Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

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Journal of Sound and Vibration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsvi

Rapid Communications

Pseudo-Mach angles for Rayleigh ground waves generated by

trains moving at conventional speeds
Victor V. Krylov
Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Spatial distributions of ground vibrations (mostly Rayleigh surface waves) generated by railway
Railway-generated ground vibrations trains travelling at conventional speeds have been investigated theoretically at frequencies close
Ground vibration boom to sleeper passage frequencies defined by train speeds and sleeper periodicity. It has been
Mach angles
demonstrated that generated ground vibrations at such frequencies are plane Rayleigh waves
Sleeper passage frequencies
Pseudo-Mach angles
propagating symmetrically away from the track at certain angles in respect of the track. In
particular, for frequency components slightly higher than sleeper passage frequencies, these ra­
diation angles resemble the well-known frequency-independent Mach angles for Rayleigh ground
waves generated by trains moving at speeds that are higher than Rayleigh wave velocity in the
supporting ground. The above-mentioned angles associated with Rayleigh wave radiation at
conventional speeds, that are dependent on frequency, can be called ’pseudo-Mach angles’. These
radiation angles can be used for better understanding of railway-generated ground vibrations
around sleeper passage frequencies and for their more efficient experimental observation.

1. Introduction

It is well known that amplitudes of railway-generated ground vibrations (mostly Rayleigh surface waves) generally become larger
at higher train speeds. The increase in amplitudes of generated ground vibrations can be especially large when train speeds approach
the velocity of Rayleigh waves in the supporting ground. According to the theoretical predictions [1–3] confirmed by the experiments
[4,5], if a train speed v exceeds the Rayleigh wave velocity cR in the supporting soil, a ground vibration boom occurs. This phenomenon,
which is similar to a sonic boom from supersonic aircraft, is associated with a very large increase in generated ground vibrations, as
compared to the case of conventional trains. The increased attention to the problems of ground vibrations from high-speed railways is
reflected in a growing number of theoretical and experimental investigations in this area (see e.g. the recent book [6]).
The aim of the present rapid communication is to report some new results on ground vibrations generated by trains travelling at
conventional speeds, i.e. at speeds that are lower than Rayleigh wave velocity in the ground. Namely, it will be shown that at frequency
components close to the so-called sleeper passage frequencies for conventional trains, that are defined by train speeds and sleeper
periodicity, generated ground vibrations represent plane Rayleigh surface waves propagating symmetrically away from the track at
certain angles in respect of the track. These newly predicted radiation angles depend on frequency, on train speed and on sleeper
periodicity. In particular, for frequency components slightly higher than sleeper passage frequencies, these radiation angles resemble
the well-known frequency-independent Mach angles for Rayleigh ground waves generated by trains moving at speeds higher than
Rayleigh wave velocity in the supporting ground. The above-mentioned radiation angles associated with generation of plane Rayleigh

E-mail address: V.V.Krylov@lboro.ac.uk.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2023.118121
Received 27 March 2023; Received in revised form 19 October 2023; Accepted 21 October 2023
Available online 22 October 2023
0022-460X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

waves at conventional speeds can be called pseudo-Mach angles. These pseudo-Mach angles can be observed experimentally at fre­
quencies of interest by applying frequency filters to ground vibration sensors, and they should not be mistaken for real Mach angles.

2. Theoretical background

In our analysis, we will take into account only one mechanism of railway-generated ground vibrations - the quasi-static pressure of
wheel axles acting onto the track, which is always present, even for ideally flat rails and perfectly round wheels. This universal
generation mechanism is responsible for the above-mentioned railway-generated ground vibration boom, and it is also responsible for
ground vibrations generated at and around sleeper passage frequencies [1–3,7]. It should be noted that at other frequencies the un­
evenness of real wheels and rails usually plays a more important role in generation of ground vibrations by conventional trains than the
quasi-static pressure mechanism does (see e.g. [8,9]).
According to the earlier developed theory [1–3,7], in order to calculate ground vibrations generated by a train due to the
quasi-static pressure mechanism, one needs to take into account the superposition of waves generated by each elementary source of
ground vibrations (sleeper) activated by wheel axles of all carriages, with the time and space differences between sources (sleepers)
being taken into account. For the case of surface trains, it is sufficient to take into account only generated Rayleigh waves, because they
make the main contribution to ground vibrations measured on the ground surface.
For the sake of simplicity, we will consider ground vibrations generated by a single axle load moving at constant speed v along a
straight track located on the x-axis. In this case, we will be interested in calculations of the spatial distributions of vertical vibration
velocity vz of Rayleigh waves generated on the ground surface (z = 0) at the points of observation characterised by the coordinates x, y.

Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of ground vibrations over the surface area 40 × 40 m generated at the frequency component f = 11 Hz by a single axle
load travelling at trans-Rayleigh speed v = 90 m/s.

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V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

The statement of the problem and the main equations used for calculations (following from [1–3,7]) are given in the Appendix.
It follows from these equations that the maximum radiation of ground vibrations takes place if the train speed v is larger than
Rayleigh wave velocity in the ground cR [1–3,7] (such trains are often called ’trans-Rayleigh trains’). Under this condition, corre­
sponding to the occurrence of ground vibration boom, ground vibrations are generated as plane Rayleigh surface waves symmetrically
propagating at Mach angles Θ = cos− 1(cR/v) in respect of the track, their amplitudes being much larger than in the case of conventional
trains.
It should be noted that for trans-Rayleigh trains these symmetrically propagating Rayleigh ground waves are generated equally well
on tracks with and without railway sleepers, whereas for conventional (sub-Rayleigh) trains the presence of sleepers for the possibility
of generation of Rayleigh waves is paramount. Without them no propagating waves are generated by a constant force moving at
constant sub-Rayleigh speeds in the framework of the quasi-static pressure generation mechanism. However, if the same force is
moving along a railway track supported by periodic sleepers, Rayleigh waves are generated even at sub-Rayleigh train speeds. For a
single moving axle load, the efficient generation takes place mainly at and around the so-called sleeper passage frequencies fsp(m) = m
(v/d), where v is the load speed, d is the sleeper periodicity, and m = 1, 2, 3… .

3. Numerical calculations and discussion

In this section, we describe the results of the numerical calculations of spatial distributions of railway-generated ground vibration
fields vz(x,y,ω) (i.e. wave snapshots in the space-frequency domain shown in arbitrary linear units) over a certain surface area with a
railway track in the middle of it (located along the x-axis). Calculations have been carried out for a number of cases of interest over the
surface area of 40 × 40 m using the earlier obtained analytical expressions [1–3,7] (see the main Eq. (A.6) together with formulas
(A.3), (A.4), (A.7) in the Appendix). The summation in (A.6) has been taken over 120 sleepers in all cases for each point of observation
x, y, and the magnitude of the axle load has been considered to be the same in all cases. All numerical calculations in this paper have
been carried out using the Mathcad software package. The results are presented as greyscale contour plots. It was assumed that the
velocity of Rayleigh surface waves in the ground is cR = 80 m/s for all cases, the sleeper periodicity is d = 0.7 m, and the
non-dimensional loss factor describing the attenuation of Rayleigh waves in soil is γ = 0.001.
It is natural to start with the well-known special case of ground vibrations generated by a single axle load travelling at a trans-
Rayleigh speed v > cR, which is associated with generation of ground vibration boom by high-speed trains. Because the amplitudes
of generated ground vibrations are the largest in this case, it is convenient to use the obtained results as a reference for comparison with

Fig. 2. Spatial distribution of ground vibrations over the surface area 40 × 40 m generated at the frequency component f = 23 Hz (above the first
sleeper passage frequency) by a single axle load travelling at speed v = 14 m/s.

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V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

amplitudes of ground vibrations generated at lower (conventional) train speeds.

Fig. 1 illustrates the results of such calculations at frequency f = 11 Hz as a contour plot for an axle load travelling at the trans-
Rayleigh speed v = 90 m/s (or 324 km/h) (this gives the value of Mach number M = v/cR = 90/80 = 1.125). The horizontal and
vertical axes in Fig. 1 represent surface rectangular coordinates in normalised (non-dimensional) units changing from − 1 to 1: xnorm =
x[m]/20[m] and ynorm = y[m]/20[m] respectively. The direction of the load motion is from left to right.
As it can be seen from Fig. 1, the spatial distribution of ground vibrations (Rayleigh ground waves) shows a typical picture of plane
waves radiated symmetrically in respect of the track at Mach angles Θ = cos− 1(cR/v). It should be noted that these Mach angles do not
depend on frequency. Therefore, for the same trans-Rayleigh train speed, ground vibrations will be generated at the same Mach angles
for any frequency components.
The amplitudes of generated ground vibrations (in arbitrary linear units) can be estimated from the surface plot (3D-plot) asso­
ciated with Fig. 1 (not shown here for brevity). The vertical scale in this surface plot gives the range of vertical components of ground
vibration velocities, which can be compared with the amplitudes of ground vibrations generated at sub-Rayleigh speeds that will be
discussed below.
Let us now consider generation of ground vibrations by a single axle load travelling at the conventional (sub-Rayleigh) speed v <
cR. In particular, let us assume that v = 14 m/s (or 50.4 km/h), and calculate the spatial distribution of generated ground vibrations at
frequency component f = 23 Hz, which is a little higher than the first sleeper passage frequency fsp(1) = (v/d) = 14/0.7 = 20 [Hz]. The
results are shown in Fig. 2.
It can be seen that the spatial distribution of ground vibrations in Fig. 2 looks surprisingly similar to that shown in Fig. 1 for the case
of ground vibration boom (apart from the noticeable difference in the wavelengths caused by the difference in chosen frequencies),
with the radiation angles in Fig. 2 resembling the Mach angles in Fig. 1. One should remember though that the associated physical
mechanisms are absolutely different in these two cases. Rayleigh wave generation by an axle load travelling at a sub-Rayleigh speed
illustrated in Fig. 2 is entirely due to the presence of periodic sleepers, and the radiation angles of generated Rayleigh waves are

Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of ground vibrations over the surface area 40 × 40 m generated at the frequency component f = 19 Hz (slightly below
the first sleeper passage frequency) by a single load travelling at speed v = 14 m/s.

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V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

defined by the phase differences between the Rayleigh waves generated by adjacent elementary sleepers, which in turn depend on load
speed, on frequency and on sleeper periodicity. Therefore, an appropriate new term, pseudo-Mach angles, can be introduced for such
radiation angles. The amplitudes of generated ground vibrations shown in Fig. 2 are roughly by 85 times smaller than in Fig. 1.
Let us now consider ground vibrations generated by the same moving load at the frequency component f = 19 Hz, which is slightly
lower than the first sleeper passage frequency. The resulting spatial distribution of generated ground vibrations (Rayleigh surface
waves) is shown in Fig. 3. Generated Rayleigh waves are also plane in this case, but the noticeable difference from Fig. 2 can be seen in
the directions of propagation of generated plane Rayleigh waves. These directions are now deflected symmetrically in the opposite
directions from the normal directions to the track, in comparison with Fig. 2, so that horizontal components of the corresponding wave
vectors of radiated Rayleigh waves become negative, i.e. their directions (from right to left) are now opposite to the direction of the
axle load motion (from left to right). For convenience, such radiation angles, that have no resemblance to the case of ground vibration
boom shown in Fig. 1, can be called negative pseudo-Mach angles.
Note that the above-mentioned system of periodic sleepers represents a phased array for radiated Rayleigh waves that, depending
on the phase difference between vibrations of the adjacent sleepers, can steer the resulting waves in different directions in respect of
the normal direction to the track. Radiation in the normal direction takes place at sleeper passage frequencies, i.e. at f = fsp(m) = m(v/
d), where m = 1, 2, 3… As it can be seen from Eq. (A.6), the phase difference between the adjacent sleepers at sleeper passage fre­
quencies fsp(m) is equal to 2πm, i.e. the sleepers are in phase in this case. At frequencies f slightly higher than fsp(m), the phase difference
between the adjacent sleepers is positive, and according to the physics of phased arrays, radiation takes place in the direction of load
motion. Similarly, at frequencies f slightly lower than fsp(m), the phase difference between the adjacent sleepers is negative, and ra­
diation takes place in the opposite direction.

Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of ground vibrations over the surface area 40 × 40 m generated at the frequency component f = 17 Hz (below the first
sleeper passage frequency) by a single axle load travelling at speed v = 14 m/s.

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V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

It should be noted that the conventional Mach angles do not depend on frequency, and therefore they can be observed in the space-
time domain, as waves radiated at all frequency components add up to each other. In contrast to the conventional Mach angles, values
of pseudo-Mach angles do depend on frequency, which means that waves radiated at different frequency components will propagate at
different angles, causing the destructive interference that would suppress radiated plane waves.
For the even lower frequency component, f = 17 Hz, some changes in the calculated spatial distribution of generated ground vi­
brations take place, as can be seen in Fig. 4. Namely, the radiated Rayleigh waves cease to be plane and become cylindrical, which
indicates the end of constructive interference between waves generated by different sleepers for frequency components that are far
away enough from sleeper passage frequencies.
Fig. 4 shows the transition from radiated plane Rayleigh waves to radiated cylindrical Rayleigh waves at frequency f = 17 Hz. The
observed deviations from the expected perfect periodicity in x on this figure can be explained by some aspects of the numerical
calculations of this figure. Namely, for this particular figure, the number of railway sleepers (120 sleepers) over which the summation
took place in Eq. (A.6)), turned out to be insufficient for obtaining undistorted results. In spite of this, the decision has been made to
keep the summation over 120 sleepers in producing Fig. 4, which makes it consistent with all other figures, where summation took
place also over 120 sleepers.
Note that, as was mentioned above, ground vibrations generated by a single axle load exactly at the first sleeper passage frequency f
= 20 Hz represent plane waves propagating symmetrically away from the track in the normal directions to it, as shown in Fig. 5. This is
due to the fact that at sleeper passage frequencies all sleepers are radiating in phase.
Thus, resuming the above, it can be said that ground vibrations at relatively narrow band of frequencies around the first sleeper
passage frequency are generated as plane Rayleigh surface waves that are steering around the normal directions to the track either in
the direction of the load motion (at pseudo-Mach angles) - for higher frequencies, or in the opposite direction (at negative pseudo-Mach
angles) - for lower frequencies. Note that such a behavior is very similar to the frequency behavior of some types of electromagnetic
’travelling-wave antennas’ used in microwave technology (see e.g. [10]).
It can be shown that at and around the second sleeper passage frequency fsp(2) = 2(v/d), which is equal to 40 Hz in the case under

Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of ground vibrations over the surface area 40 × 40 m generated at the frequency component f = 20 Hz (first sleeper
passage frequency) by a single axle load travelling at speed v = 14 m/s.

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V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

consideration, the situation is very similar (the results of the calculations for this case are not shown here for brevity). A similar
behavior can be observed also for the third sleeper passage frequency as well as for higher-order sleeper passage frequencies.

4. Conclusions

It has been demonstrated theoretically that for a single axle load travelling at conventional speeds along a straight railway track,
ground vibrations generated in narrow frequency bands around sleeper passage frequencies are plane Rayleigh surface waves prop­
agating symmetrically away from the track at certain angles in respect of the track. These radiation angles depend on train speed, on
frequency and on sleeper periodicity.
For frequencies slightly above sleeper passage frequencies, the above-mentioned radiation angles resemble Mach angles associated
with the case of ground vibration boom (this is why they can be called ’pseudo-Mach angles’). For frequencies that are slightly below
sleeper passage frequencies, the radiation angles are counted towards the opposite direction in respect of the train motion (they can be
called ’negative pseudo-Mach angles’).
The above-mentioned ’pseudo-Mach angles’ could be used for better understanding of railway-generated ground vibrations around
sleeper passage frequencies and for more efficient experimental observations of ground vibrations generated at these frequencies.

CRediT author statement

I confirm that the above-mentioned rapid communication has been written and submitted by me as a sole author. Victor V. Krylov

Declaration of Competing Interest

The author declares that he has no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Appendix A. Statement of the problem and the main equations

The quasi-static pressure mechanism of generation of railway-induced ground vibrations results from axle load forces applied to the
railway track from each wheel axle. These moving load forces cause downward deflections of the track. Such deflections produce a
wave-like motion along the track at speed of the train that results in a distribution of each axle load over all the rail sleepers involved in
the track deflection distance. Each sleeper, in turn, acts as an elementary vertical force applied to the ground during the time necessary
for a deflection curve to pass over the sleeper. For simplicity, these vertical forces are considered as point forces applied to the ground’s
surface. To determine the track deflection curve defining the time dependence of the forces applied from each sleeper to the ground the
system of track and ground is modeled as an Euler-Bernoulli beam resting on Winkler foundation.
According to the earlier developed general approach [1–3,7], in order to calculate ground vibrations generated by a train due to the
quasi-static pressure mechanism, one needs to take into account the superposition of waves generated by each elementary source of
ground vibrations (sleeper) activated by wheel axles of all carriages, with the time and space differences between sources (sleepers)
being taken into account. Using the Green’s function of an elastic half space Gzz(ρ,ω), the frequency spectrum of the normal component
of ground vibration velocity on the ground surface vz(x, y, ω) can be written as
∫∞ ∫∞
vz (x, y, ω) = P(x′, y′, ω)Gzz (ρ, ω)dx′dy′, (A.1)
− ∞ − ∞

where P(x’,y’,ω) is the Fourier spectrum of distributed dynamic forces acting from all sleepers to the ground, and ρ is the distance from
each sleeper to the chosen point of observation characterised by the coordinates x, y. The expression for the Green’s function in (A.1),
in which we take into account only the contribution of generated Rayleigh waves, can be written at relatively large distances in the
form (see e.g. [7])
1
Gzz (ρ, ω) = D(ω) √̅̅̅ exp(ikR ρ − γkR ρ), (A.2)
ρ

where
1/2 ( )
( − iω)qkR kt2 3π
D(ω) = 1/2
exp − i , (A.3)
(2π) μF′(kR ) 4

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V.V. Krylov Journal of Sound and Vibration 570 (2024) 118121

and the factor F′(kR ) = [dF(k) /dk]|k=kR is a derivative of the so-called Rayleigh determinant
( )2 ( )1/2 ( 2 )1/2
F(k) = 2k2 − kt2 − 4k2 k2 − kt2 k − kl2 (A.4)

taken at k = kR. The structure of the function P(x’,y’,ω), i.e. the Fourier transform of the spatial distribution of time-dependent dynamic
forces acting from sleepers to the ground, will be discussed below.
The notations in (A.1)-(A.4) are as follows: ρ = [(x-x’)2 + (y-y’)2]1/2 is the distance between the source (with current coordinates
x’, y’) and the point of observation located on the surface (with the coordinates x, y), ω is a circular frequency, kR = ω/cR is the
wavenumber of a Rayleigh surface wave, cR is the Rayleigh wave velocity, kl = ω/cl and kt = ω/ct are the wavenumbers of longitudinal
and shear bulk elastic waves, where cl = [(λ + 2μ)/ρ0]1/2 and ct = (μ/ρ0)1/2 are longitudinal and shear wave velocities, λ and μ are the
elastic Lame′ constants, ρ0 is mass density of the ground, q = (kR2 - kl2)1/2, and γ = 0.001 - 0.1 is a non-dimensional loss factor
describing the attenuation of Rayleigh waves in soil.
As was mentioned above, function P(x’,y’,ω) describes the frequency spectrum of the spatial distribution of all load forces acting
along the track. This spectrum can be found by taking a Fourier transform of the time and space dependent load forces P(t, x’, y’)
applied from the track to the ground.
In what follows, for the sake of simplicity, we consider ground vibrations generated by a single axle load only. For a single axle load
moving at speed v along a straight track (located at y = 0), the load function has the form [3,7]:
∑
∞
P(t, x′, y′) = P(t − x′ / v)δ(x′ − nd)δ(y′), (A.5)
n=− ∞

where P(t-x’/v) is the time-delayed dynamic force acting from a sleeper with a coordinate x’ to the ground surface, and the delta-
function δ(x’-nd) takes the periodic distribution of sleepers into account, where d is the periodic inter-sleeper distance. Using the
expression for P(t) (see [3,7]), taking the Fourier transform of (A.5) to calculate P(x’,y’,ω), and substituting the result into (A.1) using
the expression for Green’s function Gzz(ρ,ω) (see formulas (A.2)–(A.4)) results in the following expression for the vertical vibration
velocity vz of Rayleigh waves generated on the ground surface (z = 0) at the point of observation with the coordinates x, y by a single
axle load moving along the straight track at speed v:
∑∞ [ ]
1 ω ω
vz (x, y, ω) = P(ω)D(ω) √̅̅̅̅̅ exp i nd + (i − γ) ρn . (A.6)
n=− ∞
ρn v cR

Here ρn = [(x - nd)2 + y2]1/2 is the distance from the sleeper characterised by the number n to the observation point. The function P
(ω) in (A.6) has the following form (see [7] for detail):

12.8 vTd
P(ω) = − ω4 2
π2
ηω , (A.7)
β 4 v4
− 4 c2ω β2 − 8i cmin β
+4
min

where T is the axle load, cmin is the minimal phase velocity of track flexural waves propagating in a track/ground system (this velocity
is related to cR, and it is usually larger than cR by 10–20 %), β is the parameter dependent on the elastic properties of track and ground
and measured in m − 1, and η is a non-dimensional track damping parameter. For relatively low train speeds, i.e., for v < cR, the
dynamic solution (A.7) for the force spectrum P(ω) goes over to the quasi-static one [7]. As train speeds increase and approach or
exceed the minimal track wave velocity, the spectra P(ω) become broader and larger in amplitudes, and a second peak appears at
higher frequencies.

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