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RESEARCH 1
Quarter 4 – Module 2:
Basic Statistics

Region I
ALAMINOS CITY DIVISION
Alaminos City, Pangasinan
Project Write, Write, Write
Alternative Instructional Module
Research 1 – Grade 8
Alternative Instructional Module
Quarter 4 – Module 2: Basic Statistics
First Edition, 2020

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that no copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
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Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.

Published by the Alaminos City Division

Schools Division Superintendent: Lorna G. Bugayong, PhD, CESO VI
Assistant Schools Division Superintendent: Rosario O. Cabrera

Development Team of the Module

Writer: Larnie B. Redoble
Editor: Cecilia M. Nisperos, Jose Ramil A. Sibun
Reviewers: Cecilia M. Nisperos, Jose Ramil A. Sibun
Illustrators:
Layout Artist:
Management Team: Lorna G. Bugayong, PhD, CESO VI
Schools Division Superintendent

Rosario O. Cabrera
Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
OIC, CID Chief
Ronald B. Radoc, EdD, EPS-LRMDS
Cecilia M. Nisperos, EPS-Science

Printed in the Philippines by Region I—Alaminos City Division

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Office Address: San Jose Drive, Poblacion, Alaminos City, Pangasinan

Telefax: (075) 205-0644/205-0643
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 8

Research 1
Quarter 4 – Module 2:
Basic Statistics

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Introductory Message
For the Facilitator:

Welcome to the Research 1 Alternative Instructional Module (AIM) on Basic Statistics!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators of

Alaminos City Division to assist you, the teacher or facilitator, in helping the learners
meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal,
social, and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning resource hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Furthermore, this also aims to help
learners acquire the needed 21st century skills while taking into consideration their
needs and circumstances.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage
their own learning. Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and to assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

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For the Learner:

Welcome to the Research 1 Alternative Instructional Module (AIM) Module on Basic

Statistics!

This module is designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.
What I Know This part includes an activity that aims to
check what you already know about the
lesson to take. If you get all the answers
correct (100%), you may decide to skip this
module.
What’s In This is a brief drill or review to help you link
the current lesson with the previous one.
What’s New In this portion, the new lesson will be
introduced to you in various ways such as a
story, a song, a poem, a problem opener, an
activity or a situation.
What is It This section provides a brief discussion of the
lesson. This aims to help you discover and
understand new concepts and skills.
What’s More This comprises activities for independent
practice to solidify your understanding and
skills of the topic. You may check the
answers to the exercises using the Answer
Key at the end of the module.
What I Have Learned
This includes questions or blank
sentence/paragraph to be filled into process
what you learned from the lesson.
What I Can Do This section provides an activity which will
help you transfer your new knowledge or skill
into real life situations or concerns.
Assessment This is a task which aims to evaluate your
level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.
Additional Activities In this portion, another activity will be given
to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of the

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 lesson learned. This also tends retention of
learned concepts.
Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the
module.

At the end of this module you will also find:

References This is a list of all sources used in developing

this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of
the module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator on_______.
If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and
gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

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 What I Need to Know

In the previous module, you were enlightened with the various parts of a
research paper following the IMRaDC format. You were able to compare a research
paper with that of a research proposal. Finally, you also learned the proper way of
writing a research proposal following the same format.
In this module, you will become familiar with basic statistics as one of the
research tools and its importance in research. The scope of this module includes a
series of activities that you will surely enjoy.

Hence, this module focuses on basic statistics with lessons, namely:

 Lesson 1 – Introduction to Statistics

 Lesson 2 – Nature of Data
 Lesson 3 – Summation Notation
 Lesson 4 – Sampling Techniques
 Lesson 5 – Collection, Organization, and Presentation of Data
 Lesson 6 – Measures of Central Tendency
Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC):
 Demonstrate understanding of the ability to show appreciation in the
use of statistics in research.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Define statistics.
2. Cite some uses of statistics in various fields.
3. Relate the history of statistics.
4. Identify the people with their contributions in the study of statistics.
5. Trace the history of statistics.
6. Make a timeline of the history of statistics.
7. Describe data.
8. Cite some importance of gathering data.
9. Explain the difference between categorical and quantitative data.
10. Define summation notation.
11. Interpret the meaning of common statistical summations.
12. Compute the summation of the given variable.
13. Differentiate sample from population.
14. Differentiate the types of sampling techniques.
15. Describe the various methods of data collection, organization and
presentation.
16. Explain the proper way of collecting, organizing, and presenting data using
each method.
17. Differentiate the three measures of central tendency.
18. Compute the mean, median, and mode for grouped and ungrouped data.

This module is intended for three weeks.

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 What I Know
Pretest
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. What is the main purpose of inferential statistics?

A. To provide a measure of central tendency for the data.
B. To determine whether a statistical result is significant.
C. To provide measures of position and variability for the data.
D. To find out whether a correlation coefficient is positive, negative, or zero.
2. Which of the following does NOT show a quantitative data?
A. A small jar contains a colorless liquid.
B. The girl bought one sack of refined sugar.
C. The water in the container has a volume of 150 mL.
D. An irregularly-shaped object has a mass of 100 grams.
3. Which of the following is NOT a major method of data collection?
A. interviews B. questionnaires C. focus groups D. correlational method
4. Why is sampling important?
A. It makes the study valid and unreliable.
B. It saves the sources of data from being all consumed.
C. It makes possible the study of large, heterogeneous population.
D. It increases the number of errors in collecting and handling of data.
5. Dale wants to ensure that he has a high rate for his survey. Which method would
be best for him to use?
A. Mail survey C. Telephone interview
B. Personal interview D. Demographic interview

6. Which of the following is the correct expansion of ?

A.

B.

C.

D.

7. Which of the following is an example of a qualitative variable?

A. Speed B. Height C. Red roses D. Weight
8. Which of the following is mismatched?
A. 1939 : Abraham Wald C. 1935 : Ronald Fisher
B. 1869 : Francis Galton D. 1839 : Karl Pearson

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9. Which of the following BEST describes probability sampling?
A. Samples are chosen by accident.
B. It is the selection of samples by judgment.
C. Equal chance of being chosen as sample is given to all the members of the
population.
D. All members of the parameter or population are considered as samples in
the research study.
10. Secondary/existing data may include which of the following?
A. Diaries C. Official documents
B. Personal documents D. Archived research data
11. Which of the following terms BEST describes data that were originally collected
at an earlier time by a different person for a different purpose?
A. Primary data C. Secondary data
B. Field notes D. Experimental data
12. Which of these characterizes the interview method in collecting data?
A. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents.
B. Questions are sent to the samples for them to answer.
C. Questions are generally asked in a face to face contact with the other person.
D. Data are collected by the observer by directly going into the field.
13. Ana grabs people on the street to ask the brand of toothpaste they are using.
A. Convenience B. Judgmental C. Stratified random D. Cluster sampling
14. Eddie wanted to display graphically the relationship of one variable to another,
which of these should he use?
A. Pie chart B. Table C. Line graph D. Data matrix
15. When conducting an interview, asking “Anything else?, What do you mean?, Why
do you feel that way?, are all forms of ____.
A. Probes C. Response categories
B. Protocols D. contingency questions

How did you find the test? Did you answer it confidently? If not, then go on with
this module and find the right answers to those questions.

Lesson

1 Introduction to Statistics

Conducting research is considered as an inquiry-based process that does not

only involved identifying a problem and gathering information but also analyzing and
evaluating evidence, drawing conclusions, and sharing the knowledge gained.

To realize this end, statistics plays a significant role since it is considered as

the heart of any research study. Statistical tools such as the mean, median, mode,
standard deviation, and many others are useful in interpreting the data gathered and

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to arrive at an accurate result or conclusion of the study. Do you want to know more
about these statistical tools that can greatly help you in your research study? Then,
try to go over this module to learn more about them. Let’s go!

What’s In

Before continuing with the lesson, let’s recall some important terms about
research paper and the proper way of writing a research proposal. Try this!
Activity 1.1: Words that Sound Familiar! Rewrite each sentence by changing the
italicized word or words to make the sentence correct. Write the answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. The research paper is a guide to be followed in accomplishing the research

study.
______________________________________________________________________________

2. Review of Related Literature justifies why pursuing the problem is worthwhile.

______________________________________________________________________________

3. The introduction is a short paragraph limited to about 200 words.

______________________________________________________________________________

4. In writing the research proposal, past tense of the verb is used.

______________________________________________________________________________

5. The abstract is the first thing that a reader comes across when searching a
scientific literature.
______________________________________________________________________________

Good start! You may now proceed to our next lesson. You can do it!

What’s New

As we all know, among the three research tools, statistical tool is considered
as the heart of any research study. Aside from this, what else do you know about
statistics? Check this out by doing the next task. Let’s do it!
Activity 1.2: Yes or No?
Directions: Identify which of the statements below correctly tells about statistics as
a research tool by checking the appropriate column. Write the answers on a separate
sheet of paper.

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 Statistics ….. YES NO

1. is one of the research tools that uses test

statistics to interpret data.
2. contains various collection of books where
Review of Related Literature and Studies
are derived.
3. plays an important role in Natural and Social
Sciences.
4. involves collection, classification,
organization, and interpretation of data.
5. timeline started during the Ming Dynasty.

What is It
Statistics in Research
Generally, statistics is the science concerned with developing and studying
methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting empirical data. In
research, statistics functions as a tool in designing research and procedures which
include data collection, classification, organization, interpretation, and decision-
making or drawing conclusions therefrom. This makes statistics the heart of any
research study.

Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be
suitably reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be used for further
analysis. Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any researcher, even
though he may not have occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and
ramifications.

History of Statistics
The birth of statistics follows the following timeline:
AD 2: Evidence of a census completed during the Han Dynasty survives.
1500s: Girolamo Cardano calculates probabilities of different dice rolls.
1600s: Edmund Halley relates death rate to age and develops mortality tables.
1662: John Graunt and William Petty developed early human statistical and
census methods that provided a framework for modern demography.
1700s: Thomas Jefferson directs the first U.S. Census.
1839: The American Statistical Association is formed.
1869: Francis Galton studied genetic variation in humans through regression and
correlation.
1894: The term “standard deviation” was introduced by Karl Pearson.
1935: Ronald A. Fisher publishes Design of Experiments. He is known as the
“Father of Modern Statistics” because he was the first to use statistics in
scientific research.

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1939: Abraham Wald pioneered the concept of statistical sequential analysis
1952: William Henry Kruskal in collaboration with W. Allen Wallis developed the
widely used non-parametric test Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of
variance.
1970: John Wilder Tukey developed the jackknife estimation also known as
Quenouille-Tukey jackknife

Types of Statistics

 Descriptive Statistics – refers to the methods of data collection, organization,

classification, summarization, and presentation. It also refers to the
calculation of statistical descriptions such as the measures of central
tendency and the measures of variability.
 Inferential Statistics/ Statistical Inference - refers to the process of
arriving at a conclusion about a population based on the information obtained
from a sample.
 Research analysts use statistical inference to estimate an unknown
population parameter by using a sample statistic.

 Parameter – a number that describes the characteristic of a population.

 Statistic – a number that describes the characteristic of a sample.

Uses/Importance of Statistics

In Business. Many business activities can be completed with statistics

including planning the production according to what the customer likes and
wants, checking the quality of the products, deciding a new location,
marketing the product, and estimating what the profit will be on a new
product.
Examples:
1. Contraceptive pills are effective 94% of the time.
2. 4 out of 5 dentists recommend Dentine.
In Mathematics. Much of math is based on probability and theories, and
statistical methods help make those mathematical theories more accurate.
Using averages, dispersions, and estimation allows you to come up with
conclusions that are closer to the real answer than just taking a wild guess.
Examples:
1. There is an 80% chance that in a room full of 30 people that at least
two people will share the same birthday.
2. Find the range of the graph.
3. Find the mean, median, and mode.
In Economics. Relationships between supply and demand and imports and
exports are found using statistical information. The same can be said for
figuring out the inflation rate, the per capita income, and even the national
income account.
Example: Census Bureau
In Accounting. Accounting involves mostly basic arithmetic, but when it
comes to creating accounting reports and projections for the next fiscal year,

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 statistics plays a key role. When balancing and checking accounts, exactness
is very important.
In Banking. Bankers use statistical approaches to estimate the number of
people who will be making deposits compared to the number of people
requesting loans.
In Management and Administration. A nation’s government runs on
statistics. They use statistical data to make their decisions regarding any
number of things. Most federal and provincial budgets are designed upon
statistical data because it’s the most accurate data available when estimating
expected expenditures and revenue. Another great example of statistics in the
government is figuring out whether or not to raise the minimum wage due to
a rise in the cost of living.
In Astronomy. Astronomers use estimates and mathematical theories to
devise their best guess to just how far items in the universe are away from
each other. This is why when you read a news report that a star will likely be
going supernova “any day now,” you have to understand that “any day now”
could mean tomorrow, a year from now, or even ten thousand years from now.
In Natural and Social Sciences. Biology, physics, chemistry, meteorology,
sociology, communication, and even information technology all use statistics.
For many of these categories, the use of statistics in that field involves
collecting data, analyzing it, coming up with a hypothesis, and testing that
hypothesis.
In biology, the use of statistics within that field is known as biostatistics,
biometry, or biometrics. Biostatistics often involves the design of experiments
in medicine, pharmacy, agriculture, and fishery. It also involves collecting,
summarizing, and analyzing the data received from those experiments as well
as the decided results. Medical biostatistics is a separate branch that deals
mainly with medicine and health.
Physics uses probability theory and statistics dealing mainly with the
estimation of large populations. In fact, the phenomenological results of
thermodynamics were developed using the mechanics of statistics.

What’s More

Activity 1.3: Checking Time!

Directions: Put a check ( ) mark in the box that correctly describes statistics.
Write the answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Arriving at a In 1894, the term

conclusion about a “standard
1. population involves 2. deviation” was
descriptive statistics. introduced by Karl
Pearson.

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 Bankers use statistics
Ronald Fisher is the
to estimate distances
Father of Modern
between heavenly
3. 4. Statistics.
bodies.

Relationships between Parameter is the

supply and demand number that describes
are found using the characteristic of a
5. 6.
statistical information. population.

Activity 1.4: Match Me If You Can!

Directions: Match the people/contributors behind statistics in column A with their
corresponding contributions in Column B and the appropriate year involved in
column C. Write the letters of the correct answers on a separate sheet of paper.

People/Contributors Contributions Year

1. Thomas Jefferson A. Published Design of Experiments a. 1952
B. Studied genetic variation in humans
2. Ronald A. Fisher b. 1700s
through regression and correlation
3. William Henry C. Pioneered the concept of statistical
c. 1600s
Kruskal sequential analysis
4. Francis Galton D. Directs the first U.S. Census d. 1935
E. Relates death rate to age and develops
5. Abraham Wald e. 1939
mortality tables.
F. Developed the non-parametric test
6. Edmund Halley Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of f. 1869
variance.

Activity 1.5: Am I Important?

Direction: Identify the field that corresponds to the given use/importance of

statistics. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Drake designs an experiment to discover new COVID-19 vaccine exclusively for

Filipinos. ___________________
2. Stelle balances and checks accounts accurately using statistics. ________________
3. The manager is planning the production of a new variety of tea according to what
the customer likes and wants and thereby checking the quality of the products
regularly. ___________________
4. Lyn figures out the inflation rate, the per capita income, and even the national
income account for the year 2020. ___________________
5. Carlos wants to know the distance between Earth and Mars. ____________________

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 Lesson

2 Nature of Data

You have learned in the previous lesson that statistics functions as a tool in
designing research and procedures which include collection, classification,
organization, and interpretation of data. The analyzed and interpreted data will later
on be the bases of drawing conclusions. This means that statistics mainly deals with
various types of data. Are you familiar with these data? If not, then try to study this
lesson very well. Have fun in learning!

What’s New

Check your prior knowledge on the nature of data by doing this task. You
can do it!
Activity 2.1: Agree or Disagree?
Directions: Identify which of the statements below correctly tells about data by
checking the appropriate column. Write the answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Data….. AGREE DISAGREE

1. are not necessary in conducting research
studies.
2. help the researcher in arriving at an accurate
conclusion of his study.
3. provide insight into the background and
hypotheses of the study.
4. are important in scientific research and policy
planning.
5. are used to test new ideas and validate the
works of others through replication.

What is It

Data in Research

Data are essential for scientific research and policy planning. Statistically,
data are collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records, used as bases for
drawing conclusions. In addition, data need to be freely available for researchers to

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test new ideas and validate the work of others through replication. In research, data
are collected and used to answer the research questions or objectives of the study.
Examples:
 Demographic information such as age, sex, household size, civil status and
religion.
 Social and economic information such as educational attainment, health
status, occupation, income and housing condition.
 Scores in exams and grades.

Types of Data in Research

1. Quantitative/Numerical Data

 Can be expressed as a number or can be quantified. Simply put, it can be

measured by numerical variables.
 It answers key questions such as “how many, “how much” and “how often”.
 Quantitative data are easily amenable to statistical manipulation and can be
represented by a wide variety of statistical types of graphs and charts such as
line, bar graph, scatter plot, and etc.
Examples:
 Scores on tests and exams e.g. 85, 67, 90 and etc.
 The weight of a person or a subject.
 Your shoe size.
 The temperature in a room.

Subtypes of Quantitative Data

A. Discrete data - is a count that involves only integers. The discrete values
cannot be subdivided into parts.
Examples:
 The number of students in a class.
 The number of workers in a company.
 The number of home runs in a baseball game.
 The number of test questions you answered correctly.
B. Continuous data - It can be measured on a scale or continuum and can
have almost any numeric value.
Examples:
 The amount of time required to complete a project.
 The height of children.
 The square footage of a two-bedroom house.
 The speed of cars.

2. Qualitative/Categorical data
 Can’t be expressed as a number and can’t be measured. Qualitative data
consist of words, pictures, and symbols, not numbers.
 Qualitative data is also called categorical data because the information can
be sorted by category, not by number.
 Qualitative data can answer questions such as “how this has happened” or
and “why this has happened”.

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 Examples:
 Colors e.g. the color of the sea
 Your favorite holiday destination such as Hawaii, New Zealand, etc.
 Names as John, Patricia, …
 Ethnicity such as American Indian, Asian, etc.

Subtypes of Qualitative Data

A. Nominal data - are used just for labeling variables, without any type of
quantitative value. The nominal data just name a thing without applying it
to order. Actually, the nominal data could just be called “labels.”
Examples:
 Gender (Women, Men)
 Hair color (Blonde, Brown, Brunette, Red, etc.)
 Marital status (Married, Single, Widowed)
 Ethnicity (Hispanic, Asian)
B. Ordinal data – are data which is placed into some kind of order by their
position on a scale. Ordinal data may indicate superiority.
Examples:
 The first, second and third person in a competition.
 Letter grades: A, B, C, and etc.
 When a company asks a customer to rate the sales experience on a
scale of 1-10.
 Economic status: low, medium and high.

Sources of Data

Primary Data – are those which are collected afresh and for the first time and
thus happens to be original in character. It is the real time data which are
collected by the researcher himself.
Examples: diaries, interviews, letters, legislation and court records,
photographs, autobiographies, speeches, creative works (novels, plays,
music, art), maps, newspaper articles
Secondary Data – are those that have already been collected by others or
data collected from a source that has already been published in any form.
They may be available in the published or unpublished form. The Review of
Literature in any research study is based on secondary data. Mostly from
books, journals, and periodicals.
Examples: textbooks, magazine articles, journal articles, critical reviews,
commentaries, encyclopedias, non-fiction books

What’s More

Activity 2.2: Name that Source!

Directions: Classify the given sources of data by writing PRIMARY or SECONDARY

on the space provided. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper.
___________ 1. Biographies ___________ 6. Autobiographies

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___________ 2. Diaries ___________ 7. Magazine
___________ 3. Journals ___________ 8. Newspaper
___________ 4. Textbooks ___________ 9. Maps
___________ 5. Speeches ___________ 10. Photographs

Activity 2.3: The Match-Maker!

Direction: Match the descriptions in column A with their corresponding types of
data in column B. Write the letter of the correct answer in a separate sheet of paper.
A B
________1. Label variables a. Secondary data
________2. Real time data b. Quantitative data
________3. Measurable c. Nominal data
________4. Data collected by others d. Ordinal data
________5. Data are ordered e. Primary data

Activity 2.4: I’m on Cloud 9!

Directions: Classify the given examples of quantitative and qualitative data in the
word box below by writing the letters in the cloud. Write the answers on a separate
sheet of paper.

A. Blood type F. Favorite color

B. Height G. Birth month
C. Number of books H. Age
D. Stages of cancer I. Time
E. Speed J. Marital status

Quantitative Data Qualitative Data

You were done with all the activities in Lesson 1 and 2. Great job! Set your mind
for the next lessons and do the prepared activity for you. You can do it!

--END OF WEEK 3--

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 Lesson

3 Summation Notation

In the previous lesson, you have learned the nature and importance of data
and variables in research. You were also enlightened on the various sources of data
either primary or secondary source.

In this lesson, you will be equipped with enough knowledge and skills in
writing the sum of the values of a variable using the shorthand method. Do you want
to know how? Then, try to go over this lesson. You can do it!

What’s New
Often, mathematical formula requires the addition of many variables using
summation notation. Aside from this, what else do you know about summation
notation? Try this!
Activity 3.1: True or False?
Directions: Identify which of the statements below correctly tells about summation
notation by checking the appropriate column. Write the answers on a separate sheet
of paper.

Summation Notation….. TRUE FALSE

1. has a lower limit which is the starting point for
the summation.
2. is a shorthand used to give a concise
expression for a sum of the values of a variable.
3. has a summation index which is often
represented by any variable.
4. ensures that all letters of the alphabet are used
to represent variables.
5. uses the Greek upper case letter, Σ.

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 What is It
What is Summation Notation?

In statistics, summation or sigma (Σ) notation represents adding many values

together. In research, it is a convenient and simple form of shorthand used to give a
concise expression for a sum of the values of a variable. The most commonly used
letter to represent the variable is X.

Example:

Let x1, x2, x3, …xn denote a set of n numbers. x1 is the first number in the set.
xi represents the ith number in the set.

Parts of Summation Notation

1. Summation sign
 Σ, which is the Greek upper case letter
 The summation sign instructs us to sum the elements of a sequence.
2. Variable of summation
 the variable which is being summed.
 The variable of summation is represented by an index which is placed beneath
the summation sign. The index is often represented by i. (Other common
possibilities for representation of the index are j and t or x, etc.) The index
appears as the expression i = 1. The index assumes values starting with the
value on the right hand side of the equation and ending with the value above
the summation sign.
3. Lower limit of the summation
 The starting point for the summation.
4. Upper limit of summation
 The stopping point for the summation.

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Meaning and Expanded Form of Some Typical Examples of Summation

This expression means sum the values of x, starting

at x1 and ending with xn.

1.

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x 1 and

ending with x10.

2.

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at

x and ending with x .
3 10

3.

The limits of summation are often understood to mean i = 1

through n. Then the notation below and above the summation
sign is omitted. Therefore, this expression means sum the
values of x, starting at x1 and ending with xn.
4.

This expression means sum the squared values of x, starting at

x1 and ending with xn.

5.

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x 1 and

3 ending with xn and then cube the sum.

3
6.

15
 This expression means form the product of x multiplied by y,
starting at x1 and y1 and ending with xn and yn and then sum
the products
7.

In this expression c is a constant, i.e. an element which does

not involve the variable of summation and the sum involves n
elements.
8.

After learning the meaning and writing the expanded forms of expressions in
summation notation, let’s now apply the concepts in solving the given data below.

Summation of a Constant

Data: i xi

1 -1

2 3

3 7

1. Find Where: c is a constant = 11

Solution: Note: The data values will

not be used if the given is
constant.

Solution:

2. Find

3. Find

Solution:

16
 What’s More

Activity 3.2: Label Up!

Directions: Label the parts of summation notation using the terms in the word box
below then identify the parts being described in the succeeding statements. Write
the letter of the correct answer in a separate sheet of paper.

a. Summation sign b. Upper limit c. Index of summation

d. Lower limit e. Typical element

4. _____
n 1._____
X1 2. _____
5. _____ i=1 3. _____

____ 6. It is the starting point for the summation.

____ 7. It represents the variable being summed.
____ 8. Located at the right side which represents the values to be summed.
____ 9. It is the stopping point for the summation.
____ 10. The Greek upper case letter that instructs us to sum the elements of a
sequence.

Activity 3.3: Summation Time!

Directions: Find the sum of the following summation notations based on the given
data below. Show the solution in a separate sheet of paper.
i xi yi
Data:
1 10 0

2 8 3

3 6 6

4 4 9

5 2 12

1. Find 2. Find 3. Find

17
 Lesson

4 Sampling Techniques

You have learned in the previous lesson the different parts of summation
notation and its importance in research. Your skill in giving the meaning and
expanded form of some typical examples of summation was also enhanced.

In this lesson, you will tackle one of the most important parts of conducting
a research study, that is, deciding on the number of samples that you will have from
the given population. Do you want to know how to get samples that will give the
needed data for your research study? Come with me and let’s explore the world of
sampling!

What’s New

Let’s now begin our exploration to the world of sampling by doing Activity 4.1.

Activity 4.1: What is Sampling?

Directions: Fill in the cloud with as many words that are related or associated with
“Sampling” then answer the questions that follow on a separate
sheet of paper.

Sampling

18
Guide Questions:

1. In your own words, how will you define sampling?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. How does sampling help you in your research study?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

What is It

The World of Sampling

In research, sampling is considered as a process used in statistical analysis
in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population.
In short, sampling is the process of choosing a sample or representative portion of a
population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on
the type of analysis being performed.

Difference Between Sample and Population

Population – is the totality of all values or measurements of a particular

characteristic for a specified group of objects that are of interest to the researcher.
Units/Subjects – refer to the elements in the population. It could be people,
plants, rats or other animals used as variables in the study.
Sample – is a finite/representative portion of a population that will be used or
investigated in the study.
Sampling frame - is the list of all the sampling units from which sample is drawn.

Why is Sampling Done?

Sampling is done for any or all of the following reasons:

1. Due to limitations of time, money or personnel, it is impossible to study every

item in the population.
2. Samples due to its small size can be thoroughly studied.
3. Examining an item may require that the item be destroyed.
4. Fewer errors are encountered in the collection and handling of data.

Types of Sample:

 Probability sample – refers to the selection of items according to some

chance mechanism where the elements have an equal chance of being
selected. They are considered to be:
• Objective
• Empirical
• Scientific

19
 • Quantitative
• Representative

 Non-probability sample – is the selection of items by judgment where

elements do not have an equal chance of being taken. They are considered to
be:
• Subjective
• Not scientific
• Qualitative
• Unrepresentative

Guidelines in Drawing a Sample

 Homogeneity of the population

 If the subjects under study are homogeneous in their characteristics

that might affect the results, a small sample is sufficient.
 If the material is variable, it will be best to take a large sample.

 Size of the population

 If the population is very large, 5% of it can be selected as a sample,
otherwise, the sample should be no less than 30 elements.

Sampling Methods/Techniques

1. Probability Sampling Methods

A. Simple Random Sampling

• This involves selecting anybody from the sample frame

entirely at random, otherwise known as lottery or fish-
bowl method.
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous and
readily available
• Random means that each person within the sample
frame has an equal chance of being selected.
• In order to be random, a full list of everyone within a
sample frame is required.
• Random number tables or a computer is then used to
select respondents at random from the list.

B. Systematic Random Sampling

• This selection is like random sampling but rather than use random tables or
a computer to select your respondents you select them in a systematic way.

20
• It relies on arranging the target population
according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular intervals
through that ordered list.

• It is important that the starting point is not

automatically the first in the list, but is
instead randomly chosen from within the
first to the kth element in the list.

Example: Every tenth person on the college list is selected (also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').

C. Stratified Random Sampling

• Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be

organized into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an
independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be
randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate
representation in the sample.
• An appropriate group is decided upon i.e. women, men, 16 –60 year olds and
the participants are picked randomly from within the strata.

D. Cluster Random Sampling

• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage

sampling'.
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of
homogeneous units, usually based on
geographical contiguity.
• Similar to stratified sampling but the groups
are selected for their geographical location.
Example: school children within a particular
school.
• The school is the cluster with the children
being selected randomly from within the
cluster.

21
 E. Multi-Stage Sampling

• Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are
embedded one in the other.
• First stage, random number of towns chosen in the province.
• Followed by random number of barangays.
• Then third stage units will be houses.
• All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.
• Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of all members of
the population not exists and is inappropriate.

2. Non-probability Sampling Methods

A. Convenience Sampling

• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity

sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling.
• This involves selecting the nearest and most
convenient people to participate in the research.
• This method of selection is not representative
and is considered a very unsatisfactory way to
conduct research.

B. Snowball Sampling

• This type of sampling is used when the research is focused on participants

with very specific characteristics such as being members of a gang, homeless,
etc.
• Having identified and contacted one gang member
the researcher asks to be put in touch with any
friends or associates who are also gang members.
• This type of sampling is not representative,
however is useful, especially where the groups in
the research are not socially organized or hard to
locate i.e. they do not have clubs or membership
lists.

C. Judgmental/Purposive Sampling

• The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area being researched.

D. Quota Sampling

• Uses the proportions of different strata and selections are done using quota.

22
 Example: A cigarette company wants to
find out what age group prefers what brand
of cigarettes in a particular city. He applies
quotas on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40,
41-50, and 51+. From this information, the
researcher gauges the smoking trend
among the population of the city.

A researcher must follow the sampling design process below to successfully

determine the appropriate sample size.

What’s More
Activity 4.2: Fill Me In! Fill in the missing letters to complete the words based on
the given descriptions. Write the answers on a separate sheet of paper.

s_m_l_ 1. It is the representative portion of a population.

_ u _ j _c _ _ 2. It refers to the elements in the population.
p_ _ b _ _ i _ _ t _ 3. A type of sample where the elements have an equal
chance of being selected.
_a_p___g 4. The process of choosing a sample or representative
portion of a population.
p_p___t__n 5. It is the totality of all values or measurements of a
particular characteristic for a specified group of objects.

23
Activity 4.3: What’s My Technique?
Directions: Identify the sampling technique being described by the given situation.
Write the answer in a separate sheet of paper.

1. Ana grabs people on the street to ask the brand of toothpaste they are using.
2. Vicente used draw lots in choosing who among his classmates will answer the
survey form.
3. The researcher needs equal representation with a sample size of 100, he selects
25 students from each grade level.
4. Dan chooses 30 respondents from the population who are more fit for his
research.
5. The Arcenas family is homeless, how will you get them as samples?

You were done with all the activities in Lesson 3 and 4. Good job! Set your mind
for the next lessons and do the prepared activity for you. You can do it!

--END OF WEEK 4--

Lesson
Collection, Organization,
5 and Presentation of Data
You have learned in the previous lesson the various sampling techniques
that researchers can use to determine the appropriate sample size for their study.
However, the methodology used to sample from a larger population depends on the
type of analysis being performed.

Generally, the randomly selected samples will be the sources of data needed
in the research study. How will the data be collected, organized, and presented? Do
you want to learn more about this topic? Try going over this lesson. Have fun in
learning!

What’s New

Are you familiar with data collection, organization, and presentation? Try
this!
Activity 5.1: What Am I?
Directions: Arrange the jumbled letters in a separate sheet of paper to complete
the given sentence.
1. In TREINWEIV method, the researcher makes direct and personal contact with
the interviewee.
2. LANUTRA observation is conducted when participants are being observed in their
natural conditions.

24
3. YARAR is an arrangement of data from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest.
4. Presenting data using paragraphs or sentences is called EXTULAT method.
5. SITHORAMG it is a pictorial diagram of frequency distribution.

What is It

Methods of Data Collection, Organization,

and Presentation

One of the most crucial parts of any research endeavor are collecting,
organizing, and presenting data accurately. Various methods are employed for these
purposes.
The task of data collection, however, begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/plan chalked out. On the other hand, data gathered
from experimentation through the specified samples will be organized and presented
using different diagrams.

Methods of Collecting Data

Data collection is a systematic method of collecting and measuring data
gathered from different sources of information in order to provide answers to
research questions. An accurate evaluation of collected data can help researchers
predict future phenomenon and trends.
The system of data collection is based on the type of study being conducted.
Depending on the researcher’s research plan and design, there are several ways data
can be collected. The most commonly used methods are the following:
Interview Method. The researcher makes direct and personal contact with the
interviewee. The researcher gathers data by asking the interviewee series of
questions. When conducting an interview, asking “Anything else?, What do you
mean?, Why do you feel that way?, are all forms of probes. Interview can be
structured (formal) or unstructured (informal). This can be conducted through face-
to-face, telephone, or focus group.
 Questionnaire/Survey Method. Questionnaire is distributed either
personally or by mail/e-mail and collects them by the same process.
 Experimental Method. Collecting data is used to find out the cause and effect
relationship of the two variables being studied under controlled conditions.
 Observation Method. Observe subjects individually or groups of individuals
to obtain data and information related to the objectives of the investigation.
Types of Observation
a. Controlled Observation – when the researcher uses a standardized
procedure of observing participants or the environment.
b. Natural Observation – when participants are being observed in their
natural conditions.
c. Participant Observation – where the researcher becomes part of
the group being studied.

25
  Texting Method. May ask or invite individuals to send text opinions on
certain issues or send in their choices on their brand preferences on a
particular product using their cellphones.
 Focus Groups. It is simply a group interview of people who all have something
in common. They provide the same type of data as in-person interviews but
add a social element and offer a broader understanding of why a group thinks
or behaves in a particular way.
 Case Studies. In-depth descriptive information about specific entities, or
cases, is collected, organized, interpreted, and presented in narrative format.
The case study report is essentially a story about an individual, family, a
neighborhood, a school or any other entity.

The methods involved in collecting both quantitative and qualitative data

are summarized below.

Methods of Data Organization

Data organization is the practice of categorizing and classifying data to
make it more usable. Similar to a file folder, where we keep important documents,
you’ll need to arrange your data in the most logical and orderly fashion to access it
easily.
When it comes to data organization, data can be classified as ungrouped or
grouped. Ungrouped data are not organized, or if arranged, could only be from
highest to lowest or vice versa. Grouped data, on the other hand, are organized and
arranged into different classes or categories.
Raw data may be organized using the following:
1. Array - is an arrangement from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest.

26
 Example:

83 77 68 60 54 47 38

83 76 65 59 53 45 38

82 75 64 57 48 41 23

79 70 61 56 48 41 10

79 68 61 55 47 41 7

2. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution/ Single-value grouping - data scores are

arranged from highest to lowest and the frequency of occurrence of each score is
indicated. Each class represents a single possible numerical value.

Example: The following are the measurements of height in inches of 20 randomly

selected six-year old girls.

44 44 47 46 38
42 46 41 50 43
40 51 48 45 43
46 48 47 47 41

Ungrouped frequency distribution of heights of six-year old girls (n=20)

Height Frequency Height Frequency

(in) f (in) f

38 1 45 1

39 0 46 3

40 1 47 3

41 2 48 2

42 1 49 0

43 2 50 1

44 2 51 1

3. Grouped Frequency Distribution - data are grouped into categories or classes

(class intervals) in a frequency distribution table. Scores are assigned to mutually

27
exclusive classes which are defined in terms of grouping intervals employed. A score
in the sample belongs to one and only one class interval. Very economical especially
in dealing with large number of cases. The number of intervals that can be
accommodated ranges from 5 to 20 classes.

Rules for Construction of Frequency Distribution Table

 The class interval should not be too large or too small.

 The number of classes to be formed should be more than 8 and less than 15.
 The class interval should be equal and uniform throughout the classification.
 After construction of the table, proper and clear heading must be given to it.
 The base or source of data should be mentioned with the pattern of analysis
in footnote at the end of the table.

Example:

Grouped frequency distribution of ages of persons with diabetes (n= 35)

Class Cumulative Cumulative Percentage

Frequency
Interval Frequency Distribution

7 – 13 2 2 5.71

14 – 20 0 2 5.71

21 – 27 2 4 11.43

28 – 34 0 4 11.43

35 – 41 4 8 22.86

42 – 48 5 13 37.14

49 – 55 3 16 45.71

56 – 62 6 22 62.86

63 – 69 4 26 74.29

70 – 76 3 29 82.86

77 – 83 6 35 100.00

Here, the cumulative frequency distribution is important in obtaining the

median and the percentile ranks of scores. Add entries in the frequency column
starting from the lowest class interval. While, the cumulative percentage
distribution is the fourth column which is obtained by dividing the cumulative
frequency by n and then multiplying by 100.

28
Methods of Data Presentation

Data presentation is defined as the process of using various graphical

formats to visually represent the relationship between two or more data sets so that
an informed decision can be made based on them.

DATA PRESENTATION

1. Textual Method – Data can be presented using paragraphs or sentences. It

involves enumerating important characteristics, emphasizing significant figures and
identifying important features of data.
Example: You are asked to present the performance of your section in Research
test. The following are the test scores of your class:

Solution:

First, arrange the data in order for you to identify the important
characteristics. This can be done in two ways:

a. Rearranging the data from lowest to highest

29
 With the rearranged data, pertinent data worth mentioning can be easily
recognized. The following is one way of presenting data in textual form.

In the Research class of 40 students, 3 obtained the perfect

score of 50. Sixteen students got a score of 40 and above, while
only 3 got 19 and below. Generally, the students performed well
in the test with 23 or 70% getting a passing score of 38 and
above.

b. Stem-and-leaf Plot – is a table

which sorts data according to a
certain pattern. It involves separating
a number into two parts. in a two-digit
number, the stem consists of the first
digit, and the leaf consists of the
second digit. While in a three-digit
number, the stem consists of the first
two digits, and the leaf consists of the
last digit. In a one-digit number, the
stem is zero.
Utilizing the stem-and-leaf plot, we can readily see the order of the data. Thus,
we can say that the top ten got scores of 50, 50, 50, 49, 48, 46, 46, 46, 45, and 45
and the ten lowest scores are 9, 17, 18, 20, 23, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27.

2. Tabular Method - Tables are devices for presenting data simply from masses of
statistical data. Tabulation is the first step before data is used for analysis.
Tabulation can be in the form of Simple Tables or Frequency distribution table. Below
is a sample of a table with all of its parts indicated:

30
a. Simple Table – when characteristics with values are presented in the form of
table.

Example:

b. Frequency Distribution Table - As mentioned earlier in data organization, it is

a table which shows the data arranged into different classes or categories and the
number of cases or frequencies which fall into each class. (Please refer to Methods of
Data Organization)

3. Charts and Diagrams - They are useful methods in presenting simple statistical
data. Diagrams are better retained in the memory than statistical tables.

a. Bar Charts - They are merely a way of presenting a set of numbers by the length
of a bar. The bar chart can be simple, multiple or component type.

Simple Bar Chart Component Bar Chart

Multiple/Compound Bar Chart

31
b. Histogram - It is a pictorial diagram of frequency distribution. It consists of a
series of blocks. The class intervals are given along the horizontal axis and the
frequencies along the vertical axis.

c. Frequency Polygon - A frequency distribution may be represented

diagrammatically by the frequency polygon. It is obtained by joining the mid-points
of the histogram blocks.

d. Line Diagram - Line diagrams are used to show the trend of events with the
passage of time.

32
e. Pie Chart - Instead of comparing the length of a bar, the areas of segments of a
circle are compared. The area of each segment depends upon the angle.

f. Pictogram - is a popular method of presenting data to the “man in the street” and
to those who cannot understand orthodox charts. Small pictures or symbols are used
to present the data.

What’s More

Activity 5.2: Wise Choice!

Directions: Identify the following methods involving data by writing COLLECTION,
ORGANIZATION, or PRESENTATION on the space provided for. Write the answer
on a separate sheet of paper.

_____________1. Stem-and Leaf Plot 6. Survey method

33
_____________ 2. Experimental method 7. Pie chart

_____________ 3. Frequency Polygon 8. Single-value grouping

_____________ 4. Array 9. Case studies

_____________ 5. Textual method 10. Pictogram

Activity 5.3: Matching Time!

Direction: Match the descriptions in column A with their corresponding methods of

data collection, organization, and presentation in column B. Write the letter of the
correct answer in a separate sheet of paper.
A B
________1. Shows the trend of events with a. Tabular method
the passage of time.
________2. Tables are used in presenting b. Data Organization
data
________3. In-depth descriptive information c. Bar chart
about specific entities
________4. Presents a set of numbers by the d. Line diagram
length of a bar
________5. Categorizing and classifying data e. Case study

Lesson
Measures of Central
6 Tendency
In Lesson 5, you have learned the different methods of collecting, organizing,
and presenting data for statistical analysis in order to arrive at an accurate
conclusion.
In this lesson, you will discover how values or scores in an array are being
compared. Do you want to know more about this? Then, study this lesson very well
and be ready to analyze data sets. You can do it!

What’s New

Let’s check first your prior knowledge about the various measures of central
tendency by doing this task. Go, go, go!
Activity 6.1: Which is Which?
Directions: Identify which of the statements correctly describes the Mean, Median,
and Mode by checking the appropriate column. Write the answers on a separate
sheet of paper.

34
 Descriptions Mean Median Mode
1. It is appropriate to use when there are
extreme or deviant values.
2. It can be classified as unimodal,
bimodal, and multimodal.
3. It is the average of the values in the
sample.
4. It is easily affected by extreme values.
5. The score or class in the distribution
wherein 50% of the score fall below it and
another 50% lie above it.

What is It

The Mean, Median and Mode

Measures of central tendency are numerical descriptive measures which

indicate or locate the center of a distribution or data set. In layman’s term, a measure
of central tendency is an average. It is a single number of value which can be
considered typical in a set of data as a whole.
For example, in a class of 40 students, the average height would be the
typical height of the members of this class as a whole.
The most typical value, the average value, and the value at the middle of a
distribution or an array are all measures of central tendency. There are three most
commonly used measures of central tendency: the mean, median, and the mode.

1. Mean – is the average of the values in the sample. The sum of all the values in a
set of data is divided by the total number of values in the set. It is the most stable
measure of central tendency although it can easily be affected by extreme values. It
is sometimes called the arithmetic mean. The mean is usually denoted
by ― (pronounced as "x bar"). It is used only if the data are interval or ratio.

For ungrouped data, we use the formula for sample mean:

For ungrouped data, we use the Greek lower case letter "mu", denoted as μ for
population mean:

where: n = number of values in a data set

35
Mean for Ungrouped Data:

Weighted Mean – is the mean of a set of values wherein each value or measurement
has a different weight or degree of importance. The following is its formula:

Example:

Solution:

36
Likert-type Question – This is used if the researcher wants to know the feelings or
opinions of the respondents regarding any topic or issues of interest. Respondents
will choose the number which best represents their feeling regarding the statements.

Choices

Students’ personal confidence in learning

5 4 3 2 1
Statistics
1. I am sure that I can learn Statistics.
2. I think I can handle difficult lessons in
Statistics.
3. I can get good grades in Statistics.

Below are the responses in the Likert-type of the statements above. The table
below shows the mean responses and their interpretation. Using the formula for
computing the weighted mean, check the correctness of the given means on the table.

5 4 3 2 1 Mean Interpretation
1 36 51 18 0 1 4.14 Agree
2 18 44 37 8 1 3.65 Agree
3 18 48 28 0 1 3.86 Agree

Likert-type Mean Interpretation

Mean of Grouped Data

Unlike listed data, the individual values for grouped data are not available,
and you are not able to calculate their sum. To calculate the mean of grouped data,
the first step is to determine the midpoint of each interval or class. These midpoints
must then be multiplied by the frequencies of the corresponding classes. The sum of
the products divided by the total number of values will be the value of the mean.

37
 Sample Problem:

In Tim's office, there are 25 employees. Each employee travels to work every
morning in his or her own car. The distribution of the driving times (in minutes)
from home to work for the employees is shown in the table below.

Class Interval Frequency (f)

(Driving Time in (Number of Employees) Xm fXM
minutes)
0-10 3 5 15
10-20 10 15 150
20-30 6 25 150
30-40 4 35 140
40-50 2 45 90
ΣfXm = 545
Formula:

Step 1: Determine the classmark/midpoint for each interval using the formula:
For 0 to less than 10, the midpoint is 5.
For 10 to less than 20, the midpoint is 15.
For 20 to less than 30, the midpoint is 25.
For 30 to less than 40, the midpoint is 35. Where: LL = lower limit
For 40 to less than 50, the midpoint is 45. UL = upper limit
Step 2: Multiply each midpoint by the frequency for the class.
For 0 to less than 10, (5)(3) = 15
For 10 to less than 20, (15)(10) = 150
For 20 to less than 30, (25)(6) = 150
For 30 to less than 40, (35)(4) = 140
For 40 to less than 50, (45)(2) = 90
Step 3: Add the results from Step 2 and divide the sum by 25.
15 + 150 + 150 + 140 + 90 = 545

2. Median – denoted by Md, is the middle value of the sample when the data are
ranked in order according to size. Median is the score or class in the distribution
wherein 50% of the score fall below it and another 50% lie above it. It is used when
the data is ordinal. It also exists in both quantitative or qualitative data. Median is
appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.

38
Median of Ungrouped Data:

Take Note: The median for an odd number of data values is the value that divides
the data into two halves. If n represents the number of data values and n is an

odd number, then the median will be found in the position.

Median of Grouped Data:

Formula:

Where:
L – lower limit of the median class or the class interval that
contains the median (-.5)
N – total number of scores in the distribution
CFb – cumulative frequency of the class interval before
reaching the median class starting from the lowest class
interval
Fi - frequency in the class interval that contains the median
𝔦 – size of the class interval
Example:
Calculate the median of the following grouped frequency distribution.

Class Frequency Cumulative

Interval (f) frequency

25-29 6 26

20-24 5 20

15-19 7 15

10-14 6 8

5-9 1 2

0-4 1 1

N = 26

39
 Solution:
Locate the median class. It is the class interval containing the middle score. In
th th
this case, it is the 13 and 14 scores. They are included in the class interval
15 to 19.
Given: Median class = 15-19
L = 14.5
N = 26
CFb = 8
Fi = 7
𝔦 =5

Median = 14.5 + (26/2) - 8 5

7

= 18.07

3. Mode – or modal score is a score or scores that occurred most in the distribution.
It is classified as unimodal (only one mode), bimodal (two modes), and
trimodal/multimodal (more than two modes).

Mode of Ungrouped Data

Example: Scores of 10 students in Section A, Section B, and Section C

The score that appeared most in Section A is 20, hence, the mode of Section A
is 20. There is only one mode, therefore, score distribution is called unimodal.
The modes of Section B are 18 and 24, since both of them appeared twice.
There are two modes in Section B, hence, the distribution is bimodal.
The modes for Section C are 18, 21, and 25. There are three modes for Section
C, therefore, it is called a trimodal/multimodal distribution.

40
Mode of Grouped Data

Formula:

Where:
LB = lower boundary of the modal class
Modal Class (MC) = is a category containing the highest frequency
d1 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency
above it, when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest
d2 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency
below it, when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest
c.i. = size of the class interval

Example: Scores of 40 students in a Research class consist of 60 items and they are
tabulated below.

Solution:

41
 What’s More

Activity 6.2: Which is Mine?

Direction: Classify the given characteristic by writing Mean, Median, and Mode in
a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is the score which frequently appeared in the data set or distribution.
2. The most stable measure of central tendency.
3. It is sometimes called the arithmetic mean.
4. It is the middle value of the sample when the data are ranked in order according
to size.
5. The first step is to determine the midpoint of each interval or class.

Activity 6.3: Solving Time!

Direction: Calculate the mean, median, and mode of the given data set. Show the
solution in a separate sheet of paper.

3, 13, 11, 15, 5, 4, 2, 3, 2

1. Mean: ______________________________
2. Median: ____________________________
3. Mode: ______________________________

What I Have Learned

Activity 7: Complete Me!

Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the word bank. Write the
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
Word Bank:

conclusions heart procedures

summation median data
presented statistical quantitative
organization probability sampling

Conducting research studies requires knowledge and skills in using the

various tools. The linguistic, bibliothecal, and (1) ________ tools are very important
to come up with a good research work. In research, statistics functions as a tool in
designing research and (2) ________ which include data collection, classification, (3)
________, interpretation, and decision-making or drawing (4) ________ therefrom.
This makes statistics the (5) ________ of any research study.

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 Statistics mainly deals with various types of data. These (6) ________ are
collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records, used as bases for drawing
conclusions. They are either (7) ________ or qualitative data. Very large data or values
may be written in shorthand form using (8) ________ notation.

In research, data usually come from the samples or respondents. Choosing

the samples from the population is best done through (9) ________. Various (10)
________ and non-probability sampling techniques are used for this purpose.
Data are then collected, organized and (11) _______ using different methods. Finally,
the organized data will be analyzed using the measures of central tendency, the
mean, (12) ________, and mode.

What I Can Do

Activity 8: Organize Me! Fill in the concept map about the different types of
sampling techniques from the word bank below. Write the answers in a separate
sheet of paper. Follow the numbering in parenthesis in every box.

Convenience sampling Cluster Random sampling Probability sampling

Simple Random sampling Quota sampling Purposive sampling
Non-probability sampling Multi-stage sampling Snowball sampling
Stratified Random sampling Systematic Random sampling

SAMPLING

has two types

(1) (2)

with various methods with various methods

(8)
(3) (4)
(9)

(5) (6) (10)

(11)
(7)

Job well done! You are now ready for the Post-test
and do the additional activity! Keep on going!

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 Assessment

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is NOT a major method of data collection?

A. interviews B. questionnaires C. focus groups D. correlational method
2. Which of the following does NOT show a quantitative data?
A. A small jar contains a colorless liquid.
B. The girl bought one sack of refined sugar.
C. The water in the container has a volume of 150 mL.
D. An irregularly-shaped object has a mass of 100 grams.
3. What is the main purpose of inferential statistics?
A. To provide a measure of central tendency for the data.
B. To determine whether a statistical result is significant.
C. To provide measures of position and variability for the data.
D. To find out whether a correlation coefficient is positive, negative, or zero.
4. Why is sampling important?
A. It makes the study valid and unreliable.
B. It saves the sources of data from being all consumed.
C. It makes possible the study of large, heterogeneous population.
D. It increases the number of errors in collecting and handling of data.
5. Dale wants to ensure that he has a high rate for his survey. Which method would
be best for him to use?
A. Mail survey C. Telephone interview
B. Personal interview D. Demographic interview

6. Which of the following is the correct expansion of ?

A.

B.

C.

D.

7. Which of the following is mismatched?

A. 1939 : Abraham Wald C. 1935 : Ronald Fisher
B. 1869 : Francis Galton D. 1839 : Karl Pearson
8. Which of the following is an example of a qualitative variable?
A. Speed B. Height C. Red roses D. Weight

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9. Which of the following BEST describes probability sampling?
A. Samples are chosen by accident.
B. It is the selection of samples by judgment.
C. Equal chance of being chosen as sample is given to all the members of the
population.
D. All members of the parameter or population are considered as samples in
the research study.
10. Secondary/existing data may include which of the following?
A. Diaries C. Official documents
B. Personal documents D. Archived research data
11. Which of the following terms BEST describes data that were originally collected
at an earlier time by a different person for a different purpose?
A. Primary data C. Secondary data
B. Field notes D. Experimental data
12. Which of these characterizes the interview method in collecting data?
A. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents.
B. Questions are sent to the samples for them to answer.
C. Questions are generally asked in a face to face contact with the other person.
D. Data are collected by the observer by directly going into the field.
13. Ana grabs people on the street to ask the brand of toothpaste they are using.
A. Convenience B. Judgmental C. Stratified random D. Cluster sampling
14. When conducting an interview, asking “Anything else?, What do you mean?, Why
do you feel that way?, are all forms of ____.
A. Probes C. Response categories
B. Protocols D. contingency questions
15. Eddie wanted to display graphically the relationship of one variable to another,
which of these should he use?
A. Pie chart B. Table C. Line graph D. Data matrix

Additional Activity

Activity 9: Artwork Time! Make a timeline of the history of statistics using any
appropriate figure in a long bond paper. You may color the figure.

Congratulations! You did an amazing performance in accomplishing all

the activities in the module. Hope you had some fun while learning!

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 46
What's More
Activity 1.3
1. 4.
What I Have Learned What’s New
2. 5.
1. statistical Activity 1.2
3. 6.
2. procedures 1. Yes 4. Yes
Activity 1.4
3. organization 2. No 5. No
4. conclusions 1. D, b 4. B, f
2. A, d 5. C, e 3. Yes
5. heart
3. F, a 6. E, c Activity 2.1
6. data
7. quantitative Activity 1.5 1. Disagree 4. Agree
8. summation 1. Natural & Social 2. Agree 5. Agree
9. sampling Sciences 3. Disagree
10. probability 2. Accounting Activity 3.1
11. presented 3. Business 1. True 4. False
12. median 4. Economics 2. True 5. True
5. Astronomy 3. True
Activity 2.2 Activity 4.1
What’s More
1. Secondary 6. Primary Answers may vary
Activity 4.3
2. Primary 7. Secondary Activity 5.1
1. Convenience sampling
2. Simple Random sampling 3. Primary 8. Secondary 1. Interview
3. Quota sampling 4. Secondary 9. Primary 2. Natural
4. Purposive/judgmental 5. Primary 10. Primary 3. Array
Sampling Activity 2.3 4. Textual
5. Snowball sampling 1. c 5. Histogram
Activity 5.2 2. e Activity 6.1
1. Presentation 3. b 1. Median 4. Mean
2. Collection 4. a 2. Mode 5. Median
3. Presentation 5. d 3. Mean
4. Organization Activity 2.4
5. Presentation Quantitative Data- B, E,
6. Collection H, I What’s In
7. Presentation Qualitative Data- A, C,
8. Organization 1. Research Proposal
D, F, G, J 2. Significance of the
9. Collection Activity 3.2
10. Presentation Study
1. b 6. d 3. Abstract
Activity 5.3 4. Future
2. e 7. c
1. d 4. c 5. Title
3. d 8. e
2. a 5. b
4. a 9. b
3. e
5. c 10. a What I Know
Activity 6.2
Activity 3.3
1. Mode 1. B 11. C
1. 120
2. Mean 2. A 12. C
2. 30
3. Mean 3. D 13. A
3. 900
4. Median 4. C 14. C
Activity 4.2
5. Mean 5. B 15. A
1. Sample 6. B
Activity 6.3
2. Subjects 7. C
1. Mean = 6.44
2. Median = 4 3. Probability 8. D
3. Mode = 2,3 4. Sampling 9. C
5. Population 10. D
Answer Key
 13. RCBD
C 8.
11. Snowball sampling 15. C D 7.
10. Purposive sampling 14. A B 6.
9. Quota sampling 13. A B 5.
8. Convenience sampling 12. C C 4.
sampling 11. C B 3.
7.Stratified Random 10. D A 2.
6. Systematic sampling 9. C D 1.
5. Multi-stage sampling
4. Cluster sampling Assessment
3. Simple Random sampling
2. Non-probability sampling
1. Probability sampling
Answers may vary.
What I Can Do
Additional Activity

References

Electronic Sources:

“Data Collection, Organization, and Presentation,” accessed June 6, 2021,

https://www.thoughtco.com.

“Mean for Grouped Data,” accessed May 28, 2021, https://www.slideshare.net.

“Measures of Central Tendency,” accessed June 4, 2021,

https://www.ck12.org.

“Summation Notation,” accessed June 1, 2021, https://creativecommons.org.

“Youth Activities,” accessed May 25, 2021,

https://www. sws.org.ph/youth htm.

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For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:

Department of Education – City Schools Division of Alaminos

San Jose Drive, Poblacion, Alaminos City, Pangasinan

Telefax: (075) 205-0644/205-0643

Email-Address: alaminos.city@deped.gov.ph

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