Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SHS
Research 2
Quarter 2 – Module 4:
Understanding Data
and Ways to
Systematically
Collect Data
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This module was collaboratively designed, developed, and reviewed by educators both from
public and private institutions to assist you, the teacher, or facilitator in helping the learners
meet the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum while overcoming their personal, social,
and economic constraints in schooling.
This learning resource hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent learning
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the needed 21st-century skills while taking into consideration their needs and circumstances.
In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of the
module:
As a facilitator, you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module. You also
need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage their learning.
Furthermore, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners as they do the tasks
included in the module.
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For the learner:
The hand is one of the most symbolized parts of the human body. It is often used to depict
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the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner is capable and empowered
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This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided
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contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.
What I Need to Know This will give you an idea of the skills or
competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.
What I Can Do This section provides an activity that will help you
transfer your new knowledge or skill in real-life
situations or concerns.
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Answer Key This contains answers to all activities in the
module.
1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the module.
Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities included
in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
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If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to
consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain a
deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!
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What I Need to Know
This module was intended to help you understand the research methodology as well
as the processes and techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information
about a topic. The module also talks about data and ways to systematically collect data with
an end view that you will be able to plan and apply appropriate research design, sampling
technique, data gathering procedures, and data analysis using the data in your research
paper.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are
arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them
can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
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What I Know
_____2. Which among the given quantitative research design attempts to establish
cause and effect relationships among the variables?
_____5. What do you call those data that are gathered from primary sources?
a. variables c. primary data
b. numerical data d. secondary data
_____6. What do you call the data that are gathered from books, magazines, and
newspapers?
a. variables c. primary data
b. numerical data d. secondary data
_____7. Which statistical treatment will you use for the situation below?
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_____8. Which of the following could be described like the steps you will undergo to
collect data of your study?
a. research locale c. research design
b. research instrument d. collection procedure
_____9. Which section outlines the instruments you will use in the study such as
interview questions, interview protocols, observation, guide, survey form,
focus group discussion questions, and others?
a. research locale c. research design
b. research instrument d. data
_____10. Which type of validity concerned with the font size, spacing, the size of the
paper used, and other necessary details that will not distract respondents
from answering the questionnaire?
_____ 11. Which refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated
trials?
_____12. This research is used for improving practice. It involves action, evaluation,
and critical reflection and – based on the evidence gathered – changes in
practice are then implemented.
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Lesson
The Quantitative Research
1 Design
The research design will guide you in choosing the strategy, data collection,
measurement, and data analysis that you will use in your research to answer your
research problem. In this lesson, the focus is on the quantitative research design, its
types, and its strengths and weaknesses.
What’s In
Write your research topic. Identify the key issues that you want to know
from your topic. Use the form below as a scaffolding to clearly articulate your
answer.
Write the aim of your study below: Identify the key issues that you want to
find out. Write them in question form:
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
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What’s New
Evaluative research
What is It
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is no manipulation of independent variables, thus they are classified as
nonexperimental researches.
Quantitative research usually finds answers using variables. It also
demonstrates the relationships among the variables.
A variable is a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or
categories. It is an independent variable (IV) when it is being manipulated by the
researcher while the dependent variable (DV) is the one being observed and
measured by the researcher (www.scribbr.com.n.d.).
According to de Belen and Feliciano (2015) variables can also be discrete or
continuous. A discrete variable implies that the numbers are whole numbers that
are separate, individual, and indivisible and do not contain fractions. Examples:
Grade level of students, the number of cars in a parking lot, baby’s age in months.
Continuous variables are those that can be gathered through measurement and
have an infinite number of possible values such as person’s weight/age/height;
travel time from Sariaya to Pagbilao, price of commodities, family income, etc.
Types of Quantitative Research
1. Experimental research
In experimental research, an independent variable is manipulated to
determine the effects on the dependent variables (www.scribber.com). An
independent variable (IV) is a variable that is presumed to cause a change to occur
in another variable. A dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is presumed to
be influenced by one or more independent variables (Johnson & Christensen,2014).
Example:
A teacher wants to test the effectiveness of a new technique of teaching how
to solve problems in mathematics. Before the start of the experiment, the group to
be used is given an achievement test about the problems to be covered. After the
experimental period, the same test in another form is given to the group as a post-
test.
Example:
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semester to see if the new instructional method is
effective.
Example:
A teacher compares the performance of SHS in the work
immersion subject before gaining work experience and
after completing the work immersion.
Example:
Example:
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c. True experiment
In this design, the researcher has to manipulate the variable that
is hypothesized to affect the dependent variable that is being
studied.
In this design, research subjects have to be randomly assigned to
the sample groups.
Example:
Example:
Teacher A wants to determine the beliefs of the SHS students about the
Alternative Delivery Mode.
b. Correlational research
Correlational research tries to determine the extent of a relationship
between two or more variables using statistical data. It also seeks to figure out
if two or more variables are connected and in what way (Study.com, 2003).
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Example:
A researcher wants to find out if an increase in workers' salaries will
increase the prices of commodities and services and vice versa.
Example:
This correlational research includes two (2) variables that are not
statistically related. This means that a change in one of the variables
may not cause a corresponding or alternate change in the other
variable. Also, negligible or zero correlational research caters for
variables with unclear statistical relationships.
Example:
c. Causal-comparative
d. Evaluative research
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The process of evaluative research consists of data analysis and that
involves collecting data about organizations, processes, projects,
services, and/or resources (Baht, 2020).
Evaluative research enhances knowledge and decision-making and
leads to practical applications.
Example:
In writing the research design, you need to discuss the specific research
design you have selected. You need to argue for the appropriateness of the research
design to answer the research questions. Research designs can be experimental,
descriptive, correlational, or causal-comparative. Remember that in writing the
research design, the procedural part of the design, its appropriateness to the study,
and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.
Example:
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What’s More
Identify the variables in the research topics that you presented from the previous
activity (What’s In). Use the proper columns for your answer.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4. Time spent studying and its effects the test scores of students
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
6. Salary and job satisfaction among residents
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
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9. The relationship between smoking and lung disease
IV _________________________ DV ___________________________
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10. What is the relationship between the quality of sleep
and fitness level?
Given the research topics below, identify which quantitative research design will be
used. Use the appropriate columns for your answer.
The research entitled (the title of research) will use the quantitative research
design particularly the (type of quantitative research design) . The (type of quantitative research design)
(description of the research design). Relatively, the current study (reasons for choosing the design and describe the
Rubrics
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Lesson
The Sample and Sampling
2 Procedures
Lesson 2 of this module talks about sample and sampling procedures. In this
lesson, the general types of sampling and the steps to compute for the sample were
highlighted. It is deemed important that researchers are familiar with the basic
sampling techniques as this will save time and effort while doing the research.
What’s In
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What’s New
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Sources: Johnson & Christensen (2017) and Calderon & Gonzales, (1993)
What is It
What is Population?
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This is also called the
lottery or raffle type
of sampling.
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is unknown or the researcher selects several agencies
researcher cannot at random and conducts an
complete the total list interview of very 10th nurse
of the members of the applicants in the agencies.
population he wishes
to study but he can
only complete the list
of groups or clusters
of the population.
Nonprobability Sampling
Sampling Description Example
Technique
Accidental A method of selecting An interviewer stands in a street
sampling the subjects who corner and interviews everyone who
happen to be passes by.
available at that time
or volunteered
themselves to be the
subjects of the study.
This is said to be the
weakest of all
sampling procedures
because it is
impossible to
estimate the error
from the sampling in
the process of
selection.
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members of the
public up to a given
quota.
Steps in Computing the Size of a Sample (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993; and
wikihow.com)
The steps in computing the size of a sample:
1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined by the
scope and delimitation of the study.
2. Decide on the margin of error. As much as possible the margin of error should
be not higher than 5%.
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3. Use the Slovin’s formula,
n= 613
1+ 613 (.05)2
n= 613
1+ 613 (.0025)
n= 613
1 + 1.5325
n= 613
2.5325
IF the researcher will use stratified sampling, the process will involve:
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Step 4. The teachers are grouped into three categories according to the branch of
science they are teaching, so we use stratified sampling.
Step 5: Get the sample proportion or the percentage per group using the formula:
Step 6
Subject Number of Teachers Percentage Sample
Biology 245 39 96
Chemistry 245 39 96
Physics 123 39 48
Total 613 240
In writing the sampling technique, you need to specify how do you select your
samples. You need to reason for the benefits and limitations of your selected
sampling design. You need also to include the strength of the sample design or its
practicality. Always consider the practicality and plausibility of your sampling
design.
You may also consider these questions: - Who are the samples of your study?
- Why choose these samples? - How many? - How will you select them?
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Sampling
1. _______ 6.________
2. ______ 9. _______
4. _______ 7. _______
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Activity 2. Say Something!
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find out which tools are best
suited to their jobs. You decide
that you are happy with a
margin of error of 0.05.
Calculate the necessary survey
size for a population of 240,
allowing for a 4% margin of
error.
In your research, if the
population is 9,000 and the
margin of error is 2%, what will
be the sample size?
Suppose that there are 2,243
English teachers, 1,406 Filipino
teachers, and 992 Science
teachers in a school to be
included in a study, what will be
the sample size at 3% margin of
error?
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_____________8. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6,
16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
_____________9. From the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how
many people should be sampled from each subgroup.
___________10. You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select several students with
different support needs to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with
student services.
Since the samples of the study are the (who are the samples?) (why choose these samples?).
A total of (how many samples?) will be included in the study which was selected through
the (formula to compute the sample) where: discuss the parts of the formula. .
Rubrics:
1 2 3 4 5
The context, The sampling The description of The context, The description of
population, or strategy is the context, population, and the context and
sample is not inappropriate. population, or sampling strategy population is
identified or sampling strategy are adequately meaningful,
described. is confusing, identified and including both
lacked relevance described. The quantitative
to the purpose, is size of the descriptions. The
incomplete. population, sampling process
sample, and is reasonable to
comparison recruit a
groups are representative
identified. sample of the
population.
Attention is given
to controlling for
extraneous
factors and
sampling error.
BEST. Writing a high- quality research proposal. Sydney Australia. UNSW, 2019.
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Lesson
Construct an Instrument and
3 Establishes its Validity and Reliability
This lesson talks about the essentials of validity and reliability of the
instrument to be used in researches. In doing so, research topics that have
qualitative themes utilize quantitative methods in establishing the credibility of its
results. This enables you to constructs an instrument and establishes its validity
and reliability. It is expected that in this lesson that learners can recognize both
reliability and validity in the instrument to be utilized in the research study.
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
What’s In
A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students.
The researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior levels.
1. _______________________________
In the study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students
and chooses the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other
students.
2.__________________________________
3. _________________________________
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Notes to the Teacher
This lesson contains activities that will help the learners
understand the importance of instrument validity and reliability.
Guarantee that the objectives of the learners’ research are clear to
them. With this lesson, see to it that the learners will be able to
produce their draft research instrument which are aligned to their
research’s objectives.
What’s New
Read the vignette below. Then, answer the following guide questions.
Guide Questions:
1. What are the facts of the story?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
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2. How did the students prepare for the event?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
3. What was the overall quality of the presentation witnessed by the students?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________
4. Were the students satisfied with the result of the contest? Why?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
5. What do you think are the things that must be done to avoid said concern?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________
6. How can you determine if the result of the contest was valid and reliable?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
7. What do you think are the criteria used in assessing the dance contest?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
The activity you have answered will give you the opportunities to develop your
ability to evaluate and to make judgments about your performance and improve upon
it. Thus, this lesson highlights how you can construct and establish validity and
reliability in the instrument that you will be using in your research study. As a
learner, you will understand that both validity and reliability are to consider when
you are creating your research design, planning your methods, and writing up your
results.
What is It
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measure. Since the instruments of the study are used by the researcher in the
methodology to obtain the data, the validity of each one should be established
beforehand. This is to set the credibility of the findings and the correctness and
accuracy of the following data analysis. For instance, when a study investigates the
common causes of absences, the content of the instrument must focus on these
variables and indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about
the behavior of the students during school assemblies, the instrument must consist
of the indicators or measures of the behavior of students during such time.
Types of Validity
In Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice,
Kubiszyn and Borich (2007) enumerate the different types of validity.
1. Face Validity. This is also known as logical validity. It involves whether the
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment just
by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it has face validity. It includes
the font, size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details that
will not distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.
2. Content validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions to
see whether they’re able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with high
content validity has to meet the objective of the research. This type of validity is not
measured by the numerical index but instead relies on logical judgment as to
whether the test measures its intended subject.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by
a group of field experts who have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject.
Three to five experts would suffice. The expert assesses the items of the questionnaire
and determines if the items measure the variables being studied. Then, the experts’
criticism will be considered in the revision of the instrument.
3. Construct Validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds
with its theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular
measure relates to other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically
– derived hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is theory-laden.
Factor analysis, a relevant technique to construct validity, is a refined statistical
procedure that is used to analyze the interrelationship of behavior data.
4. Criterion-related Validity or equivalent test. This type of validity is an
expression of how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion. There
are two types of this kind of validity.
a. Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be administered and
validated at the same time. It is determined by administering both the new test and
the established test to a group of respondents, then finding a correlation between the
two sets of the scores. Validity established with an accepted and availed the second
test that measures what the researcher is trying to measure.
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to
determine the IQ of nursing students. The researcher published a design for a short
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screening test that measures the same. The scores on the Standard- Binet V and the
short screening test are compared to assess the relationship between scores.
b. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the future
behavior of the examinees. This particularly useful in aptitude tests, which are tests
to predict how well test-takers in some future settings will perform in some future
settings.
It is advised that when a drafted questionnaire is to be subjected for
validation, a rating sheet of the acceptability of the indicators must be provided for
the experts to mark and give his judgment. The markings and comments for the
experts that validated the proposed questionnaire will be the basis of the revision of
the proposed instrument or questionnaire.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in repeated
trials. A reliable instrument can also be used to verify the credibility of the subject if
the latter yield the same results in several tests. However, this is only true if the
instrument used is valid. It is important to note that, while a valid instrument is
always reliable, a reliable instrument is not always necessarily valid. This is most
especially true when the subjects are human, who are governed by judgment and
prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of an instrument is very crucial in
research studies that deal with a lot of samples.
For example, Jaycee, who is monitoring her weight, uses a weighing scale. She
weighed herself in the morning, afternoon, and evening and recorded the results
afterward. Her recorded weights are 65 lbs, and 70 lbs respectively. The weighing
scale can be considered reliable since the deviation of the results is small and
negligible.
Methods in Establishing Reliability
1. Test-retest or stability. In this method, the same test is given to a group of
respondents twice. The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores with the
second test. When there is a high correlation index, it means that there is also high
reliability of the test. Some of the problems here are the observations that some
subjects may be able to recall certain items given during the first administration of
the test, and that the scores may differ because the students have adapted to the
test.
Carmines and Zeller (1979), in the book Reliability and Validity Assessment,
list the weaknesses identified using the test-retest method:
a. Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its
interpretation is not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation may
not indicate that the reliability of the test is low but rather signify instead that the
underlying theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time interval between
measurements, the more likely that the concept change.
b. Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done
logically and that phenomenon can induce a change in itself.
c. Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-retest
method. The person’s mental recollection of his or her responses which he or she
gives during the first measurement is quite likely to influence the responses which
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he or she gives during the second measurement. Memory effects that may influence
reliability estimates.
2. Internal Consistency. If the test question is designed to measure a single basic
concept, it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right is likely
to be right in another similar item. In other words, items should be correlated with
each other and the test ought to be internally consistent.
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several
important principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider
the SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores
relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due to the
lack of structured environment-class attendance, parent-regulated study, and
sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example,
college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid
measure of other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism,
and civic involvement. The combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a
more valid measure of the applicant’s potential for graduation, later social
involvement, and generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of
the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success
and a moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical
Reading, and Writing.
There are other criteria in assessing validity and reliability that can be used in
assessing the literature. (Polt& Beck, 2004). These are sensitivity; specificity’
comprehensibility; precision; speed; range; linearity and reactivity.
Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case study correctly, i.e., to
screen or diagnose a condition correctly.
Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly, i.e. to
screen out those without the conditions correctly.
Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the
behavior required for accurate and valid measurements.
Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit varying
degrees of an attribute as precisely as possible.
Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can
obtain a reliable measurement.
Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value
of the variable to the largest, to obtain meaningful measurements.
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Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally
accurate and sensitive over the entire range of values.
Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the
attribute being measured.
The following are examples of establishing the validity and reliability of an
instrument.
Example 1
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students
and the teachers. This was developed by the researcher of the approval of the
advisory committee. Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaires for
the students of Dońa Juana Chico National High School and the teachers of Rizal
National High School. They did not serve as respondents.
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine
whether they could yield data needed in the study. The pre-test results showed a
Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient of 0.923 indicating good reliability of the
instrument. As a rule, Cronbach Alpha must be at least .80 to be considered
reliable.
Example 2
A group of seven staff nurses and two nurse supervisors were requested to
answer the questionnaires upon approval of the permit addressed to the hospital
director. The results were checked and analyzed. After 15 days, the corrected
questionnaire was administered to the same respondents. The reliability coefficient
of 80% and above indicated that the instrument is already valid, reliable, and ready
to use.
Cristobal, Amadeo, and Maura Consolacion D. Cristobal. Practical Research. Diwa Learning System, 2017
Adopting an Instrument
Adopting an instrument is quite simple and requires very little effort. Even
when an instrument is adopted, though, there still might be a few necessary
modifications. For example, the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory that measures
intrinsic motivation, which can be found here, needs to be slightly modified to reflect
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the specific situation that the researcher is interested in. Intrinsic motivation is not
a general variable but is directed at a specific activity: intrinsic motivation in
Mathematics, intrinsic motivation in social studies, intrinsic motivation in playing a
sport, intrinsic motivation in reading a book, etc. Therefore, the items on the Intrinsic
Motivation inventory should reference that specific activity. For example, an item on
the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory reads, "I enjoyed doing this activity very much."
How will the participants know what "this activity" is? Therefore, the researcher
should modify the item to read "I enjoyed the math’s computer program very much."
Note that the substance of the item was not changed, only the reference of "this
activity."
Positive and negative affect were assessed using the Positive and Negative
Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegren, 1988)...Watson and colleagues
report reliability coefficient alphas as .89 for positive and .85 for negative affect.
Validity evidence for the instrument as a measure of state effect was found by
correlating the instrument with situations that should influence positive and
negative affect. Positive affect is related to social activity and negative affect is related
to fluctuations in stress (Watson et al., 1988). The PANAS has been used to assess
the effect in other studies with SDT (e.g., Elliot and Sheldon, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser,
2001; Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004).
Adapting an Instrument
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When adapting an instrument, the researcher should report the same
information in the Instruments section as when adopting the instrument, but should
also include what changes were made to the instrument and why. Below is a sample
description of an instrument that was adapted in Korb (2009).
Research Instrument
These research instruments or tools are ways of gathering data. Without them,
data would be impossible to put in hand. The most common instrument or tool of
research for obtaining the data beyond the physical reach of the observer may be
sent to human beings who are thousands of miles away or just around the corner.
2. Open form / Open-ended can be answered with “Yes” or “No,” or they have a
limited set of possible answers (such as A, B, C, or All of the Above). Closed-ended
questions are often good for surveys because you get higher response rates when
users don’t have to type so much. Also, answers to closed-ended questions can easily
be analyzed statistically, which is what you usually want to do with survey data.
1. Clarity of language
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2. Singleness of purpose
3. Relevant to the objective of the study
4. Correct grammar
Quantitative Research Tools. The most used quantitative research technique is the
survey. In a quantitative survey, you may use short-answer responses or
dichotomous questions, multiple choice answers, paragraphs, checkboxes, drop-
down, linear scale, multiple choice grid, and more. As you can see various question
formats can be adapted to your research needs.
Here are some examples of dichotomous, multiple-choice, ranch ordering
scaling, rating scale, staple scale
Likert scale, rating system, used in questionnaires, that is designed to
measure people’s attitudes, opinions, or perceptions. Subjects choose from a range
of possible responses to a specific question or statement; responses typically include
“strongly agree,” “agree,” “neutral,” “disagree,” and “strongly disagree.” Often, the
categories of response are coded numerically, in which case the numerical values
must be defined for that specific study, such as 1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, and so
on. The Likert scale is named for American social scientist Rensis Likert, who devised
the approach in 1932.
34
Likert scales are widely used in social and educational research. When using
Likert scales, the researcher must consider issues such as categories of response
(values in the scale), size of the scale, the direction of the scale, the ordinal nature of
Likert-derived data, and appropriate statistical analysis of such data.
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
35
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
36
the characteristic describes the product or service. The following is an example of a
staple scale question:
When thinking about Data Mining Technologies, Inc. (DMT), do you believe that the
word "innovative" aptly describes or poorly describes the company? On a scale of +5
to -5 with +5 being "a very good description of DMT" and -5 being "poor description
of DMT," how do you rank DMT according to the word "innovative"?
(+5) Describes very well
(+4)
(+3)
(+2)
(+1)
Innovative
(-1)
(-2)
(-3)
(-4)
(-5) Poorly describes
37
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
38
What’s More
Activity 1: Do it Right!
Read carefully and analyze the table. Below, in the first column, enumerated are the
types of validity/reliability and on the second column, it indicates what does it
assess. On the last column identify the given examples below as to the type of
validity/reliability. Write only the letter of the answer.
A- There is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can measure
directly. But based on existing psychological research and theory, we can measure
depression based on a collection of symptoms and indicators, such as low self-
confidence and low energy levels.
B- You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You
review the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks
eaten in between for every day of the week. On its surface, the survey seems like a
good representation of what you want to test.
C- A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class.
The test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types
of algebra are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of students’
understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she includes questions that are not related
to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge.
D - A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English writing
ability. To assess how well the test does measure students’ writing ability, she finds
an existing test that is considered a valid measurement of English writing ability and
compares the results when the same group of students takes both tests.
E- A group of participants complete a questionnaire designed to measure personality
traits. If they repeat the questionnaire days, weeks, or months apart and give the
same answers, this indicates high test-retest reliability.
F- You design a questionnaire to measure self-esteem. If you randomly split the
results into two halves, there should be a strong correlation between the two sets of
results. If the two results are very different, this indicates low internal consistency.
39
indicators that are associated
with it.
4. Criterion It evaluates how closely the
results of your test correspond
to the results of a different test.
Methods in Reliability What does it assess? Example
5. Test-retest The consistency of a
measure across time: do you
get the same results when you
repeat the measurement?
6. Internal The consistency of the
consistency measurement itself: do you get
the same results from different
parts of a test that are designed
to measure the same thing?
40
Activity 3. Time to write!
41
https://ph.images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=AwrxgqqWb.1elXEA9xTfSQx.;_ylu
42
Lesson
4 Describe an Intervention
1. describe intervention;
2. recognize the essentials of intervention in research;
3. cite related traditions that are particularly useful in conducting research
with intervention; and
4. write a discussion about an intervention applied in research.
What’s In
For this activity, supply the correct letters to complete the word being defined
or described.
1. It refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure
L I D Y
L A B I Y
S R Y
43
A C V L D Y
E E R C I S T U N T
This contains activities that will help the learners understand the
topic. The activities were designed to highlight in an intervention
in the research. It also intends to note that not all researches need
an intervention. It is also vital to further discuss on the essentials
in describing an intervention and how probably this applies to the
learners’ research study.
What’s New
The following issues listed on the table need some solutions. Complete the
table by writing words/ phrases that will help resolve the problems.
Reading Program Feeding Program Attendance success plans
Teach the Anti-Bullying Tricks Online Platform in learning modalities
Problems Solution
1. malnutrition
2. poor in reading
3. bullying
4. online games
5. absenteeism
From this activity, you can discover a solution to the given problems. Now,
what is emphasized here is that we can seek a transformational change through the
44
process of intervention in our research undertakings. We also should note that
intervention in research is not another type of research. It pertains to the program
in a research study to create change, improvement, and development.
What is It
45
The following are some of the researches that need intervention.
46
them at risk for or protect them from experiencing certain problems, the behavior
or lack of behavior that causes or maintains the problem.
6. Set goals and objectives. A description of what success would look like. How will
the community or group be different if the intervention is successful? Those goals
the intervention is targeted to accomplish. How will you know if your intervention
is successful? The specific objectives the intervention will achieve. What will
change by how much and by when?
7. Evidence-based interventions. This indicates: Potential or promising “best
practices” for your situation (consider various available databases and lists of
“best” or evidence-based practices) How strong is the evidence that each
potential “best practice” caused the observed improvement? (Rather than other
associated conditions or potential influences) Whether the “best practice” could
achieve the desired results in your community whether the conditions (e.g., time,
money, people, and technical assistance) that affect success for the “best
practice” are present
8. Assessment. This provides information and enhancing, modifying access,
barriers, exposures, and opportunities, enhancing services and supports,
changing the consequences, and modifying policies and the broader system.
9. Develop an action plan for the intervention. This includes specific change or
aspects of the intervention, who to carry it out, when the intervention will be
implemented, the resources availability, and persons who know about it.
10. Pilot-test the intervention. This determines how to test the intervention and
with whom, assess the quality of implementation of the intervention, assess
results and consequences or side effects, and collect and use feedback to adapt
and improve the intervention.
11. Implementation. This includes the quality of implementation, satisfaction and
outcomes, and attainment of objectives.
Phases in an Intervention Research
Importance
Phases
Phase 1 Identifying and Each operation involves
involving clients collaboration between
Problem Analysis Gaining entry and researchers and clients,
and Project cooperation of the from helping gain the cooperation
Planning setting and support necessary for
Identifying concerns of conducting intervention
the population research.
Analyzing identified
concerns
Setting goals and
objectives
Once information is
Phase 2 Using existing gathered, researchers
information sources analyze the critical features
of the programs and
47
Information Studying natural practices that have
gathering and examples previously addressed the
synthesis Identifying functional problem of interest. Some
elements of successful questions to ask are: Is there
models a model program, policy, or
practice that has been
successful in changing
targeted behaviors or
outcomes.
This outlines the operation in
Phase 3 Designing as the particularly interrelated
Design observational system phases of design and early
Specifying procedural development of pilot testing.
elements of the
intervention
During the development and
Phase 4 Developing prototype pilot testing phase, the
or preliminary primitive design is evolving
Early interventions into a form that can be
Development and Conducting a pilot test evaluated under the field
Pilot Testing Applying design condition. This phase
criteria to the includes the most important
preliminary phase and operation of
intervention concept developing a prototype or
preliminary intervention,
conducting a pilot test, and
applying design criteria to
the preliminary intervention
concept.
The results of full-field
Phase 5 Selecting experimental testing are used to resolve
design problems with the
Evaluation and Collecting and measurement system and
advanced analyzing data intervention. Adaptation in
Development Replicating the the language, content, and
intervention under intervention methods may
field conditions produce desired behavior
Refining the changes and outcomes for
intervention the full range of intended
beneficiaries.
48
Preparing the product Once a community
Phase 6 for dissemination intervention has been field-
Identifying potential tested and evaluated, it is
Dissemination markets for the ready to be disseminated to
intervention community or organizations
Creating a demand for and other target audiences.
the intervention Several operations help to
Encouraging make the process of
appropriate adaptation dissemination and
Providing technical adaptation more successful;
support for adopters preparing the product for
dissemination; identifying
potential markets for
intervention, creating a
demand for intervention,
encouraging appropriate
adaptation, and providing
technical support for
adopters.
What’s More
49
How do read aloud motivate students to read independently?
Do students learn classroom material better through student-led teaching?
Could the motivating power of choice and emphasis on the development of
deeper meaning provided by literature circles improve attitudes toward
reading?
The effects of physical education and health on students.
How can teachers better develop relationships with English Language
Learners?
Will the Good Student Game, a positive reinforcement strategy, improve on-
task behavior in a second-grade classroom?
Will incorporating multisensory ways (visual, auditory, and kinesthetic
approaches) increase the recognition of high-frequency words at the
kindergarten level?
How do the arts increase reading comprehension? Will students remember
math facts better if they draw pictures of the answers and drill with a friend?
Will access to a nutritious morning snack reduce behavioral problems in the
classroom that are caused by children’s hunger?
Will integrating art into a seventh-grade middle school science classroom help
students understand their internal body systems more easily?
Example 1
Use of SIM (Strategic Intervention Material) As Strategy And The Academic
Achievement Of Grade 7 Students On Selected Topic In Earth Science
This research endeavor aimed to find out whether the use of SIM (Strategic
Intervention Material) would improve the academic achievement of grade seven
50
students on a selected topic in earth science. The study made use of quasi-
experimental design which is non- equivalent control group pretest and posttest
design. About 120 participants were used as subjects of the study. Mean and t-
tests were used as tools in the analysis of data. The result of the study revealed
that there was a significant difference in the pretest and posttest mean scores of
the experimental and control group in the topic eclipse. The experimental group
achieved a better mean gain score than the control group. This points out that the
use of strategic intervention material (SIM) in the experimental group significantly
improved the performance of the students. It can be concluded that the
performance of students in the experimental group was greatly enhanced after SIM
was employed in teaching the lesson. Therefore, the employment of SIM was better
and effective than the use of the traditional method in teaching some topics in
science. Furthermore, it was recommended that SIM be adopted as instructional
material or strategy in teaching science lessons as well as other subjects.
What’s More
51
neighborhoods, city, or county government), and whether the
organization can influence such changes).
____________5. This considers questions of whom will you ask about the problem or
goal and potential solutions?
____________6. This provides information and enhancing skills (e.g., conduct a public
information campaign to educate people about the problem or goal
and how to address it)
____________7. Which component describes whether the “best practice” could achieve
the desired results in your community whether the conditions (e.g.,
time, money, people, and technical assistance) that affect success for
the “best practice” are present?
____________8. This includes goals, objectives and specific behaviors that need to
change.
52
Methods: Subjects were 18 female dancers who were recruited from advanced
technique classes. Subjects were placed by quasi-random design into one of three
groups: plyometric training (PLY, n=6), weight training (WT, n=6), and control
(CON, n=6). The PLY group performed 4 plyometric jump exercises twice a week.
The WT group performed 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions of 4 lower-body isotonic exercises
twice a week. The CON group refrained from strength training. All subjects
continued their normal dance classes throughout the study. Subjects were tested
pre and post-training for lower body strength (1 repetition maximum), anaerobic
power (Wingate Anaerobic Cycle Test), and vertical jump. Additionally, dance
faculty evaluated subjects for technique and aesthetic quality of dance jumps on a
scale from 1-5. A paired t-test was performed to detect statistical differences from
pre to post-testing. Significance was accepted at p<0.05.
Results: Both the PLY and WT groups increased their leg strength (37% and 32%,
respectively)and aesthetic jump height (13%). The PLY group increased vertical
jump (8.3%). The WT group increased anaerobic power (6%), hamstring strength
(23%), and the ability to point feet while jumping (20%). There were no significant
changes in any variables in the CON group.
Conclusions: Both types of strength training (PLY and WT) improve leg strength
and jumping ability in dancers. While there may be a greater benefit in actual jump
height from PLY training, perceived aesthetic dance quality in jumping is improved
with traditional WT training. Therefore, female dancers can benefit from either type
of training and should be aware that dance training alone is not sufficient to
increase dance jumping ability.
cdn.ymaws.com/.../Sample_Abstract--Intervention_Research_1.pdf
Title
Purpose
Methods
Results
53
Conclusions
RUBRIC
4 3 2 1
Knowledge Comprehensive, in- Relevant but Limited Little
depth and wide- comprehensive superficial relevance/
ranging knowledge/ some accuracy
response
Understanding High Level of ability Some ability to Limited to draw Minimal
to conceptualize conceptualize out concepts awareness that
essential ideas and essential ideas and relate to external
relate theory to and relate theory to concepts exist
practice theory to practice
practice
Writing skills Significant Some Poor grammar, Lack of clarity,
mechanics grammatical weak poor
structure and lapses use communication presentation of
organization emotional thinking
response
regarding
relevant points
Application/Analysis Demonstrate good Informed Some Lack of
ability to analyze commentary observations, evidence of
and synthesize with some some supportive critical
independent evidence of evidence used. analysis, poor
analysis, good use genuine analysis use of
of range supportive and supportive supportive
materials materials. evidence.
Total
Reviewer’s
Comments
54
Lesson
Lesson 5 of this module talks about data collection procedures in which data
and data collection methods were highlighted. This notion lies in the idea that data
is a critical aspect of research. As a budding researcher, you must be able to plan a
data collection procedure appropriate to the research that you are conducting.
What’s In
Identify the kind of quantitative research described below. Write your answer on
the space before the number.
1. The _____________ can be experimental or nonexperimental.
2. The ___________________ is a type of quantitative research that seeks to
describe the present status of an identified variable.
3. A ____________________ is a type of quantitative research that tries to define
the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical
data.
4. The _________________ is a quantitative research that attempts to establish
cause and effect relationships among the variables.
5. In __________________, the independent variable is not manipulated and there
is no random assignment to groups.
Nonexperimental research
Causal- comparative research
Correlational research
Descriptive research
Quantitative Research Design
55
What’s New
Box the words related to quantitative research that you will find in the puzzle
In the table below, write the words that you found in the puzzle which are
related to data collection. Give the meaning of each word. You may use a dictionary
or any reference to search for the meaning of the words.
Word Definition
1. A collection of numbers, quantities, facts, records,
used as a basis for drawing conclusions or making
inferences.
2. Recollections, observations, and perceptions of
respondents about themselves and of other people.
3. This involves the presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and replies in terms of oral-verbal
responses.
4. Data that include the respondent’s ideas or
opinions about, or his actual behavior, in a
situation.
5. A way of collecting data through observing.
6. Data that is collected by a researcher from first-
hand sources
7. Data that can be measured and not simply
observed.
8. A method that uses a set of standardized
questions, often called items.
56
9. This method refers to the continuous, permanent,
compulsory recording of the occurrence of vital
events.
10. Described an instrument if the instrument collects
the data which are intended for it to collect.
What is It
57
Attitudes and Feelings. These are the respondent’s notions and
thoughts about the research topic, and his personal feelings about the
worth of the item being investigated.
Judgments. These data include the respondent’s ideas or opinions
about, or his actual behavior, in a given situation.
Psychomotor skills. These data refer to the manipulative skills of the
individual and his activities that involve his five (5) senses.
Results of tests and experimentation. The results of tests and
experimentation are very important data especially in psychology and
in
Allthe physical,
other
sources ofdata chemical,
datafrom and biological
the primary sciences.
and secondary
All other data from the primary and secondary sources of data
(Calderon & Gonzales, 1993).
58
Interview The interview method of Survey and A researcher
Method collecting data involves the Descriptive collects
presentation of oral-verbal research, information
stimuli and reply in terms of qualitative by calling the
oral-verbal responses. This research respondents
method can be used through on a
personal interviews and, if telephone.
possible, through telephone
interviews.
In a personal interview, a
person known as the interviewer
is asking questions generally in
face-to-face contact with the
other person or persons.
Interviews can be structured or
unstructured interviews.
Structured interviews involve
the use of a set of
predetermined questions and
highly standardized techniques
of recording. It can also be
unstructured interviews that do
not follow a system of pre-
determined questions and
standardized techniques of
recording information.
Quantitative interviews are
sometimes referred to as survey
interviews because they
resemble survey-style question-
and-answer formats. They might
also be called standardized
interviews (Wisdomjobs.com).
Observation Observation, as the name Qualitative A principal
method implies, is a way of collecting research, watches a
data through observing. The survey, and teacher
observation data collection descriptive deliver a
method is classified as a research lesson to her
participatory study because the class to
researcher has to immerse assess her
herself in the setting where her effectiveness
respondents are while taking as an
notes and/or recording. educator.
Observation as a data collection
method can be structured or
unstructured. In structured
observation, data collection is
conducted using specific
variables and according to a pre-
defined schedule. Unstructured
observation, on the other hand,
is conducted in an open and free
manner in a sense that there
59
would be no pre-determined
variables or objectives.
60
Registration Registration method refers to the Survey A researcher
Method continuous, permanent, research and is working on
compulsory recording of the descriptive a study about
occurrence of vital events research the best
together with certain identifying practices of
or descriptive characteristics LET passers
concerning them, as provided for the last 3
through the civil code, laws, or years. He
regulations of each country. went to the
Professional
The vital events may be live Regulation
births, fetal deaths, deaths, Commission
marriages, divorces, judicial (PRC) to
separations, annulments of determine the
marriage, adoptions, passers for
recognitions (acknowledgments the last 3
of natural children), years.
legitimations.
Calderon and Gonzales, (1993); Uwec.edu.; de Belen & Feliciano (2015)
What’s More
Activity 1. Mapping
Primary Secondary
Data Data
1. 5. 13.
9.
2. 10. 14.
6.
4. 11.
7.
15.
3. 8. 12.
61
Individual persons books
associations dictionaries
law encyclopedias
treaties magazines
contracts newspapers
family thesis
living organisms almanac
Constitution
__________13. The use of a pretest or posttest or both is crucial in the testing method.
62
Activity 3. Tell me the Story
Identify the data collection method described in each scenario. Write your
answer to the proper column.
Decide which data collection method will be most appropriate for the
situations given below. Write your answer on the space before the number.
____________1. What data collection method are you using if you have a
questionnaire as your data gathering instrument?
____________2. You will use a data collection method that involves the presentation
of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
63
____________9. In this type of observation method, data collection is conducted
using specific variables and according to a pre-defined schedule.
____________10. This design uses two groups, one group is given the treatment and
the results are gathered at the end.
This activity will help you draft a narrative about your data collection method.
In writing this part, discuss why would you use experiments, surveys, tests, or
secondary data. A good argument tells the definition of the data collection method to
the research questions. Remember, do not simply include a long definition of the
data collection method. If you will use a questionnaire, test, interview guide,
observation checklist, etc. you need to attach them in the appendix. A clear
description of the tool and its properties should also be included.
Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you in
your writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
The research entitled (the title of research) will use (data collection method)
in the collection of data. The (data collection method) is (description of the method)
The (data collection method) (reasons for choosing the data collection method and its appropriateness to the study).
Rubrics
1 2 3 4 5
Data gathering Procedures for Procedures are Procedures for Procedures are
Procedures for gathering data confusing, or implementing thorough,
gathering data are incomplete lacked the study are manageable,
are missing. relevance to identified and coherent, and
purpose, described. powerful for
research generating valid
questions, or and reliable
sampling data.
strategy.
BEST. Writing a high- quality research proposal. Sydney Australia. UNSW, 2019.
64
Lesson
6 Data Analysis
Lesson 6 of this module is about planning the data analysis using statistics
and hypothesis testing. In this lesson, the statistical analysis of bivariate data will
be discussed. The lesson will also talk about the considerations on how to choose
the statistical treatment which is useful in determining the research hypothesis.
Sample problems are also included to acquaint the learners with data analysis. You
are expected to develop the competency to plan data analysis using statistics and
hypothesis testing after this module.
What’s In
65
4. Is there a significant difference in the performance of teachers, principals,
and supervisors when grouped according to experience?
H 0:
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
What’s New
Given below are research topics and their variables. Study the table then try to
answer the questions below.
66
3. What kind of data is traveling time, community type?
4. What kind of data is tobacco use, age of teens?
5. The number of years of education, salary?
6. What kind of data is body type, gender?
7. What combination of variables is there in each sample?
There are two (2) variables in the given research topics. Marriage, community
type, tobacco use, movie preferences, body type, and gender are categorical variables.
Categorical variables take on values that are names or labels and they are not
numerical. The color of a ball (e.g., red, green, blue) or the breed of a dog (e.g., collie,
shepherd, terrier) would be examples of categorical variables. On the other hand,
hours of sleep, traveling time, age of teens, number of years of education, and salary
denote numbers, hence, they are numerical variables. Numerical variables have a
value and they can be added, subtracted, divided, or multiplied
(Statisticshowto.com).
What is It
There are two (2) variables in each of the given examples. When there are
two variables it is called bivariate data which employs bivariate analysis. Bivariate
analysis is the simultaneous analysis of two variables (attributes). It explores the
concept of the relationship between two (2) variables, whether there exists an
association and the strength of this association, or whether there are differences
between two variables and the significance of these differences.
Simply put, the bivariate analysis looks at how the changes in X variables
affect the Y variables. It also uses the X variables to predict some changes in Y
variables
There are three (3) types of bivariate analysis:
a. Categorical and numerical
b. Categorical and categorical
c. Numerical and numerical
67
Each type of bivariate analysis uses statistical treatment which is shown below:
Type of Bivariate analysis Statistical Treatment
Categorical and numerical Two- sample T-Test
One way analysis of variance
(ANOVA)
Wilcoxon signed-rank test
Categorical and categorical Chi-Square
Fisher's exact test of
independence
Numerical and numerical Pearson's correlation coefficient
Simple linear regression
Saedsayad.com; MarinStatsLectures. “Bivariate Analysis for Categorical & Numerical
68
Matched samples in which individuals What is the In matched
are matched on effectiveness of samples, it will
personal hypnotism in reducing assign one
characteristics such pain? individual to
as age, sex, socio-
a treatment
economic status, etc.
group and
another to
a control
group. This
process, called
“matching” is
used
in matched
pairs design.
Left/ right It compares the left or What is the Application of
right treatment. effectiveness of using the treatment to
gluta soap? a left face or
right face of the
same individual.
Independent samples are different people in the group. For example, there
are different people in treatment A and different people in treatment B such
as smokers and non-smokers, exposed and non-exposed, males and females,
teachers and non- teaching staff, learners and parents, etc.
In terms of the approaches, it can be parametric or nonparametric.
Parametric data
rely on larger samples
have a higher power that nonparametric
Nonparametric data
work with a smaller sample size
lower power that parametric
Statistical Methods
69
Parametric Paired T-Test Repeated Two- sample One- way
measures T-Test ANOVA
ANOVA
Condition Example
If we apply two (2) treatments to one (1) Suppose you are interested in
group we use paired t-test if it is evaluating the effectiveness of a
parametric, and Wilcoxon signed-rank company training program. One
test if it is nonparametric. approach you might consider would be
to measure the performance of a sample
of employees before and after completing
the program and analyze the differences.
If we apply three (3) or more treatments You might get the same subjects to eat
to one (1) group we use repeated different types of cake (chocolate,
measures ANOVA if it is parametric, and caramel, and lemon) and rate each one
Friedman Test if it is nonparametric. for taste, rather than having different
people taste each different cake.
If there are two (2) groups in the study Suppose that a school has one building
we will use the two-sample T-Test if it is for boys and one for girls. The principal
parametric, and Rank sum test for its wants to know if the pupils of the two
nonparametric counterpart. buildings are working equally hard, in
the sense that they put in an equal
number of hours in studies on the
average.
If there are three (3) or more groups in You would like to test which of the three
the study, we will use one- way ANOVA (3) leading (brand A, B, C) battery
if it is parametric, and Kruskal–Wallis if products for cellphones has the longest
it is nonparametric. standby-time in days.
StatisticsSolutions.com.
Sample Computations
Paired T-Test
(also called a correlated pairs t-test, a paired-samples t-
test or dependent samples t-test) is where you run a t-test on
dependent samples.
Dependent samples are essentially connected — they are tests on the
same person or thing (Santarosa.edu, n.d.; StatisticsSolutions).
Example:
Two tests on the same person before and after training,
70
Two blood pressure measurements on the same person
using different equipment.
71
5 15 29 -14
6 16 32 -16
7 17 23 -6
8 19 20 -1
9 23 25 -2
10 24 15 9
11 32 30 2
Sum -73
72
Step 5. Subtract 1 from the sample size to get the degrees of freedom. We have 11
items, so 11-1 = 10.
Step 6: Find the p-value in the t-table, using the degrees of freedom in Step 5. If you
don’t have a specified alpha level, use 0.05 (5%). For this sample problem, with df=
10, the t-value is 2.228.
Step 7. Compare your t-table value (or critical value) from Step 6 (2.228) to your
calculated t-value (-2.74). The calculated t-value (-2.74) is greater than the table
value (2.228) at an alpha level of .05.
Decision: We can reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in
the scores of students under the intervention and accept the alternative hypothesis
that there is a significant difference in the scores of students under the intervention.
Note: The larger the absolute value of the t- value, the smaller the p-value. The
absolute value means removing any negative sign in front of a number, hence the
absolute value of -2.74 is 2.74 which is greater than 2.228. Thus, we reject the null
hypothesis.
Important reminder:
If the calculated value is less than the critical value (t-table value), accept the
null hypothesis.
If the calculated value is greater than or equal to the critical value, reject the
null hypothesis, and accept the alternative hypothesis.
The independent samples t-test, sometimes called the simple t-test, tests the
null hypothesis that there is no difference between two independent samples
(Graziano & Raulin. 2013).
Sample Question:
Is there a significant relationship in the number of absences of males and
females when grouped according to age?
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the number of absences of
male and female learners when grouped according to age.
Ha: There is a significant relationship between the number of absences of
male and female learners when grouped according to age.
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14-15 7 0
Step 6: Compute for the sum of squares (SS) for the column. The formula for the
sum of squares (SS) is
74
For this problem, the SS for X1 is 6, for X2 is 4.75
Step 8: Compute for the degree of freedom(df). To compute for the degree of freedom
(df) the formula N1 + N2 – 2 is used.
Having 5 as the N1 and 4 as the N2, the df for the problem is 7.
Step 9: Compare the computed t to the critical value of t. The critical value
of t (obtained from the Student's t Table) is 2.365 (alpha = 0.05 and df = N1 + N2 - 2
= 7).
Decision: Because the computed value of t (4.52) exceeds the critical value (2.365),
we reject the null hypothesis which means that there is a significant relationship
between the number of absences of male and female learners when grouped
according to age.
Important reminder:
If the calculated value is less than the critical value (t-table value), we failed
to reject the null hypothesis.
If the calculated value is greater than or equal to the critical value, we reject
the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
You may revisit your notes on statistical methods of your statistics and
probability class for other statistical treatments.
Calculated value Critical value Failed to reject the null
< hypothesis
Calculated value Critical value Reject the null hypothesis
>
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Remember that the statistical treatments presented are used to test the
hypothesis. If there is no hypothesis in the study, you might consider using other
statistical treatments. Presented below are other statistical treatments to be used in
a study.
76
and so we want on 14 weeks: 2
them to contribute days each week
more to the final on 8 weeks: 5 days
"average". each week
on 32 weeks: 7
days each week
What’s More
77
7. What is the difference in
the daily calorie intake
between men and women?
8. What are the differences in
attitudes towards online
banking between Millennial
adults and older people?
9. What is the relationship
between gender and exam
results of Grade 12 students?
10. What is the relationship
between job satisfaction and
salary?
______________1. If we apply two (2) treatments to one (1) group, we use paired t-test
if it is parametric.
______________2. If we apply three (3) or more treatments to one (1) group, we use
repeated measures ANOVA.
______________3. If there are two (2) groups in the study, we will use the two- sample
T-Test if it is parametric.
______________4. If there are three (3) or more groups in the study, we will use one-
way ANOVA if it is parametric.
______________5. All researches will use T-test and ANOVA as their statistical
treatment.
Activity 3. Pairings
78
pumped into the balloons before they
burst.
4. Teacher Max experimented to
determine whether intensive tutoring
is more effective than paced tutoring.
Two randomly chosen groups are
tutored separately and then
administered proficiency tests.
5. Teacher Mark recruited 30 students to
participate in a study and split them
into three groups. The students in
each group are randomly assigned to
use one of the three exam prep
programs for the next three weeks to
prepare for an exam. At the end of the
three weeks, all of the students take
the same exam.
Decide whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis. Guide questions are
provided to help you find the answers.
1. Consider the actual temperature of the day and the temperature in the
forecast:
This activity will help you draft a narrative about the statistical treatment of
data. Remember to incorporate all the things discussed in this lesson to help you in
your writing. A guide is also given to assist you with the contents of your output.
79
Having the (state your research problems) as the main research problem, the study will
use the (statistical treatment) as the statistical treatment of the study. The
(statistical treatment) is (description of the statistical treatment) . Since the present study
(reasons for choosing the statistical treatment, you may discuss the groups involved or the conditions of the study)
thus, the (statistical treatment) is deemed to be the most appropriate statistical treatment for
Rubrics
1 2 3 4 5
Analytical Analytical Descriptive or Both Analytical
methods are methods are inferential descriptive methods are
missing. inappropriately methods are and sufficiently
aligned with confusing, inferential specific, clear,
data and incomplete, or methods are and
research lacked identified. The appropriate
design. relevance to level of given the
the research significance is research
questions, stated. questions,
data, or research
research design, and
design. scale of
measurement,
and type of
distribution.
BEST. Writing a high- quality research proposal. Sydney Australia. UNSW, 2019.
80
Lesson
Present Written Research
7 Methodology
This module discusses the research methodology which is an essential
chapter in any research undertaking. This involves a set of instruments and
procedures in dealing with research problems. This is in line with the learning
competency that you need to achieve at the end of the lesson, presenting written
research methodology. It is expected that at the end of the lesson you can identify
and describe the components in research methodology for you to utilize materials
and techniques to produce creative work.
What’s In
True or False. Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the
statement is incorrect. Write your answer to the space provided.
_________1. The purpose of analyzing data is to obtain usable and useful information.
_________2. The analysis, irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or
quantitative, may only describe and summarize the data.
_________3. Data analysis includes techniques like looking for patterns, themes,
statistics, identifying key events, and making visual representations.
_________4. Interpretation is the process of attaching meaning to the data.
_________5. Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure, and meaning
to the mass of collected data.
81
Notes to the Teacher
What’s New
Part of the Research Key Item Reason for the Key Item
Methodology
Research Design Quasi-Experimental Because it shares
similarities with the
traditional experimental
design or randomized
controlled trial, but it
specifically lacks the
element of random
assignment to treatment
or control.
Research Design
Instrument
Research Locale
82
Data Collection
Procedure
Statistical Treatment
What is It
The research methodology section of any academic research paper allows you
to convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your field
of study. An effective research methodology is grounded in your overall approach –
whether qualitative or quantitative – and adequately describes the methods you used.
This gives an idea of the information required in writing.
This includes explaining the type of research technique you will adopt in the
study, how you will get the data for the study whom or where you will get the data
from, and how you will analyze the data you will
The following are the components of the section on research methods:
1. Research Design. This section describes the specific research approach
you will use in the study. This can be ethnography, case study, historical,
phenomenological, and the like. The research design is independent of the
purpose of the study and the set of specific research questions you have
formulated.
83
research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct
exploratory research.
84
5. Data Collection Procedure. This section describes the steps you will
undergo to collect data from your study. In some types of researches
particularly ethnographic and case studies, the specific date (and
sometimes, exact time) of doing the steps (i.e., observing the participant)
are important. The instruments used to record data (eg., pen and paper,
audio, and /or video recorder) may also be mentioned.
6. Data Analysis Procedure. This section describes how you will analyze the
data you will gather.
What’s More
_______2.Research Locale
B. Specific Steps of the study
85
______7. Statistical Treatment G. Demographic Profile
Identify what is being defined or described. Choose from the box below and
write only the letter on the space provided.
Introduction
Research Design
Research Locale
Sample or Respondents
86
Research Instrument
Statistical Treatment
Rubric
Introductory matter
The introduction summarizes the research purpose and 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
major areas of the chapter.
Research design is described. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
The research design follows logically from the problem 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
statement and is defended as such.
Data collection and instrumentation
The population is defined and defended. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
The sampling procedure and data collection procedure is 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
described.
Participant eligibility requirements and measures for 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
participants’ rights are described.
Weaknesses and scope of sampling procedure and/or data 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
collection procedures are described.
Instrument and/or intervention is described and defended. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
Weaknesses in the instrument are described. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
Methodology
Statistical or qualitative methodology is (correctly) 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
described.
Statistical or qualitative methodology is (logically) defended. 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
Assumptions (correct ones) behind methodology are 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
described and defended.
Statistical hypotheses are clearly described, explained 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
how it relates to a big question.
Other
The tone is consistently professional, sentences are well 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
phrased and flow smoothly, word choice is appropriate
and accurate, and writing is free of errors.
Ideas flow smoothly, ideas are not unnecessarily repeated, 5 4 3 2 1 N/A
all ideas relate to the thesis statement (no unnecessary
ideas)
87
murraylax.org. “Research Methodology Rubric”. https://www. murray.org./irpja/rubric_chapter3.pdf
Activity 4. Do it!
After revising your research study be ready to present your manuscript/
research study. You can choose one of the learning modalities in your presentation.
Oral Presentation
PowerPoint Presentation
Poster Presentation.
Online Presentation
When presenting online, the main goal is to keep your audience’s attention.
Lighting: The best flattering lighting comes from a soft and diffuse natural
source, so always face a window (avoid direct sunlight) or a large light source,
the larger the better.
Camera angles: Avoid having the camera too low or too high. A bit above eye
level is the best.
88
Sound: Good sound quality is essential.
Clothing: Do not wear plain white or black, the best are neutral colors.
Background: Pay attention to the background. Do not have it too crowded with
objects that will distract the viewer’s attention.
Bandwith: Internet bandwidth is crucial to a flawless presentation, If you are
streaming from home, make sure that nobody is gaming or watching videos
online as this will slow your connection and affect the flow of your
presentation.
References
Ruel A. Avilla, Practical Research. Diwa Learning System, 2016
https://www.researchgate.net/search.Search.html?type=question&query=Characte
ristics%20of%20the%20Good%20Researcher&tabViewId=58553252eeae39d
db71b4896&previous=researcher
https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/?_ga=2.247697287.1867778098.
1590687129-1153431186.1590687129
89
Lesson Research Design Principles and
When you look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your
research study should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not
possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. Similarly, there
may be instances where you seek permission from participants not to protect their
anonymity. More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you
adopt to guide your dissertation
The research process is a bit like an eye exam. The doctor makes the best guess for
the most appropriate lens strength and then adjusts the lenses from there. Sometimes the
first option is the best and most appropriate; sometimes it takes a few tries with several
different options before finding the best one for you and your situation.
90
What’s In
1.Ethics
2. Morality
3. Honesty
4. Integrity
5. Confidentiality
Discussion
In doing research, how can we say that we have done the right thing? Can we
strike a balance between what is right and what is moral? Are things we have done
widely accepted by the community? Ethics is anchored on the moral standards that
we follow. Morality is a set of “unwritten” rules that guides us on the things that we
should or should not do to attain harmony and orderliness in any undertaking.
Ethics is important in research because it keeps the researcher from
committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth. It promotes essential values
that help researchers working on a topic to have a common understanding of how
things should go about. Since research may involve experts coming from different
fields of expertise, ethics bind them together by considering the important values
such as accountability, cooperation, coordination, mutual respect, and fairness
among others.
Research studies and scientific research are being conducted to provide
results that will help with social, professional, and scientific evolution. Gathering
data and information and analyzing them is the only way for a researcher to
conclude. The process of conducting a research study starts by focusing on tested
hunches and ideas. With the collection of all the necessary information, the results
can come fast. Either positive or negative.
Conducting a research study has certain very, important steps that need to
be taken for the research to be successful. Here are the 8 most important steps that
you are going to take to conduct your research study:
Step 1: Identifying the Subject
There is always a problem, subject, and issue or thematic that is being
analyzed in a research study. Do you have a clear view of what yours is?
Unless you have identified the subject of your research study, you cannot
move on to the next step.
91
Step 2: Find the literature
What is the current information on the topic? Surely some research has
already been conducted at some point. That research gave results, maybe
answers to some of the questions. You need to find that research and those
results. You need the current literature to create your own.
Step 3: Clarify the Subject
Once the literature has been reviewed and the details of the
initial Subject have been identified it is time to clarify the subject. What is the
scope of the study? If it is too big then it has to be broken down into categories
and studied separately. Many factors can affect a subject and many variables.
All of that needs to be taken into account.
Step 4: Definition of Terms and Concepts
Every subject has terms and Concepts. Either scientific, cultural, or social.
These words and phrases are going to be used in the study constantly. You
need to know exactly what they mean and how you should use them. Research
studies are not simple papers. The words you use will affect the outcome of
the paper itself and the way that people will understand the results and your
ideas. So always define the terms and concepts before you start using them.
Step 5: Who is your audience?
Your research study always has to do with an audience. Either directly or
indirectly. It is your responsibility to define that audience. In the beginning, it
can be rather confusing. Separating those that are immediately affected by the
results of your study, from those that are not so connected with your results
can help you clarify your audience and of course, focus on the most important
parts of the research study. After all, working with a very large audience is not
going to give you the results that you are looking for. The bigger the audience,
the harder it will be for the study to be conducted.
Step 6: Instrumentation Plan
Consider this to be the roadmap for your entire study. It will specify some of
the most important parts of the study like the participants, the main literature
focus, the how, when, and where the data is going to be collected and of course
analyzed. Everything you will do will be based on this particular plan. You can
choose when you are going to create it of course. However, the sooner you do
it the better the process of the research study and the faster the results.
Step 7: Collecting the Data
After you have gathered the literature, found your audience, and collected the
original data of the subject, you will conduct your own ‘’experiments’’ to make
sure that your results are the right ones. Those ‘’experiments’’ will give you
data of their own. Collecting that data and analyzing it is a very important
part of the process. You need to make sure that all that data will be safely
stored and properly analyzed. This will happen after the completion of the
instrumentation plan and during the start if the sturdy.
One important thing that you need to note here is where you are going to get
the data. Questionnaires and observation are always good places to start.
92
Step 8: Analyzing the Data
Finally is the analysis of the data itself. That will be the last step that will give
you the results and help you bind your research together. Take your time with
it. Double or even triple check your analysis. Compare it over and over again.
If a mistake is made here you will have to start over with the analysis. That
can take a long time and it is certainly not something that you will want to do.
This is the last step to make sure that you will do it correctly.
By following these 8 steps, you will find that conducting a research study
can be a lot easier than you think. But certainly not easy. Take your time to
familiarize yourself with these steps. Do not rush into anything. Proper research
studies require time to bring accurate and proper results. Always remember that
these studies can affect your future as a scientist or research either positively or
negatively. The more attention you pay to them, while you conduct them, the more
useful they will be for you and the future of your career!
PRINCIPLE ONE
Minimizing the risk of harm
Research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that
participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong
justifications for this. Such scenarios will also require (a) additional planning to
illustrate how participant harm (or discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed consent,
and (c) detailed debriefing.
There are several types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These
include:
Typically, it does not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does
not intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should
try to minimize. To minimize the risk of harm you should think about:
93
We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow,
explaining (a) what they mean, and (b) instances where they should (and should not)
be followed.
PRINCIPLE TWO
Obtaining informed consent
PRINCIPLE THREE
Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
94
your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is not only a
consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design but also
a quantitative research design.
For example:
Imagine that your thesis used a quantitative research design and a survey as
your main research method. In the process of analyzing your data, it is
possible that when examining relationships between variables (i.e., questions
in your survey), a person's identity and responses could be inferred. For
instance, imagine that you were comparing responses amongst employees
within an organization based on specific age groups. There may only be a
small group (or just one employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over
70 years old), which could enable others to identify the responses of this
individual (or small group of employees). Therefore, you need to consider
ways of overcoming such problems, such as (a) aggregating data in tables
and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number of units are present
before data/information can be presented.
There is also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what
research you can and cannot perform, how you must treat the data of research
participants, and so forth. In other words, you don't simply have a duty to protect
the data you collect from participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal
responsibility to do so. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask
your dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice (or a legal professional).
PRINCIPLE FOUR
Avoiding deceptive practices
At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all,
how can participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the
research requires of them if they are being deceived? This is part of what makes the
use of deceptive practices controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances,
research should avoid any kind of deceptive practice. However, this is not always the
case.
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you
are doing.
95
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the
particular phenomenon that is being studied.
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing
By feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean
that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting know
what you are doing. This is most likely to be the case where research
involves observation, rather than direct contact with participants, especially in
a public or online setting. There are several obvious instances where this may be the
case:
Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply be
impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You
may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices, but participants
are not giving you their informed consent.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the
particular phenomenon that is being studied
Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and
possibly deceptive practices, you should think about the extent to which this could
be beneficial in your dissertation, not research in general; that is, everything from
the research paradigm that guides your dissertation through to the data analysis
techniques you choose affect issues of research ethics in your dissertation. Imagine
some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered justifiable:
Scenario A
96
a result, if participants knew that this is the purpose of the study, they may
well provide responses that they think will make them appear less prejudice.
Scenario B
PRINCIPLE FIVE
Providing the right to withdraw
Except for those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let every one
that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should always
have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore, participants
should have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a
participant chooses to withdraw from the research process, they should not
be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop them from withdrawing.
Now that you have read these basic principles of research ethics, you may
want to understand how the research strategy you have chosen affects
your approach to research. You will need to understand the impact of your research
strategy on your approach to research ethics when writing up the Research
Ethics section of your Research Strategy chapter (usually Chapter Three: Research
Strategy).
First, norms promote the aims of the research, such as knowledge, truth, and
avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid the error.
Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination
among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical
97
standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in
research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data
sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect
intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers
want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas
stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.
People more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity
of research.
Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral
and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare,
compliance with the law, and health and safety.
Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects,
students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical
trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by
regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize
his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students. Given the
importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that
many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have
adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics.
98
7. Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants
submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and
patient records.
8. Responsible Publication: Publish to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
9. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote
their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
10. Respect for Colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
11. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate
social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
12. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students based
on sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific
competence and integrity.
14. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental
policies.
15. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in
research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
What’s New
Research Exercise:
A. Read an article about how four Mexican immigrants and their cheap robot
beat MIT in a robotics competition, and now you are interested in the topic of
immigration and STEM education or employment. After reading the article,
Explain the following terms in your understanding:
1. Illegal aliens
2. Hispanics
3. Plagiarism
4. Education
5. Employment
6. Immigrants
7. Ethics
8. Protocol
9. Principles
10. Artwork
99
What is It
100
What’s More
Activity 1.1
Explain the Five (5) Principles of Research Ethics.
PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimising the risk of harm
101
Activity 1.2
3. Social disadvantage-
References
Pouspourika, K. (2018). How to Conduct a Research Study. Retrieved from
https://ied.eu/project-updates/how-to-conduct-a-research-study/
Zainudin, A. (2016), Simple Guidelines in Conducting Research. Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia Johor, Malaysia.
https://www.upv.es/laboluz/master/seminario/textos/Visualizing_Research.pdf
https://www.ndnu.edu/academics/research/permission-to-conduct-study/
http://dissertation.laerd.com/principles-of-research-ethics.php
Given the options on the box, identify the terms being described below. Write
your answer on the space provided.
102
1. _______________ is a type of research that depends on the collection and analysis
of numerical data.
2. _______________ is a type of quantitative research that seeks to describe the present
status of an identified variable.
3. The _______________ is a part or proportion of the whole.
4. The _______________ is used to calculate the sample size (n) given the population
size (N) and a margin of error (e).
11. _______________ are conducted to document and analyzed the behaviors and
social phenomenon as they occur in a natural context, and may be useful in
identifying, for example, discrepancies between what people say ( such as an
interview ) and what they do.
12. The _______________ section of any academic research paper allows you to
convince your readers that your research is useful and will contribute to your
field of study.
13. _______________ is a part of the thesis that uses many common formats of
listing down the citations such as APA (American Psychological Association) and
the MLA Thesis Writing Format.
14. _______________ based on the findings, ONLY the researcher should offer
endorsements – for betterment, improvement, modifications, future researchers
and alike, it happens in many occasions the researcher offer approbation which
normally away from the context of the study – this is too ‘ambitious’ to try to
offer something not being studied by the researcher.
15. _______________ pertains to the list of documents (reports, data analysis,
tables, or other related artifacts) that have been referred or cited in the
discussion of the report.
103
Slovin’s formula observations descriptive interview method
research
What I Can Do
Using your research, fill the blanks with the necessary information. Remember to
consider all the things you learned from this module to guide you in giving your
answers.
104
Assessment
Write the letter of your answer on the space before the number.
_______1. A group of researchers wants to find out the tobacco habits of teenagers.
They intend it to be a survey and to use a questionnaire as a data-
gathering tool. Which research design should they use?
a. descriptive c. correlational
b. causal-comparative d. experimental
_______2. Which research design should be employed if the research is about the
differences on competencies due to demographic profile?
a. descriptive c. correlational
b. causal- comparative d. experimental
_______3. In a school with 500 teachers, the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities. It is more likely that they would prefer picking chits
out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected. What sampling technique is described in
this situation?
a. random sampling c. accidental sampling
b. systematic sampling d. purposive sampling
_______5. If you are using the questionnaire as your data gathering instrument,
which method of data collection are you using which?
_______6. You will use a data collection method that involves the presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. If you are the
researcher, what method are you using?
105
_______7. Which combination of data does the research question “Is there a significant
relationship between age and fitness level?” show?
a. numerical, numerical c. numerical, categorical
b. categorical, categorical d. none of the above
_______8. This kind of validity deals with data that can be measured and validated at
the same time.
a. concurrent validity c. construct validity
b. content validity d. criterion related validity
_______9. Which type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds with its
theoretical construct?
a. concurrent validity c. construct validity
b. content validity d. criterion related validity
_______13. Which of the following must be told to the research participants when
obtaining written informed consent?
106
Additional Activities
For more learnings on how to prepare the methodology part of your research
manuscript, you may visit and try the following materials by accessing the links:
Simple Learning Pro, “Types of Sampling Methods” YouTube video, 4:49, November
25, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTuj57uXWlk
107
Scott Crombie, “Data Collection Methods”, YouTube video, 2:09, January 9, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJ-YX_AcomU
108
Answer Key
109
Lesson 2. The Sample and Sampling Procedures
110
Lesson 4: Describe an Intervention
What’s More
Activity 2. Core Components
1. Analyzed problem or goal
2. Develop an action plan
3. Pilot Test
4. Assess the level of problem or goal
5. Obtain clients Input
6. Assessment
7. Evidenced based interventions
8. Identify goals
9. Implementation
10. Groups to benefit
What’s New.
What’s In
Word Hunt
1. quantitative research design
2. descriptive research
3. correlational research
4. causal- comparative research
5. nonexperimental research
What’s New.
Words
1. Data
2. Facts
3. Interview
4. Judgment
5. Observation
6. Primary
7. Quantitative
8. Questionnaire
9. Registration
10. Valid
111
What’s More. What’s More. What’s More. What’s More
Activity 1. Activity 1.2. Activity 1.3. Tell Activity 1.4. Decision
Mapping True or False Me the Story Point
1. True 1. Testing 1. Questionnaire
Primary data 2. False 2. Unstructured method
Individual 3. True 3. Testing 2. Interview method
persons 4. True 4. Testing 3. Interview method
associations 5. True 5. Registration 4. Questionnaire
law 6. True method
treaties 7. True
5. Interview method
contracts 8. True
6. Interview method
family 9. False
7. Interview method
living organisms 10. True
8. Observation
Constitution 11. True
method
12. True
9. Structured
13. True
Secondary data observation method
14. True
books 10. Testing method
15. True
dictionaries
encyclopedias
magazines
newspapers
thesis
almanac
112
What’s More
Activity 1. The Right Combination
Combination of Variables Methods
1. Categorical, categorical • Chi-Square
• Fisher's exact test of independence
Activity 1.1. The Right Combination
2. Numerical, categorical • Two- sample T-Test
• One way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• Wilcoxon signed-rank test
3. Categorical, categorical • Chi-Square
• Fisher's exact test of independence
4. categorical, categorical • Chi-Square
• Fisher's exact test of independence
5. Numerical, categorical • Two- sample T-Test
• One way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• Wilcoxon signed-rank test
6. Numerical, numerical • Pearson's correlation coefficient
• Simple linear regression
7. Numerical, categorical • Two- sample T-Test
• One way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• Wilcoxon signed-rank test
8. Categorical, categorical • Chi-Square
• Fisher's exact test of independence
9. Categorical, numerical • Two- sample T-Test
• One way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• Wilcoxon signed-rank test
10. Categorical, numerical • Two- sample T-Test
• One way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• Wilcoxon signed-rank test
* Learners may give only one method
What’s More
Activity 3. Pairings
Condition Statistical method
1. 2 paired Paired T-Test
2. 3 or more paired Repeated measures ANOVA
3. 2 independent Two- sample T-Test
4. 2 independent Two- sample T-Test
5. 3 or more independent One- way ANOVA
113
Lesson 7: Present Written Research Methodology
What is it
1.Honesty
2. Objectivity
3. Integrity:
4. Carefulness:
5. Openness:
6. Respect for
Intellectual Property
7. Confidentiality:
8. Responsible
Publication
9. Responsible
Mentoring
10. Respect for
Colleagues
114
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