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Biomolecules
Biomolecules
Classiñcation of carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates (Saccharides)
(C2H22 O1pne fructose unit) glucose,fructose and galactose) fructose unit + twogalactose units)
Maltose: (Two glucose units) (C24 Hy2 D4)
Lactose: (one glucose unit +
one galactose unit
(I) MONOSACCHARIDE
n
These aldose and ketose names are further modified
(1) Nomenclature of monosaccharides in accordance with the total number of carbon
As per IUPAC system of nomenclature, general atoms in the monosaccharides.
name for monosaccharides is glycose (old name of For e.g.:
glucose) (a) Glucose (C,H,,0) is an aldose with six carbons
Monosaccharide
and is thereby an aldohexose.
(b) Fructose (CH,,0) is an ketose with six carbons
and is thereby a ketohexose.
Aldose Ketose (2) GLUCOSE
(Monosaccharides (Monosaccharides
with one aldehydic with one ketonic Glucose occur in nature in free as well as in
carbonyl group) carbonyl group) combined state.
PREPARATION OF GLUCOSE:
From Sucrose From Starch
Reaction: Reaction:
+ H,0 H' (CH,0,)nt nH,0
H'
nC,H,,0,
393 K, 2-3 atm
(Sucrose) (Glucose) (Fructose) (Starch) (Glucose)
Sucrose is hydrolysed by warming with dilute Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis o
hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid for about 2 hrs. starch by boiling it with dilute sulfuric acid at 393K
under to 3 atm. pressure.
2
CH,OH
&lycose (Cyanohydrin)
(3)Glucose gets oxidized to a six carbon monocarboxylic(3)
acid called gluconic acid on reaction
This reaction show that, the carbonyl group in glucose
with bromine is in the form of aldehyde.
water which is a mild oxidizing agent.
CHO COOH
(CHOH), (0)
(CHOH),
Br,, water
CH,OH CH,OH
(Glucose) (Gluconic acid)
|(4) Glucose reacts with acetic anhydride to formn glucose(4) This
reaction confirms five hydroxyl groups. As glucose
pentaacetate. is a stable compound, it was further inferred
CHO that five
CHO hydroxyl groups are bonded to five different carbon
atoms in glucose molecule.
ICHOH),
CH,OH
Acetic
anhydride
S(CH,CO),0
(CH - 0
-- +
CH,), 5CH,COOH
(Acetic acid)
(Glucose pentaacetate)
(5) Glucose and pluconic acid both on oxidation with|(5) This indicates presence of a one primary alcohols
dilute nitric acid give the same dicarboxylic acid called -CH,OH)in glucose
Ccharic acid, COOH COOH
(CHOH), (0) (0)
(CHOH), (CHOH),
HNO, KNO,
CH,OH
COOH CH,OH
(Glucose)
(Saccharic acid) (Gluconic acid)
140 Ringstructure of glucose
GLUCOSE:
OPTICAL ISOMERISM IN contains Sone chemical properties of glucose
could hes
shows that it
Structural fornula of glucose cxplaincd| on the basis of this ntructure
atoms. Ring structure of glucosc fulfils he cxplanation
four chiral carbon are possible for each of
Two distinct configurations
G
properies of it.
glucose.
the four chiral carbon of of Glucose is found 1o have two cyclic structures
A structural formula containing n' number of nnd VII) which are (VI
in equilibrium with each other
maximum 2n' numbers
chiral carbon can have isomers. An aldohexose
through the open chain structure (1) in auen
stereostructures or oplical solution.
16) optical
thereforc, can cXist asonesixteen (2*=
isomers and glucose s of them. 'ÇHO
Emil Fischer, a German Nobel laureate (1902)
chiral OH
determined the coniguration of the four basis
C-5) in glucose. On the HO3- ||
carbons (C-2, C-3, C-4, measurement of optical
4
2C=0 HOH,
HO H
OH HO 2 -CH,0H
HO HO
HOH H 4
H
4- OH
H-OH
"CH,O1
H
H
H,OH °CH,OH
Open chain structure of fructose
a-D-(-)-Fructofuranose p-D-(-)-Fructofuranose
B-side B-side
6
HO - H,C CIl, - O1
5 2
H
HO, H
H, H, –
OH
Furan
3 3
OH (-side OH H 4-side
u-D-(-)-Fructofuranose B-D-()-Fructofuranose
Representations of fructose structure
The figure shows representation of open
structure if fructose and ring structures of
chain In the formation of the glycosidic linkage at least
one of the two monosaccharide units must use its
1-and B-anomers of fructofuranose. Ring structure anomeric hydroxyl group.
of fructose is a hemiketal.
Three most common diasaccharides are sucrose,
(II) DISACCHARIDES maltose and lactose.
Disaccharides give rise to two units of same/ (a) Sucrose
different monosaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute
acids or specific enzymes. (1) Sucrose (Cj2H,0,) its dextrorotatory (+66.59).
On hydrolysis with dilute acid or an enzyme called
Two monosaccharide units are linked together by invertase sucrose gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)
an ether oxide linkage (-0-) which is termed as glucose and D-(-) fructose.
glycosidic linkage in carbohydrate chemistry. H
5 lHO
H
2
H
H H0 -
OH CH, OH
HO HO
4
3 3
OH OH OH
B-D-fructose unit
a-D-glucose unit ) a-D-glucose unit
6
– B
HO H,C
H
HO
CH, - OH u, p-1, 2-glycosidic linkage
3
OH H
a-side
B-D-fructose unit
Haworth formula of sucrose
P'apers Solution
142 Hence maltose is a reducing sugar
sucrose contains glycosidic linkage
(2) Structure of ß- fructose. (c) Lactose:
berween C-1 of a-glucose and C-2 of (1) Lactose a
laevorotation of fructose (-92.49) (C,,H,,0,) is disaccharide
(3) Invert sugar: As the milk.
present
is larger than the dextrorotation
of glucose (+ 52.7°),
net laevorotation. Hence (2) It is formed from two monosaccharnde units,
the hydrolysis product has inversion of D-galactose and D-glucose. namely
hydrolvsis of sucrose is also called sugar.
sucrose and the product is called invert HOCH, HOÇH,
Non-reducing sugar: As the potenial aldehyde are
and
(4) HO H
units OH
ketone groups of both the monosaccharidessucrose is H H
involved in formation of the glycosidic bond
4 H
OH OH
a non-reducing sugar. 2 H
|3 3 2 H
(b) Malt ose two units of
H OH H OH
(1) (C,,H,,0, ,) is a disaccharide made of B-D-galactose B-D-glucose
D-glucose.
6 CH,oH B-1, 4-glycosidic linkage
CH,OH (3)
5
The glycosidic linkage is forrmed between C-1 of B.n
5 H H H
galactose and C-4 of glucose. Therefore the linkage
H
H H in lactose is called ß-1,4-glycosidic linkage.
OH OH H
(4) Reducing Sugar: The hemiacetal group at
HO 2 OH C-l of the
|3 3 glucose unit is not involved in glycosidic linkage but
H OH H OH is free. Hence lactose is a reducing sugar.
a-D-glucose glucose [I1) POLYSACCHARIDES
a-1,4-glycosidic bond Polysaccharides are formed by linking large number
(2) The glycosidic bond in maltose is formed between of monosaccharide units by glycosidic linkage.
C-1 of one glucose ring and C-4 of the other. The (a) Starch (b) Cellulose (c) Glycogen
e.g.
glucose ring which uses its hydroxy group at C-1 (a) Starch
is a-glucopyranose. Hence linkage is called a-1, (1) Starch is a storage carbohydrate of plants and
4-glycosidic linkage. important nutrient for humans and other animals.
(3) Maltose gives glucose on hydrolysis with dilute
(2) Starch is a polymer of a-D glucose.
acids or the enzyme maltase. (3) Starch has two components namely Amylose (15-20%)
(4) Reducing sugar: The hemiacetal group at C-1 of the
and amylopectin (80-85%)
second ring is not involved in glycosidic linkage.
Starch
Amylose Amylopectin
It is water soluble. water insoluble.
It is
I forms blue coloured complex with iodine. n It forms blue-violet coloured complex with
It contains 200-1000aglucose units linked jodine.
by a-1,4-glycosidic linkage giving rise to It is a branched chain polysaccharide
unbranched chain of variable length and formed by a-1, 4-glycosidic linkages
between a-glucose units whereas branches
are formed by a-1, 6-glycosidic 1linkage.
6 6
CH,OH CH,OH CH,0H 6
CH,OH
H H H
5
H H H H
H H
OH H H
OH H OH H OH H
3 2 3
3 2 2
H 3
OH H OH OH H OH
CH,OH CH,OH
H
H
H
OH OH
3
Cu,o 6
"Cl, CH,OI
H H H
H H
OH H OH
3 2
H OH OH OH
H H H
3 2 3 3 |2
H OH H OH H OH
-----NH - CH
-C- NH - CH-C - NH – CH -C- NIH - CH - C
+N- terminal R' R" R"" R' C -
terminal >
(a) Representation by structural formula
Ala - Gly - Ser - Tyr - Gly - Gly - Lys
<-N - terminal C -
terminal
(b) Representation with amino acid symbols
Enzyme catalysis
DENATURATION OF PROTEINS:
(5) Action of an enzyme on a substrate is explained by
ial Denaruration is the process by which the lock and key mechanisn.
molecular shape of protein changes without In this the enzyme has active site on its surface.
breaking the amide/peptide bonds that form the
substrate molecule can attach to this active site
A
primay structure.
(b) High temperature, acids base and even agitation
only if it has the right size and shape.
can disrupt for a specific shape of protein. This Once in the active site, the substrate is held in the
is denatration of protein. correct orientation to react and forms the products
(c) Denaturation results in disturbing the secondary, of reaction.
tertiary or quaternary structure of protein. This Then the product leave the active site and the
causes change in properties of protein and the enzyme is then again ready to act as catalyst.
biological activity is often lost. The rate of the reaction is very high as the formation
(d) e.g. Boiling of egg coagulates egg white and of enzyme substrate complex has very low activation
conversion of milk into curd. energY.
ENZYME Some enzymes are so efficient that one enzyme
(6)
(a) Many chemical reaction takes place in our body molecule can catalyse the reaction of 10000
are brought about at the physiological pH of 7.4 substrate molecules in one second.
and the body temperature of 37°C with help of In many industrial proccsses specific reactions
biological catalysts called enzymes. are carried out by use of enzyme extracted from
(b) e.g. Insulin - an enzyme secreted by pancreas, organisms and also by used new cnzymes made
using genetic engineering
controls blood sugar levels.
Amylase - an enzyme
present in saliva, hydrolyzes Industrial Application of enzyme are:
starch. Conversion of glucose to sweet-tasting fructose,
(c) Chemical enzymes are proteins. Every living cell using glucose isomerase.
at
contains least 1000 different enzymnes.
n
Manufacture of new antibiotics, using pencillin G
(d) Most enzymes catalyse only one reaction or acylase.
one group of similar reactions. Thus enzymes Manufacture of laundry detergents, using proteases.
catalysis is highly specific. Manufacture of esters used in cosmetics, using
e.g. an enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of amide genetically engineered enzyme.
will not work on or
ester acetal. 14.4 NUCLEIC ACID
(e) Mechanism of enzyme catalysis
One of the most remnarkable properties of living cell
substrate is their ability to produce their replicas through
thousands of generations. This becomes possible
active site
because certain type of information is passed
from one generation to the next. Such
-
unchange
enzyme information is called genetic information.
The particles present in the nucleus of the cel
which is responsible for transmission of inherent
characters are called chromosomes which are made
enzymne
up of proteins combined with biomolecules known
substrate .
as Nucleic acid.
complex There are two types of nucleic acid
RNA DNA
In RNA sugar components In DNA sugar components
of nucleotide unit is of nucleotide unit is
D-ribOse 2- deoxy -D-ibose
(ii) A nitrogen containing base
There are two different types of bases
Purines Pyrimidines
They have two fused rings They have single ring
example: Aldenine (A) example: Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
NH,
H,C
N3 NH NH
1
H
H
Pyrimidine Cytosine Uracil Thymine
(Parent compound) (C)
NH,
NH
N
NH,
H 3 H H
NH,
NH,
HO – CH, 0. OH
5'
N
HO – CH,, 0 N
OH OH
H 3 2
OH OH
(D-Ribose) Cytosine (a-ribonucleoside)
NH,
HO – NH,
CH, O.
OH
5'
HO – CH, O 9
OH 4
OH
(D-2-deoxyribose) (Adenine) (a-deoxyribonucleoside)
Formation of nucleoside
A
nucleoside is formed joining the anomeric
by (b) The Nucleotide is the molecule in which
carbon of the furanose with nitrogen of a base. phosphate group is attached to the nucleoside.
While numbering the atoms in a nucleoside, primes i.e. A
base-sugar-phosphate unit is called
() are used for furanose numbering to distinguish
Nucleotide.
them from the atoms of the base. With pyrimidine Nucleotides are joined together through phosphate
bases, thè nitrogen' atom at the 1 position bonds ester linkage.
with the 1' carbon'of the sugar. With purine bases,
the nitrogen atom at the 9 position bonds with 1
N
O=
Ö-P-0-CH,, ( Ö-P-0-CH,
OH OH OH
(AMP) (dCMP)
Structure of nucleotides
Nucleotides are formed by adding a phosphate (4) Structure of Nucleic acids:
group to the 5-OH of a nucleoside. Thus, Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, are
nucleotides are monophosphates of nucleosides. polymers of nucleotides, formed by joining
Abridged names of some nucleotides are AMP, the 3'-OH group of one nucleotide with
dAMP, UMP, dTMP and so on. Here, the first capital
5-phosphate of another nucleotide.
letter is derived from the corresponding base. MP
stands for monophosphate. Small letter d' in the
beginning indicates deoxyribose in the nucleotide.
NH,
NH,
NH, 5'
N 5' cnd Ö-p-0-CHo.
5
NH,
Ö-P-0-CH,
Õ-p-0-cH,0.
O-p-0-H,
OH Phosphodiester
linkage
OH
(dAMP) 3'
(dCMP)
OH 3' end
a
Formation of dinucleottde
One end of polynucleotide having free phosphate a The polynucleotide structure of nucleic acids can he
group of 5-position is called 5'-end, The other end represented schematically asin Fig. (a and b).
is 3 end and has free OH-group at 3 position.
p
(b)
-p$P -p-$ P
B B B
Ng. Polynucleotide structure of nucleic acids : Schematic representations (a) and (b)
Primary structure of nucleic acids is the sequence of gives rise to a ladderlike structure of DNA double
the nucleotides in it. This in turn is determined by helix.
the identify of the bases in the nucleotides. Adenine always forms two hydrogen bonds
Different nucleic acids have distinct primary with thymine, and guanine forms three hydrogen
- -
structure. bonds with cytosine. Thus A T and C G are
It is the sequence of bases in DNA which carries the complementary base pairs and the two strands of
genetic information of the organism. the double helix are complementary to each other.
The polynucleotide chain of nucleic acids are named It may be noted that RNA exists as single stranded
by the sequence of the bases, beginning at the 5 structure.
end using the one letter symbols of the bases.
For example: Axis of helix
EA WIIC
The name CATG means there are four nucleotide in
C
bo Seconday etychuee
Sein gosi in
bon o
localied eons
thTee.
The dimenfdno! arangemet
Ok poin: chejo is caled
as
secondauy structue + poin
o oe amide iotage
Hydtqeo bondiq betwn N-H roton
tuctune
&Czo oyqenonothen qives econdau proteim
Tos types sec, Ghu ctuien cO wmonly pund in
&
H
rmp
oS cloctoie prol. eatues vge. -Hydrogen
Ench tu helix has 96 aiino adh Boniy
sydrDGen bondd to NH gouth
uino ad
Hydoqen bond are llel to axis
2
2R 4nups
ex
tended o tan tu heli
os
D
P-þleated 6heet En b. bleated heet, two Wore polypephde
(Called trends) up ide-by ide.
ine
hojns
ien io He plcn S
Heat
Te Czo l NH bond
HyOgen bonioq ocun ben N+H 2C=o heighlaousna chain
R
4nup oiented aLie below Heet g. Sptder draeustk
H
H
C
Testiany trucue roes
The mengonal ehope adoped by enhre poypeptde
three
de
-HNh
G thoee drogen bne
A Two dgen
Suga bond.