraw at any time.
Now that you have read these basic principles of research ethics, you
may want to understand how the research strategy you have chosen affects
your approach to research. You will need to understand the impact of your
research strategy on your approach to research ethics when writing up the
Research Ethics section of your Research Strategy chapter (usually Chapter
Three: Research Strategy).
ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR DATA COLLECTION/ NORMS IN RESEARCH
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research.
First, norms promote the aims of the research, such as knowledge, truth,
and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating,
falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid the
error.
101
0 0
Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination
among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical
standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as
trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical
norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting
policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed
to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most
researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have
their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for
research. People more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the
quality and integrity of research.
Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important

moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal
welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety.
Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal

subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates
data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who
fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological
safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff
and students. Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it
should come as no surprise that many different professional associations,
government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules,
and policies relating to research ethics.
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical behavior to be

observed in conducting research.
1. Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly

report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues,
granting agencies, or the public.
2. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose
personal or financial interests that may affect research.
3. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive
for consistency of thought and action.
4. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically
examine your work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities, such as data collection, research design, and
correspondence with agencies or journals.
5. Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to
criticism and new ideas.
102
0 0
6. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other
forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or
results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper
acknowledgment or credit for all contributions to research. Never
plagiarize.
7. Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or
grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military
secrets, and patient records.
8. Responsible Publication: Publish to advance research and scholarship,
not to advance just your career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative
publication.
9. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.
Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
10. Respect for Colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
11. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or
mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
12. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students
based on sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their
scientific competence and integrity.
13. Competence: Maintain and improve your professional competence and

expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
14. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental
policies.
15. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them
in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal
experiments.
What’s New
Research Exercise:
A. Read an article about how four Mexican immigrants and their cheap
robot beat MIT in a robotics competition, and now you are interested in
the topic of immigration and STEM education or employment. After
reading the article, Explain the following terms in your understanding: 1.
Illegal aliens
2. Hispanics
103
0 0
3. Plagiarism
4. Education
5. Employment
6. Immigrants
7. Ethics
8. Protocol
9. Principles
10. Artwork
What is It
Identification. Write the correct term being discussed in the following

statements.
1. _______________ Strive for truthfulness and integrity in all scientific

communications. Genuine report data, results, methods and
procedures, and publication status.
.
2. ________________ Avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception.
Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
3. ________________Keep your promises and agreements; act with

authenticity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
4. ____________Avoid careless errors and negligence; prudently and

critically examine your work and the work of your peers. Keep good
records of research activities, such as data collection, research
design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
5. ____________Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources by being open

to criticism and new ideas.
6. _____________ Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of

intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or
results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give
proper acknowledgment or credit for all contributions to research.
Never plagiarize.
104
0 0
7. __________________Protect private communications, such as papers or
grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military
secrets, and patient records.
8. ___________________ Publish in order to advance research and

scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and
duplicative publication.
9. ___________________ Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.

Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
10. ____________________ Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
What’s More
Activity 1.1
Explain the Five (5) Principles of Research Ethics.
PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimising the risk of harm
PRINCIPLE TWO: Obtaining informed consent
PRINCIPLE THREE: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
PRINCIPLE FOUR: Avoiding deceptive practices
PRINCIPLE FIVE: Providing the right to withdraw
105
0 0
Activity 1.2
Principle 1 of Research Ethics says that the researchers should minimize
the risk of harm, and there are different types of harm that participants
can be subjected to, in your understanding explain all of them and give
examples.
1. Physical harm to participants-
2. Psychological distress and discomfort-
3. Social disadvantage-
4. Harm to participants? financial status-
5. An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity-
References
106
0 0
Pouspourika, K. (2018). How to Conduct a Research Study. Retrieved from
https://ied.eu/project-updates/how-to-conduct-a-research-study/
Zainudin, A. (2016), Simple Guidelines in Conducting Research. Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia Johor, Malaysia.
https://www.upv.es/laboluz/master/seminario/textos/Visualizing_Research.pdf
https://www.ndnu.edu/academics/research/permission-to-conduct-study/
http://dissertation.laerd.com/principles-of-research-ethics.php
What I Have Learned
Given the options on the box, identify the terms being described below.
Write your answer on the space provided.
1. _______________ is a type of research that depends on the collection and
analysis of numerical data.
2. _______________ is a type of quantitative research that seeks to describe the
present status of an identified variable.
3. The _______________ is a part or proportion of the whole.
4. The _______________ is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the
population size (N) and a margin of error (e).
5. In _______________, the questionnaire is the main instrument for collecting

data in survey research.
6. _______________ of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal

stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
7. The _______________ is the simultaneous analysis of two variables

(attributes).
8. _______________ can be sent to a large number of people and saves the

researcher time and money.
9. _______________ is the process of gathering and measuring information on

variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one
to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate
outcomes.
10. In phases and operations of intervention research we consider the

following;
Problem Analysis and Project Planning; Information gathering and
synthesis; Design; Early development and pilot testing; _______________
and Dissemination.
107
0 0
11. _______________ are conducted to document and analyzed the behaviors
and social phenomenon as they occur in a natural context, and may be
useful in identifying, for example, discrepancies between what people say (
such as an interview ) and what they do.
12. The _______________ section of any academic research paper allows you to
convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to
your field of study.
13. _______________ is a part of the thesis that uses many common formats of
listing down the citations such as APA (American Psychological
Association) and the MLA Thesis Writing Format.
14. _______________ based on the findings, ONLY the researcher should offer
endorsements – for betterment, improvement, modifications, future
researchers and alike, it happens in many occasions the researcher offer
approbation which normally away from the context of the study – this is
too ‘ambitious’ to try to offer something not being studied by the researcher.
15. _______________ pertains to the list of documents (reports, data analysis,
tables, or other related artifacts) that have been referred or cited in the
discussion of the report.
bibliography/references triangulation sample paper- pencil

questionnaires
Slovin’s formula observations descriptive interview method

research
data collection evaluation & quantitative bivariate analysis

advanced research design
development
appendices recommendations research questionnaire
methodology method
What I
Can Do
Using your research, fill the blanks with the necessary information. Remember to
consider all the things you learned from this module to guide you in giving your
answers.
108
0 0
Paragraph 1. Research design
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2. Research population and sampling procedure

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________
Paragraph 3. Research instrument and data collection procedure

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 4. Data analysis

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
109
0 0
Assessment
Write the letter of your answer on the space before the number.
_______1. A group of researchers wants to find out the tobacco habits of

teenagers. They intend it to be a survey and to use a
questionnaire as a datagathering tool. Which research design
should they use?
a. descriptive c. correlational
b. causal-comparative d. experimental
_______2. Which research design should be employed if the research is about the
differences on competencies due to demographic profile?
a. descriptive c. correlational
b. causal- comparative d. experimental
_______3. In a school with 500 teachers, the HR team decides on conducting

team building activities. It is more likely that they would prefer
picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees
has an equal opportunity of being selected. What sampling
technique is described in this situation?
a. random sampling c. accidental sampling

b. systematic sampling d. purposive sampling
_______4. A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a

population of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from
1-5000 and every 10th individual will be chosen to be a part of
the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
Which sampling technique is being illustrated by the situation?
a. random sampling c. accidental sampling

b. systematic sampling d. purposive sampling
_______5. If you are using the questionnaire as your data gathering instrument,
which method of data collection are you using which?
a. observation method c. questionnaire method

b. registration method d. interview method
_______6. You will use a data collection method that involves the
presentation of oralverbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses. If you are the researcher, what method are you using?
a. observation method c. questionnaire method
110
0 0
b. registration method d. interview method
_______7. Which combination of data does the research question “Is there a significant
relationship between age and fitness level?” show?
a. numerical, numerical c. numerical, categorical

b. categorical, categorical d. none of the above
_______8. This kind of validity deals with data that can be measured and
validated at the same time.
a. concurrent validity c. construct validity
b. content validity d. criterion related validity
_______9. Which type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its
theoretical construct?
a. concurrent validity c. construct validity
b. content validity d. criterion related validity
_______10. This phase identifies potential markets for intervention

a. design c. information
gathering
b. dissemination d. problem analysis
and project planning
_______11. Which section describes the respondents of the study?
a. sample or respondents c. research instrument

a. data collection d. research locale
_______12. Which of the following is included in the methodology of the study?
a. the chosen research method

b. theoretical concepts used in the study
c. explanations of methods and concepts
d. all of the above
_______13. Which of the following must be told to the research participants when
obtaining written informed consent?
a. the aim and hypothesis c. nature and purpose

b. the method and pay rate d. method and outcome
_______14. What is an ethical consideration?
a. making sure your research does not cause harm or offense

b. when people are of different colors
c. making sure your research causes harm or offense
d. when you are polite to people
111
0 0
_______15. It represents principles prescribing a behavioral code that explains
what is good and right or bad and wrong.
a. research c. data analysis

b. ethics d. none of the above
Additional Activities
For more learnings on how to prepare the methodology part of

your research manuscript, you may visit and try the following materials by
accessing the links:
Lesson 1: The Quantitative Research Design
Additional lecture on quantitative research design can be accessed at:
Brooke Miller, “Comparing Descriptive, Correlational, and Experimental

Studies”,YouTube video, 10:44, June 6, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lsbK6g10a-c
Lesson 2: The Sample and Sampling Procedures
Additional lecture on sampling methods can be accessed at:
Simple Learning Pro, “Types of Sampling Methods” YouTube video, 4:49, November
25, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTuj57uXWlk
Lesson 3: Construct an Instrument and Establishes its Validity and Reliability
Additional lectures on the development of research instruments can be

accessed at:
Frances Chumney, “Surveys, Instruments, Questionnaires”, YouTube video, 6:10,

August 11, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhFLr9i2uw0\
112
0 0
Testing The testing method is used in Experimental and A teacher
Method both experimental and quasiexperimental wants to test
quasiexperimental research research the
designs. In quasi- effectiveness
experimental research of a new
design, participants are technique of
studied before and after the teaching how
experimental manipulation to solve verbal
(Levitas, J. 2003). problems in
mathematics.
For experimental research Before the
design, pretest-posttest start of the
designs are the preferred experiment,
method to compare the group to
be used is
participant groups and given an
measure the degree of change achievement
occurring as a result of test about the
treatments or interventions. problems to be
In this design, which uses covered. After
two groups, one group is the
experimental
given the treatment and the
period, the
results are gathered at the same test in
end. The control 0 0group another form
receives no treatment, over is given to the
group as a
the same time, but undergoes
the same tests. post-test
Registration Registration method refers to Survey research A researcher

Method the continuous, permanent, and descriptive is working on
compulsory recording of the research a study about
occurrence of vital events the best
together with certain practices of
identifying or descriptive LET passers
characteristics concerning for the last 3
them, as provided through years. He went
the civil code, laws, or to the
regulations of each country. Professional
Regulation
The vital events may be live
Commission
births, fetal deaths, deaths,
(PRC) to
marriages, divorces, judicial determine the
separations, annulments of passers for
marriage, adoptions,
the last 3
recognitions
years.
(acknowledgments of natural
children), legitimations.
Calderon and Gonzales, (1993); Uwec.edu.; de Belen & Feliciano (2015)
Writing the Data Collection Method in your Research Paper
63
0 0
In writing the data collection method in your research paper, you need to
identify how do you collect your data. Then, justify why the chosen data collection
method will answer your research questions. This answers the question, what data
collection method will best help you collect the data to answer your research
questions. For quantitative research, argue why would you use experiments,
surveys, tests, or secondary data. A good argument relates the definition of the
data collection method to the research questions or objectives of the research
(BEST, 2019).
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Complete the diagram by giving examples of sources of primary and secondary

data. You may choose your answers from the box. Answers for items 1-8 and items 9
to 15 can be in no particular order.
Data
Primary Secondary
Data Data
1. 5. 9. 13.
2. 10. 14.
6.
4. 11.
7.
15.
3. 8. 12.
Individual persons books

associations dictionaries
law encyclopedias
treaties magazines
contracts newspapers
0 0
family thesis
living organisms almanac
Constitution
Activity 2. True or False
Write true if the statement is correct and false if it is not. Write your answer on
the space before the number.
__________1. The questionnaire is used to collect data in survey research.
64
0 0
__________2. An interview sheet is a set of standardized questions, often called items,
which follow a fixed scheme to collect individual data about one or more
specific topics.
__________3. The interview method of collecting data involves the presentation of oralverbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
__________4. A person known as the interviewer is the one asking questions in an interview.
__________5. Face-to-face contact with the other person or persons is called a personal
interview.
__________6. Structured interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and
highly standardized techniques of recording.
__________7. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions

and standardized techniques of recording information.
__________8. Quantitative interviews are sometimes referred to as survey interviews

because they resemble survey-style question-and-answer formats.
__________9. Observation is a way of collecting data through prediction.
__________10. In observation, a researcher has to immerse himself in the setting where his
respondents are while taking notes and/or recording.
__________11. In a structured observation, data collection is conducted using specific

variables and according to a pre-defined schedule.
__________12. Unstructured observation is conducted in an open and free manner in

the sense that there would be no pre-determined variables or objectives.
__________13. The use of a pretest or posttest or both is crucial in the testing method.
__________14. The testing method could be used in experimental research.
__________15. The registration method is in accordance to civil code, laws or regulations of

each country.
Activity 3. Tell me the Story
Identify the data collection method described in each scenario. Write your answer
to the proper column.
Scenario Data Collection Method

1. Researcher A is doing experimental research. Which
data collection method will he use?
2. Researcher B is using observation as his data
collection method. He practices open and free manner
data collection. What particular observation method
is illustrated by the scenario?
3. A pharmaceutical company is using pretest and
posttest in his research. Which method of data
collection is being used by the company?
65
0 0
4. The subjects in the research are studied before and
after the experimental manipulation, this is an
example of which data collection?
5. The researcher conducts a census to know who will be
included in the school-age population for the next five
years. He uses the birth certificate to counter check
the data he gathered. What method is he using?
Activity 4. Decision Point
Decide which data collection method will be most appropriate for the situations
0 0
given below. Write your answer on the space before the number.
1. What data collection method are you using if you have a questionnaire
as your data gathering instrument?
____________2. You will use a data collection method that involves the presentation of
oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
____________3. In this method, there is an interviewer who is asking questions.
____________4. The researchers in this method are using paper-pencilquestionnaires

then send them to a large number of people to save time and money.
____________5. There is a face-to- face contact to the other person or persons in this
method.
____________6. This method involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and
highly standardized technique of recording.
____________7. This method does not employ a system of pre-determined questions and
standardized techniques of recording information.
____________8. In this method, the researcher gathers data through observing.

____________9. In this type of observation method, data collection is conducted using
specific variables and according to a pre-defined schedule.
____________10. This design uses two groups, one group is given the treatment and the
results are gathered at the end.
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your data collection method.
In writing this part, discuss why would you use experiments, surveys, tests, or
secondary data. A good argument tells the definition of the data collection method to
the research questions. Remember, do not simply include a long definition of the data
collection method. If you will use a questionnaire, test, interview guide, observation
checklist, etc. you need to attach them in the appendix. A clear description of the tool
and its properties should also be included.
66
0 0

PR2 Q2 Mod4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PR2 Q2 Mod4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SHS

GOVERNMENT PROPERTY | NOT FOR SALE

Published by the Department of Education

Development Team of the Module

Writers: Karl Erickson I. Ebora, Melanie P. Hernandez, and Blande C. Tullao

Printed in the Philippines by SDO QUEZON

Department of Education – Region IV - CALABARZON - SDO QUEZON

Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

Notes to the Teacher

Welcome to the Practical Research II Alternative Delivery Mode (ADM) Module on

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the lesson. This

What’s More This comprises activities for independent practice to

What I Have Learned This includes questions or

Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of mastery in

learned. This also tends to the retention of learned

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing this

This module was intended to help you understand the research

The module is divided into eight lessons, namely:

After going through this module, you are expected to:

a. correlational research c. descriptive research

a. correlational research c. descriptive research

a. Sampling c. Probability sampling

a. Accidental sampling c. Pure random sampling

a. variables c. primary data

a. variables c. primary data

Teacher A conducted a research to identify if there is a significant difference

a. paired T-test c. two- sample T-test

a. research locale c. research design

a. research locale c. research design

a. face validity c. construct validity

a. validity b. reliability c. stability d. specificity

a. action research c. developmental research

_____13. Which of the following pertains to ethical consideration?

_____14. What is informed consent?

_____15. What is confidentiality in research?

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. choose an appropriate quantitative research design

Research Topic: _________________________________________________________

Notes to the Teacher

The quantitative research design focuses on gathering

Table 1. The Quantitative Research Design

Sources: Johnson & Christensen (2017), www. wssu.edu, and www.esrpc.com

Quantitative research can be experimental or nonexperimental. In

A variable is a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or

According to de Belen and Feliciano (2015) variables can also be discrete or

Types of Quantitative Research

a. Pre-experimental research design

a.1. Type of Pre- Experimental Design

a.1.1. One-shot case study design

A teacher is using a new instructional method for his class. The

• In this design, a single case is observed one (1) before the

A teacher compares the performance of SHS in the work

a.1.3. Static-group comparison

• In this design, a group that has been exposed to treatment

A teacher wants to determine the effectiveness of an

b. Quasi-experimental research design

In a quasi-experimental research design, the independent variable is

A researcher wants to evaluate a new method of teaching fractions to

A pharmacist has come up with a hypothesis as to what the

b.1. Types of Correlational Research

b.1.1. Positive correlational research

3 . _ 10.