COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF THE COMMON CHALLENGES IN THE

STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS IN THE INDUSTRY: A CASE

STUDY

A Case Study
Presented to the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Department
College of Engineering
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
The National Engineering University
Alangilan Campus

A Final Requirement
for the Course subject PETE 418
Production Engineering 2

Submitted By:
Agozar, Angel Lyn B.
Fesarit, Joshua E.
Larios, Carla Joie A.
Lubi, Mary Joyce Cludette M.
Ramos, Filipe G.
Sontillano, Rommel Jame B

Submitted To:
Engr. Mary Joy S. Artienda

November 2023
College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering

CHAPTER I
PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND
Introduction
Oil and gas storage and transportation are essential for meeting the needs of global

energy demands, powering economies, and sustaining modern daily life. However, the business

is confronted with a slew of issues that jeopardize efficiency, safety, and environmental

sustainability. Vast quantities of oils are usually stored and transported in large volumes. During

storage or transport, and occasionally as the result of exploration activities, oils and other

oil-based products are sometimes spilled onto land or into waterways. When this occurs, human

health and environmental quality are put at risk. Every effort must be made to prevent oil spills

and to clean them up promptly once they occur. (Agency response, 2018)

Pipelines are the major arteries of the energy sector, transporting oil, gas and other crucial

products that fuel the American economy. Keeping these arteries healthy and free of defects is

critical as a failed pipeline can lead to significant property damage, injury, and death. Corrosion

is one of the leading causes of pipeline incidents with the U.S. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials

Safety Administration (PHMSA) data showing 18 percent of pipeline incidents on average were

caused by corrosion between 1998 and 2017. (Pipeline Safety Stakeholder Communications,

2018)

Corrosion is considered a time-dependent threat which means it grows or worsens with

time if left unmitigated. As a result, early detection and mitigation are necessary to minimize the
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impact of corrosion,” Corrosion is the deterioration of a steel pipeline that results from an

electrochemical reaction with its immediate surroundings.

This reaction causes the iron in the steel pipe or other pipeline appurtenances to oxidize

(rust). Corrosion results in metal loss in the pipe. Over time and if left unmitigated, corrosion can

cause the steel to lose its strength and possibly render it unable to contain the fluid in the pipeline

at its operating pressure. Because pipelines are extremely long-serving and critical infrastructure,

it is paramount for pipeline operators to maintain the physical integrity of pipelines. Fortunately,

there are effective methods for preventing and mitigating corrosion damage to pipelines,

including many that are very technologically advanced that deal with various types of corrosion.

(Pipeline Safety Stakeholder Communications, 2018)

The leak that causes corrosion can lead to Fire hazards since chemicals can react to

anything that is prone to happen in oil and gas storage and transportation processes. Oil and gas

belong to flammable substances, whose composition is mainly hydrocarbons, and it is easy to

gather static electricity in the oil and gas storage and transportation process, resulting in fire

hazards and even an explosion. Our oil and gas storage and transportation equipment is still

relatively backward and poorly designed, whose materials are not standard oil and gas storage

and transportation equipment not up to, in the course of operation of the equipment, due to the

continued operation of the equipment, the emergence of the phenomenon of high temperature
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and pressure inside the device, resulting in equipment damage, causing leakage of oil and gas,

prone to fire hazards. (HUA Jinsong, 2015)

In the process of oil and gas transportation, oil and gas through pipelines and equipment

at the time of its friction, piping and equipment due to material non-compliance, prone to static

electricity, explosion. Meanwhile, the related operations staff do not follow procedures and

ignore safety issues and gas storage and transportation, which are also one of the important

reasons for the oil and gas storage and transportation security risk issues. (HUA Jinsong, 2015)

According to Crude Oil Transport: Risks and Impacts (2015), the infrastructure the most

common risk associated with transshipment points are the technical failure and defects of

equipment such as an oil loader at a barge and truck-loading terminal that can cause oil to spill.

Cargo shipments may also be held for days at transshipment points before being transferred to

other modes of transport and they may not be monitored for leakage and/or accidental damages.

A case in point is the incident at the Port of Albany in June 2014, where 100 gallons of oil was

spilled from a stored rail car because of a pressure release valve. To respond to the increasing

supply of oil, transshipment facilities have begun to increase their oil storage capacity, which

further increases the risk.

According to Alkhaldi (2017), human error is also one of the factors that affect some

dead time in transporting and storing oil and gas. As recent industrial statistics in the oil and gas

industry have revealed a high rate of occupational accidents that were caused by human error
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and have a great toll on workers, workplace and environments, attention should be diverted to

investigate human error extensively even if some research has started to do so because still

various perspectives remain questioned till yet. Serious attention should be paid currently

because most of the exploratory attention is to improve OHS performance.

The impact on human health of a spill occurring in a lake or river, which serves as a

source of drinking water for cities, can be catastrophic if the spill is not promptly contained. If

the oil flows into municipal or industrial water intakes, the consequences could entail substantial

financial losses for cities, businesses, and industries, totaling millions of dollars or more in

damages. Furthermore, there may be significant public health implications if communities are

not promptly informed of the danger. In addition, oil from a spill has the potential to seep into the

ground and reach underground aquifers.

Over time the quality of pipeline performance declines due to structural degradation,

cracks caused by corrosion, defective welding or incidental damage from third-party activities.

The Enbridge pipeline spill near Marshall, Mich., on July 25, 2010, was caused by structural

failure in a segment of the pipeline where corrosion-induced fissures developed and eventually

coalesced to cause the pipeline to burst.

The location and environment pipelines that run through diverse ecological areas that

may be home to endangered species and are sensitive to environmental degradation conditions

must be considered when evaluating the potential risks of pipeline spills.

College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering

As evidenced by historical incidents, oil spills can significantly affect human health, the

environment, and the economy, irrespective of the transportation method involved. When

released, oil has the potential to seep into the soil, polluting groundwater. In aquatic

environments, such as open water or rivers, oil can quickly disperse. On land, spills pose risks to

commercial, industrial, and residential zones in urban or suburban settings, as well as

recreational, agricultural, and forested areas in rural settings. Water-based spills can harm aquatic

ecosystems, impacting fish and wildlife habitats, including nesting and spawning grounds, and

leading to water quality issues that negatively impact both recreation and public health. (Crude

oil transport: Risks and impacts 2015)

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CHAPTER II

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main thrust of the study was to assess and evaluate the common problems

encountered in the downstream sector of the oil and gas industry, specifically the storage and

transportation sector. This study specifically sought the following:

1. Assess the frequency and severity of the challenges encountered in the storage

and transportation sector considering the:

1.1 Leakage and Spill

1.2 Corrosion

1.3 Material Integrity

2. Evaluate the effects of the challenges encountered in the storage and transportation

sector as per the following:

2.1 Regulatory Compliance

2.2 Supply chain and Logistics

2.3 Safety and Health

2.4 Environmental Impact

3. Research and devise optimization and mitigation plan to counter the challenges in the

storage and transportation sector considering the:

3.1 Leakage

3.2 Corrosion
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3.3 Material Integrity

4. Present optimization plans and connect it to the industry and its effect in the long run

in terms of:

4.1 Sustainability

4.2 Efficiency

4.2 Economic and Budget

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH PARADIGM

The study focused on the analysis and optimization of the downstream production

process, specifically the pipeline and storage sector of the oil and gas industry. The study

employed the input-process-output framework or model, which is commonly known as the IPO

model.

For the input stage of the framework, the researchers required a thorough understanding

of the terms used and found in the study, such the downstream production process, pipeline

networks, storage tanks, characteristics and types of storage tanks, quality and quantity products

after logistics, and previous maintenance, optimization and mitigation plans for the pipelines and

storage. To ensure that the terms were correct and valid in terms of definitions, utilization, and

application, a thorough review was established during the process of research such as related

studies.

For the process stage, it started with gathering and acquisition of the data needed for the

case study. Information such as the primary challenges and common problems encountered in the

pipelines and storage. Narrowing down the information from its frequency and rarity of

occurrence in the oil and gas industry. As well as acquiring the recent data where leakage and

spill, corrosion, and material integrity took place in real life scenarios in the oil and gas field. at

the same time providing necessary evidence of the causes of these occurrences through research.
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Next is assessing and evaluating the effects of these challenges to different bodies of regulating

compliance, whether the product passed the intended quality of by-product since the oil and gas

industry is subject to numerous regulations and standards related to storage and transportation.

Ensuring compliance with these regulations is essential to avoid legal consequences and

penalties. As well as checking its compliance to the supply chain and logistics, the efficiency and

economically sustainable of the storage and pipeline. Coordinating the movement of oil and gas

products from extraction points to refineries and ultimately to consumers requires efficient

logistics and supply chain management. Delays or disruptions can impact the entire process.

Then, consider its effect on the overall safety and health of employees, since transportation of oil

and gas involves various safety risks, such as explosions, fires, and accidents. Ensuring the safety

of workers and the public is a top priority. Finally is the environmental impact consideration of

the challenges in storage and transportation, Since the oil and gas industry is under increasing

pressure to minimize its environmental impact. Spills, emissions, and other environmental

incidents can result in reputational damage and regulatory scrutiny. After assessment, devising an

optimal solution through data gathering from various research studies is done. The application of

various engineering concepts and theories are applied in the creation of the solution and

mitigation plan to combat the challenges.

Lastly, on the output stage is the presentation of the mitigation and optimization plan

gathered from the research study while considering the sustainability, efficiency and the
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economic and budget impact after the application of solution after analyzing the challenges.

Addressing these challenges requires a combination of technological innovation, regulatory

compliance, risk management, and proactive maintenance strategies to ensure the safe and

efficient storage and transportation of oil and gas products.

College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering
College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering

CHAPTER IV

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

According to the Oil Tanker Spill Statistics 2022, over the past 50 years, there have been

a lot fewer oil spills from tankers. From 1970, around 79 spills occurred annually on average in

the 1970s; by the 2010s to the present, that number of spills exceeding 7 tonnes had dropped by

more than 90% to just 6. Approximately, a total of 6 oil spills have occurred annually on average

so far this decade, which is equal to the average for the decade before it.

Figure1. Number of medium (7-700 tonnes) and large (>700 tonnes) tanker spill from

1970-2022

Source: PHMSA Filtered Incident Files

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Figure 2. Causes of gas distribution pipeline significant incidents

Source: PHMSA Filtered Incident Files

One of the major causes of the spill and leakages from the pipelines of the storage and

transportation is the corrosion followed by the excavation damage, human error, material failure,

natural force damage, outside force damage and others. Throughout the previous 20 years, there

have been 40 to 65 major corrosion incidents on pipelines annually, or 52 on average. At least

half of these are usually onshore liquid pipelines; onshore gas transmission pipelines are the next

most common type. Surprisingly, the aging of the infrastructure has not affected the pattern,

which has remained relatively constant over time. The effectiveness of industry efforts at

corrosion control is attested to by the fact that the pipeline failure rate has not increased

significantly over a 20-year period.

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Since most distribution pipelines are non-metallic and are typically found in more

densely populated areas, external force damage is far more common for distribution pipelines

than for transmission pipelines.

A distribution pipeline may experience internal corrosion if it is located close to a storage

field and the transmission system operator does not adequately clean and dehydrate the stored

gas before introducing it into the distribution system. The amount of water that can be present in

the gas that distribution companies deliver is limited by tariffs and specifications (whether from a

transmission pipeline or storage field).

Figure 3. Total of significant incidents

Source: PHMSA Filtered Incident Files

In the oil and gas industry, corrosion is a major problem when it comes to the storage and

transportation of petroleum products and biofuels. Tanks, pipelines, and other machinery used in
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the extraction, transportation, and storage of oil and petroleum products are seriously put in

danger.

Transporting and storing petroleum products presents a serious risk of corrosion. Steel

tanks are prone to corrosion from elements such as water, contaminants, and chemicals in the

products they hold. Over time, corrosion erodes tank structures, increasing the risk of leaks and

other environmental problems. Corrosion can occur in oil and gas transportation pipelines due to

internal and external factors. In addition to exposure to moisture, corrosive substances in the

fluids being transported can also cause corrosion.

Corrosion is a major factor in major failures of hazardous liquid and gas transmission

pipelines, according to data from the Journal “corrosion and its impact to pipelines”. It is

estimated that problems related to corrosion account for roughly 23% of these failures. Serious

repercussions from such mistakes may include product loss, pollution of the environment, and

even danger to human health and safety.

According to the study of Ossai (2012), the oil and gas industry operates as a

capital-intensive business, encompassing assets such as drilling rigs, offshore platforms, and

wells in the upstream segment, along with pipelines. An analysis of major oil and gas companies,

including BP, Shell, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, and Total, reveals that plant, property, and

equipment constitute, on average, 51% of total assets, valued at over $100 billion. Continuous

utilization and aging of facilities have resulted in a notable increase in failures within oil and gas
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plants. Research indicates that between 1980 and 2006, 50% of major hazard events in European

technical plants were attributed to aging mechanisms caused by corrosion, erosion, and fatigue.

Corrosion in the U.S. incurred costs exceeding $1 trillion in 2012, constituting

approximately 6.2% of the GDP, making it the largest single expense in the economy. In the oil

and gas industry, corrosion contributes to over 25% of asset failures and is prevalent at every

stage of the production cycle. The price of oil and gas can be influenced by these factors, as

corrosion-related issues contribute to asset failures and increased maintenance costs, affecting

overall industry efficiency and, consequently, pricing.

As for Supply Chain and Logistics, the offshore oil and gas industry has placed

approximately 40,000 miles of pipelines in federal offshore waters since the 1940s, with the

Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) responsible for enforcing standards

and regulations to enhance environmental protection and safety. However, BSEE's oversight

processes for active offshore oil and gas pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico, spanning approximately

8,600 miles, lack robustness. The bureau relies on surface observations and pressure sensors for

leak detection but does not conduct subsea inspections, leading to potential inefficiencies in

detecting ruptures. BSEE faces challenges in managing environmental and safety risks associated

with decommissioned pipelines left on the seafloor. Decommissioning applications are not

thoroughly assessed for risks, resulting in over 97% (around 18,000 miles) of decommissioned

pipelines being left on the Gulf of Mexico seafloor since the 1960s. BSEE allows
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decommissioning-in-place based on certain criteria, but the high approval rate suggests it has

become the norm. According to Jhangiani (2020), corrosion issues during refining and

transportation necessitate the use of inhibitors to mitigate these problems. The economic impact

of corrosion extends to design costs, associated costs, capital costs, and control costs, ultimately

affecting productivity and efficiency. The transportation and storage of petroleum products are

also affected by corrosion, with internal corrosion in tanks and pipelines posing challenges that

can be mitigated through the use of coatings and inhibitors.

The refinery of oil and gas required various processes that contributed to the

accumulation of corrosion in oil and gas pipelines during storage and transportation. A study by

Wood et al. (2013) on related accidents in refineries was based on a total of 99 reported accidents

in European Union (EU) and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) countries from 1965 to 2012. It was revealed in the study that the majority of accidents

were caused by a leak, rupture, or structural collapse.

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Figure 4. Reported incidents caused by failure of tanks and pipes

Source: Wood et al. (2013)

The main reason for these problems is corrosion, since it weakens the structural integrity

of pipes, resulting in leaks and the release of gas. It can be seen in Figure 4 that a leak was

reported that resulted in a total of 28 incidents of toxic gas release, including hydrogen sulfide,

24 reported incidents of fire, and 10 cases of explosion. A rupture was also reported, where a

leak that discharges a combustible substance that explodes inside a tank or pipe due to high

pressure resulted in nine reported incidents of toxic release, 18 incidents of fire, 19 incidents of

explosion, and two events that were undeclared. Moreover, it was evident that there are reported

events of structural collapse due to corrosion, and one incident of fire was reported.
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With these events, there are reported incidents where workers were exposed to toxic

substances during a pipeline leak, resulting in major health risks such as skin problems and

respiratory issues. Aside from that, the safety of the workers was endangered due to a fire and

explosion in the area, which then led to the collapse of a pipeline. According to their study, of the

total of 8 reported accidents since 2000, the number of workers injured totaled 219, and there

was no record of death. Furthermore, the safety and health of the workers are not the only ones

affected by these corrosion-related accidents, but also the equipment, environment, production,

and service that pose an economic impact. The figure shown below displays the other

consequences of accidents that occurred due to the failure of tanks and pipes. It can be seen that

57% of the accidents reported have affected production and thus projected a significant impact

on the economy, while 25% involved injuries and health problems for the workers. Moreover,

12% of the accidents resulted in the shutdown of the refinery, which may last four weeks or

months, depending on how severe the damage is. Lastly, 6% of the accidents have caused harm

to the environment, which is mainly associated with the release of toxic substances into the air,

water, and soil.

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Figure 5. Consequences of corrosion-related accidents

Source: Wood et al. (2013)

As shown in the figure above, pipeline and storage leaks and collapses can have serious

repercussions in a number of ways. This includes environmental effects since the discharge of

hazardous gases as well as contamination of soil and water can damage ecosystems and affect

species. Also, there are economic consequences in terms of expenditures, legal responsibilities,

and recovery expenses, as well as possible industrial interruptions that may affect jobs. In

addition, end-consumers may experience shortages of supply or fluctuations in prices due to

shutdowns of refineries that may cause delays in production and transportation.

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Figure 6. System for Oil Pipeline Monitoring

Source: Singh et al. (2021)

Figure 6 shows the causes of oil pipeline failures and PHMSA identified three major

causes of oil pipeline leakage namely:Equipment failure, Corrosion failure and Incorrect

operation. Equipment failure such as a ruptured pipeline or a malfunctioning valve, can result in
College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering

oil spills or leaks. This poses a significant environmental threat, impacting ecosystems, water

sources, and wildlife.Corrosion compromises the integrity of pipelines, increasing the likelihood

of leaks and spills during oil transportation. This poses immediate environmental risks, affecting

soil, water, and wildlife in the surrounding areas.Oil spills and transportation interruptions due to

corrosion can have severe economic consequences. Cleanup costs, damage to infrastructure, and

the temporary or permanent cessation of oil transportation can result in significant financial

losses for both the oil industry and affected communities. Incorrect operation can result in

financial losses due to cleanup expenses, legal fees, and the costs associated with equipment

damage or replacement. Additionally, interruptions in oil supply can lead to revenue losses. The

researcher must find a solution to this Bottlenecks. Solution and strategies are needed to make

changes that can enhance efficiency, reduce costs, improve quality, or minimize waste.

Proposed solution and strategies for the challenges and bottlenecks analyzed from storage

and pipeline sector

To overcome and avoid accidents through transportation, the transportation mode through

pipeline is widely implemented globally for oil transportation. However, the wide

implementation pipeline has increased the chances of pipeline failures. Thus, to address this

issue the researchers proposed various solutions to the challenges and bottlenecks mentioned

above. Listed below are the following optimization ideas gathered from various studies:
College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fiber Reinforced Plastic as Pipe Materials

According to Oil and Gas (2015), Fiber Reinforced Plastic or (FRP) products that are

suitable for oil and gas including tanks, pipe, structural, and more. Features such as corrosion

resistance, flame retardance, nonconductive, high strength-to-weight ratio, and low maintenance

make our products ideal for all types of oil and gas facilities. Similarly, our corrosion resistant

pipes and tanks are ideal for handling and transporting chemicals such as hydrochloric acid.

FRP pipeline has the advantages of reliability, safety and economy. It is mainly used for

buried pipes and long-distance transmission pipelines. It has the characteristics of light weight,

high strength, corrosion resistance, long service life, low operation and maintenance cost, and

will save a lot of money for construction projects

FRP has low thermal conductivity, reducing heat loss during transportation and helping

maintain the temperature of the transported substances, which is crucial in certain applications.

FRP exhibits excellent corrosion resistance, making them ideal for transporting and storing

corrosive substances like oil and gas. This results in longer service life and reduced maintenance

costs.

By incorporating FRP in pipes and storage tanks for oil and gas applications, industries

can benefit from enhanced performance, reduced maintenance costs, and increased operational

efficiency, while ensuring the integrity and safety of the transported and stored substances. FRP
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is often easier to handle, install, and maintain. They can be fabricated off-site, reducing on-site

installation time and costs.

Fusion Bonded Coating Epoxy

Figure 7. Coated and Insulated Piping Products

Source: Coated and Insulated (2018)

Fusion bonded epoxy coating, also known as fusion-bond ероху powder coating and

commonly referred to as FBE coating, is an epoxy-based powder coating that is widely used to

protect steel pipe used in pipeline construction from corrosion. FBE coatings are thermoset

polymer coatings. The name fusion-bond epoxy is due to resin cross-linking and the application

method, which is different from a conventional paint. The resin and hardener components in the

dry powder FBE stock remain unreacted at normal storage conditions. At typical coating

application temperatures, usually in the range of 180 to 250 °C (356 to 482 °F), the contents of

the powder melt and transform to a liquid form.

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The liquid FBE film wets and flows onto the steel surface on which it is applied, and

soon becomes a solid coating by chemical cross-linking, assisted by heat. This process is known

as "fusion bonding". The chemical cross-linking reaction taking place in this case is irreversible.

Once the curing takes place, the coating cannot be returned to its original form by any means.

Application of further heating will not "melt" the coating and thus it is known as a "thermoset"

coating. (Pipelines coating a comparative study, 2021)

Other Consideration for Optimized and Efficient Storage and Pipeline Maintenance

Addressing Human Error

Despite precautionary measures in place, employee errors can still lead to tragic

accidents, no matter how small. Employees are subject to human error, so it is important to

strictly enforce safety precautions and hold safety drills regularly.

Training employees and performing safety checks before any job is a vital aspect of

minimizing the risk of human errors. Employees will not intentionally cause accidents, but it is

your job to ensure they have the training and tools they need to prevent these incidents from

occurring. Staff in the oil and gas industry need to be trained on how to handle materials and

assets correctly. Workers must also be trained to recognize warning signs that could indicate an

imminent explosion and take prompt action to prevent it. (Uppler, 2021)
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Maintenance of Shipping and Logistics Equipments

So in order to avoid transport-related incidents, transportation companies should invest in

safety procedures, and training, and perform regular maintenance on their vehicles. They should

also ensure that proper cargo handling, transport conditions, and securement protocols are

followed to reduce the risk of transportation-related accidents.

Regular maintenance can prevent equipment from malfunctioning, which can cause a

fire, spark, or ignite flammable materials During maintenance checks, engineers should identify

any worn-out parts and replace them promptly. Regular maintenance also ensures that equipment

like sprinkler systems is in good working condition, reducing the chances of incidents resulting

from malfunctioning machines. (Uppler, 2021)

College of Engineering – Department of Mechanical Engineering

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of findings

This chapter provides the overall results of the study consisting the summary of findings,

and conclusion made from the study.

1. The transportation and storage of oil and gas face significant challenges stemming from

corrosion, poor infrastructure, and human errors. Tackling these challenges requires a

proactive approach involving the implementation of corrosion prevention strategies,

infrastructure upgrades, and robust training programs. These measures are essential not

only for addressing immediate concerns but also for enhancing the overall safety and

reliability of the oil and gas industry's logistics.

2. Corrosion-related problems account for about 23% of hazardous liquid and gas

transmission pipeline failures. Serious repercussions from these mistakes may include

lost sales of the product, contamination of the environment, and even threats to public

health and safety.

3. Corrosion emerges as a significant contributor to oil and gas pipeline accidents, resulting

in leaks, ruptures, and structural collapses that can lead to severe incidents such as toxic

gas releases, fires, and explosions. Beyond endangering worker safety and causing health

problems and injuries, these incidents carry substantial economic repercussions. A

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notable 57% of reported accidents affect production, while 12% result in refinery

shutdowns lasting weeks or even months. Addressing corrosion in the industry is not just

a matter of safety but also a critical factor in maintaining operational continuity,

safeguarding equipment, and sustaining production and services.

4. The reported data underscores the significance of ndicating that over the past 20 years,

there have been an average of 52 major corrosion incidents on pipelines annually. This

information emphasizes the importance of implementing effective cleaning and

dehydration practices in the gas transmission process to prevent corrosion-related

incidents in distribution pipelines.

5. Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) products, as highlighted in (Oil and Gas 2015), offer a

diverse range of applications, including tanks, pipes, and structural components. These

FRP products are prized for their corrosion resistance, flame retardance, non conductive

nature, high strength-to-weight ratio, and low maintenance requirements, making them

well-suited for various facilities within the sector. For buried pipes and long-distance

transmission pipelines, FRP pipelines bring advantages in reliability, safety, and

economy, owing to their light weight, high strength, corrosion resistance, and

cost-effectiveness in operation and maintenance. The low thermal conductivity of FRP

further contributes to reduced heat loss during transportation, crucial for maintaining

substance temperatures.
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6. Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating acts as a thermoset polymer coating, FBE distinguishes

itself through its unique application method, differing from conventional paint processes.

The unreacted resin and hardener components within the dry powder FBE stock maintain

stability during storage conditions. Applied at temperatures between 180 to 250 °C (356

to 482 °F), the powder undergoes a transformative process, melting into a liquid form that

adheres to the steel surface. This liquid FBE film solidifies through chemical

cross-linking, irreversible in nature, leading to the formation of a thermoset coating

resistant to further melting with additional heating.

7. Addressing human error in the oil and gas industry is crucial, as even minor mistakes can

lead to tragic accidents. Despite precautionary measures, it's essential to strictly enforce

safety precautions and conduct regular safety drills. Training employees and conducting

safety checks before each task are vital steps in minimizing the risk of human errors.

8. Transportation companies are advised to invest in safety procedures, training, and regular

maintenance to mitigate the risk of incidents during transportation. This includes ensuring

proper cargo handling, transport conditions, and securement protocols are followed, with

regular equipment checks identifying and replacing worn-out parts to prevent

malfunctions that could lead to accidents.

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Conclusions

1. Enhancing the safety and reliability of transportation and storage systems, requires

implementing effective corrosion prevention strategies, investing in infrastructure

upgrades, and instituting rigorous training programs. Taking these measures, the industry

can mitigate risks, improve overall operational resilience, and contribute to the

sustainable and secure management of oil and gas resources.

2. Corrosion related problems pose significant impact to the extent beyond mere operational

setbacks, encompassing potential financial losses, environmental contamination, and

threats to public health and safety. This underscores the critical importance of addressing

and mitigating corrosion in pipeline systems to ensure the integrity of infrastructure,

protect the environment, and safeguard public well-being.

3. Corrosion stands out as a pivotal and multifaceted challenge within the oil and gas

industry, significantly contributing to pipeline accidents characterized by leaks, ruptures,

and structural collapses that result in severe incidents such as toxic gas releases, fires, and

explosions. The consequences extend beyond immediate threats to worker safety, giving

rise to health problems and injuries, to encompass broader economic impacts.

4. Proactive strategies in gas transmission, encompassing meticulous gas treatment

protocols, are imperative to curbing the pervasive threat of internal corrosion in

distribution pipelines, thereby safeguarding both operational reliability and broader safety

and sustainability objectives within the energy sector.

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5. The incorporation of FRP in oil and gas infrastructure not only enhances performance

and reduces maintenance costs but also ensures operational efficiency, integrity, and

safety, with the added benefits of easier handling, installation, and maintenance.

6. Fusion bonded epoxy coating, or FBE coating, stands out as a recommended protective

measure for steel pipes in pipeline construction, aimed at preventing corrosion. due to its

multiple application and reliability, as per material testing.

7. Comprehensive analysis and approach encompassing employee training, safety drills, and

diligent equipment maintenance is essential to enhance safety and reduce the risk of

accidents in the oil and gas industry, primarily preventing corrosion, leakage, and

material and facility degradation.

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VI. References

Agency response PB2000-963401 oil program center understanding oil ... (2018).

https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2018-01/documents/ospguide99.pdf

Crude oil transport: Risks and impacts - greenchoices.cornell.edu. (2015).

https://greenchoices.cornell.edu/resources/publications/transport/Crude_Oil_Transpo

rt.pdf

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