‫منشآت ھيدروليكية‬

‫الفصل الرابع‬
‫‪ -‬منشآت تشتيت الطاقة ‪-‬‬

‫المرحلة الرابعة‬
‫قسم الھندسة المدنية‬

‫أ‪.‬م‪ .‬د‪ .‬رسول مجبل خلف‬

‫م‪.‬د‪ .‬سعد حسن محمدعلي‬
 CHAPTER IV

ENERGY DISSIPATION STRUCTURES

(Drop Structures and Stilling Basins)
Energy dissipaters are required in the immediate vicinity of hydraulic structures
where high impact loads, erosive forces and severe scour are expected. The basic
hydraulic parameter that identifies the flow regime and is used in connection with
energy dissipaters and with hydraulic jumps is the Froude number (Fr). These
dissipaters are required where the flow regime changes from supercritical flow
whenever Fr > 1 to subcritical flow whereas Fr < 1. The Froude number is defined as
the ratio of inertial force to the gravity force , and thus;

Fr = …………………….……………………………………………………… (1)
√

Where, V is the flow velocity in the section , g is the gravitational acceleration and y is
the flow depth.
Energy dissipation structures act as transitions, which reduce high flow
velocities. Energy dissipaters localize hydraulic jumps and act as stilling basins.
Here we will review the energy dissipaters, and then reviewed a hydraulic
jumps and their types and locations as well as the drops and the stilling basins.

Hydraulic Jumps
What is the hydraulic jump?
The hydraulic jumps is a rapid variation of flow in depth and velocity occurs in
a channel. Rapidly flow variation (R.V.F) occurs in small reach of a channel so the
friction force is quite small compared to other forces and may be neglected .The
velocity coefficient, and momentum coefficients, are greater than unity and
It is difficult to ascertain accurately.. In R.V.F, the flow pattern and velocity
distribution is complicated

1
Hydraulics Jump or Standing Wave
Hydraulics jump is local nonuniform flow
phenomenon resulting from the change in
flow from supercritical to subcritical.

In Hydraulic jump there is discontinuity

in the surface characterized by a steep
upward slope of the profile accompanied
by lot of turbulence and eddies. The
eddies cause energy loss.

The depth before and after the hydraulic

jump are known as conjugate depths or
sequent depths.

Classification of Hydraulic jump

Fig. 1 Types of hydraulic jumps

2
1) Based on Froude number calculated at section (1)
• Fr1 <1.0: Jump impossible, violates second law of thermo dynamics.
• Fr1 =1 ; No jump , critical flow
• Fr1 = 1.0 to 1.7: Standing wave, or undular, jump about 4.y2 long; low dissipation,
less than 5 percent.
• Fr1 = 1.7 to 2.5: Smooth surface rise with small rollers, known as a weak jump;
dissipation 5 to 15 percent.
• Fr1 = 2.5 to 4.5: Unstable, oscillating jump, each irregular pulsation creates a large
wave which can travel downstream for miles, damaging earth banks and other
structures. Not recommended for design conditions. Dissipation 15 to 45%.
• Fr1 = 4.5 to 9.0: Stable, well-balanced, steady jump; best performance and action,
insensitive to downstream conditions.Best design range.Dissipation 45 to 70%.
• Fr1 = >9.0: Rough, somewhat intermittent strong jump, but good performance.
Dissipation 70 to 85%.

2.Based on Tail Water Depth

The depth downstream of a hydraulic structure is called the tail water depth.
yt = tail water depth, ya = Depth at the vena-contracta, y2 =sequent depth to ya

• Free jump:
jump with yt equal to or less than y2 is called free jump.
When yt = y2, a free jump will form at the vena-
contracta.

• Repelled jump:
If yt < y2, the jump is repelled downstream of the vena-
contracta through an M3 curve (or may be H3). The depth
at the toe of the jump is larger than ya. Such a jump is
called a repelled jump.

• Submerged jump:
If yt > y2, the jump is no longer free but gets drowned
out. Such a jump is called drowned jump or submerged
jump. The loss of energy in a submerged jump is smaller
than that in a free jump.

It may be noted that the depth before the jump is always less than the depth after
the jump. The depth before the jump is called the initial depth y1 and that after the
jump is called the sequent depth y2 ( or conjugate depth). The initial y1 and sequent
depths y2 are shown in Figure (2).

3
 Fig. 2 Simple hydraulic jump on horizontal bed.

One can determine a relationship between the initial depth and the sequent depth
of a hydraulic jump on a horizontal floor in a rectangular channel by applying
conservation of momentum and continuity.
For a simple hydraulic jump (with no features to apply a force to the flow between
section 1 and section 2), in this case we can develop a relationship between the
upstream and downstream (sequent) flow depths as follows:
The momentum function at section1 (M1) is equal the momentum function at section2
(M2), i.e.:
For rectangular sections, this momentum functions are expressed by:

+ = + ……………………..…….…………………………. (2a)

or,

+ ̅ = + ̅ …………………………………………………..……. (2b)

where, ̅ = and ̅ =
By substituting = , we get the required tail water depth. This equation applies
to rectangular channel sections an d should be applied to a rectangular portion of flow
within a drop structure.
= ( )……………………………………………………………....… (3)

Divide both sides of Eq.(3) by y1 ; and simplify to get:

= [ 1 + 8
− 1] ………………………………………………>……....… (4)

One can divide both sides of Eq.(3) by y2 ; and simplify to get:

= 1+8
− 1 ………………………………………………………… (5)

Where , y1, y2 = depth of water at section 1 and 2 respectively, Fr = Froude numbers

are:
4
 = ……………………………………………………………………… (6)
√

= 2
………………………………………………………………….… (7)
2

Basic characteristics of the jump

• Energy loss ∆
Once the flow conditions on either side of the jump are known, the energy loss ∆
can easily be found as the difference between the specific energy values as follows:
∆ = − ………………………………..…………………………………… (8)
= Specific energy before jump.
= Specific energy after jump.

∆ = + − + ……………….…………………..………………. (9)

By solving the energy and momentum relationships simultaneously, the following

generated expression of energy loss ∆ can be derived:
( )
∆ = ………………………………………………………...………. (10)

Note that: = ∆

Length of the jump Lj

The length of a hydraulic jump is an important design parameter because it
determines the size of stilling basin required or, in the absence of a basin, the location
beyond which bed protection is not required. The length cannot be predicted
theoretically but it predicts experimentally. In most prediction formulations, the
length is normalized in terms of the upstream flow depth y1 and expressed as a
function of the upstream Froude number Fr1. For different ranges of Fr1, Hager et al.
(1990) proposed the following expression for 2.5 < <8:

= 8( − 1.5) ………………………………………………………………… (11)

The actual length Lj of an 'undisturbed hydraulic jump' is somewhat ill-defined,

but can be estimated by the formula:
Lj = 6.9 (y2 –y1) ≈ 6.9 ℎ … ……………………………………….………..….. (12)
where hj is the height of the jump = (y2 –y1)

Efficiency of the jump

Is defined as the ratio of specific energy after the jump E2 to the energy before the
jump E1 (see Fig. 3).

5
 Fig. 3 Hydraulic jump parameters

⁄
∆
= = = ………………………..………. (13)

or;
∆
= =1 − ………………………………………………………...…. (14)

GRADE CONTROL STRUCTURES

The Straight Drop Spillway (Drop Structure)

Introduction
The proper application of hydraulic structures can reduce initial and future
maintenance costs by managing the character of the flow to best meet all project
needs. A drop or fall structure is a regulating structure which lowers the water level
along its course. Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the
designed bed slope of the channel, the difference is adjusted by constructing a vertical
drop (see Fig. 4). Drop structures provide protection for high velocity hydraulic
conditions that allow a drop in channel grade over a relatively short distance. They
provide controlled and stable locations for a hydraulic jump to occur, allowing for a
more stable channel downstream where flow returns to subcritical.

Fig. 4 Location of canal drops.

6
Types of drop structures
1. The vertical drop 3. The piped drop.
2. The inclined drop. 4. Farm drop structure
The hydraulic design method of drop structure is described as follows:
Considerations and Limits in Designing of a Drop Structure
1. Identify the appropriate range of drop height based on the stable channel slope.
2. Limit the net drop height to 1.5 m (≈five feet ) or less to avoid excessive kinetic
energy and avoid the appearance of a massive structure.
3. Vertical drops should not exceed 90 cm (3 feet) at any location to minimize the
risk of injury from falling.

Design Procedures for Drop Structures

The simplified design procedure can be used for grade control structures as follows:
1. Maximum unit discharge for the design event (typically the 100-year) over
any portion of the drop structure is 3.25 cumecs/m (35cfs/ft ) or less.
2. Net drop height (upstream channel invert less downstream channel invert
exclusive of stilling basin depth) is 1.5 m (≈five feet ) or less,
3. The simplified design procedures provided herein do not consider channel
curvature, effects of other hydraulic structures, or unstable beds.

There is a basic arrangement of upstream channel geometry, crest shape, basin length,
and downstream channel configuration that will result in optimal energy dissipation.

a) Unit discharge
The unit discharge is an important design parameter for evaluating the hydraulic
performance of a drop structure. In order to use the simplified design procedures, the
design event maximum unit discharge over any portion of the drop structure width is
3.25 m3/s/m .

b) Longitudinal slope of Drop Structure Face

The longitudinal slope of the structure face should be no steeper than 4(H):1(V),
while even flatter slopes will improve safety. Flatter longitudinal face slopes (i.e.,
flatter than 8(H):1(V), help to mitigate overly retentive hydraulics at higher tail water
depths that can cause submerged hydraulic jump formation and create reverse rollers
with “keeper” waves which are a frequent cause of drowning deaths in rivers. Where
possible roughen the face of the drop by developing a series of slopes rather than a
smooth surface. Individual steps and differences in vertical elevation should be no
greater than 3 feet in any location to limit consequence associated with slip and fall
during dry conditions.

c) Stilling Basin
A stilling basin is a depression in a channel deep enough to reduce the velocity or
turbulence of the flow. Typically, drop structures include a hydraulic jump dissipater
basin. The stilling basin should be depressed in order to start the jump near the toe of
the drop face. A sill should be located at the basin end to create a transition to the
downstream invert elevation.

7
d) Seepage Analysis and Cutoff Wall Design
The simplified drop structure design only applies to drops with cutoffs located in
cohesive soils. Therefore, it is necessary to determine surface and subsurface soil
conditions in the vicinity of a proposed drop structure prior to being able to use the
simplified approach for cutoff design. For a drop structure constructed in cohesive
soils meeting all requirements of a simplified design, the cutoff wall must be a
minimum of six feet deep for concrete and ten feet deep for sheet pile (see Fig. 5).

Fig. (5 )View of the sheet pile cutoff wall and steel reinforcement for a sculpted
concrete drop structure prior to the concrete placement

The vertical seepage cutoff wall should be located upstream of the crest and can be
constructed of either concrete or sheet pile. One of the most important details for
grade control structures involves the interface between the seepage cutoff wall and the
remainder of the structure. Regardless, of the material used for the cutoff wall, the
structure should completely bury the interface between the wall and structure. This
eliminates the unattractive view of the cutoff wall within the drop structure and
provides a more effective seal at the interface. To ensure a good seal, specify that the
contractor must fully clean the surface of the cutoff wall prior to the construction of
the interface. Additionally, the cutoff wall should extend beyond the low-flow
channel and five to ten feet into the bank on each side of the structure.

e) Low Flow Channel

The crest of the drop structure is frequently shaped similarly to, although sometimes
slightly shallower than, the upstream low-flow channel. It is also typical that the
shape transition along the face of the structure in an effort to disperse the flow and
dissipate energy over the width of the drop structure. The low-flow channel can then
be re-established beyond the end sill of the drop structure. In some circumstances
protection in the low-flow channel may need to extend further downstream than
protection in the main channel. This should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
When the stream is bootable, it is typically preferred that flows remain concentrated
through the drop.

Detailed Drop Structure Hydraulic Analysis

To minimize the stilling basin length, use a downstream tail water depth great enough
to force a hydraulic jump to start near the toe of the drop face. This requires that the
specific force of the downstream tail water be greater than the specific force of the
supercritical flow at the toe of the drop. Specific force can be calculated using
equation (14).

8
F= + ̅ A……………………………………………………………..………. (15)
Where, ̅ is the distance of the centroid of the respective water area A below the
surface of flow, Q is the flow rate, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
This function consists of two terms. The first term is the momentum of the flow
passing through the channel section per unit time per unit weight of water and the
second term is the force per unit weight of water. Since both of terms are force per
unit weight, the sum may be called specific force and denoted by F (Chow 1959-page
54). So, equation (2) can be expressed as F1 = F2, i.e. the specific force at section 1 is
equal to specific force at section 2.

The hydraulic phenomenon provided by a vertical drop structure is a jet of water that
overflows the crest wall into a hard basin below. The jet hits the basin and is
redirected horizontally. With sufficient tail water, a hydraulic jump is initiated.
Otherwise, the flow continues horizontally in a supercritical mode until the specific
force of the tail water is sufficient to force the jump. Energy is dissipated through
turbulence in the hydraulic jump. Size the basin immediately downstream of the
vertical wall to contain the supercritical flow and the erosive turbulent zone.

(Chow 1959) presents the hydraulic analysis for the “Straight Drop Spillway” see
Fig.6.

Fig.(6) Flow geometry of a straight drop structure (Chow 1959).

The following equations fix the geometry of the structure in a suitable form for steep
slopes:
2 /
= ……………………………………………………………….… (16)
or;
.
Q= B ……………………………………………………………….… (17)

Where B is width of the drop, yc is the upstream critical depth and equals to:
Drop number functions that have two variables, water fall (h) and specific discharge
(q), can explained the geometric flow in drop structures (Moore, 1943).The drop
number, Dn, is defined as:
= = …………………………………………………………….… (18)
Where:
q = unit discharge (m3/sec/m)
h = height from the crest to the basin floor (m)
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/sec2.
yc = Critical depth (m).

9
For hydraulic conditions at a point immediately downstream of where the nappe hits
the basin floor, the following variables are defined as illustrated in Figure 3:

Basin length, Ld
.
= 4.3 ……………………………………………………………..…….. (19)
Pool depth under nappe, yp
.
= 1.00 ……………………………………………..…………...……. (20)
Sequent depths, y1 and y2

.
= 0.54 …………………………………………...…………………….. (21)
.
= 1.66 ……………………………………………………..…………… (22)
= 6.9 ……………………………………………………..…………… (23)
= 2.5 ………………..………………………………………..…………… (24)

Where:
yp = Pool depth under the nappe
y1 = Depth of flow at the tow of the nappe or the beginning of the hydraulic jump
y2 = Tail water depth sequent to y1
Ld =Distance from the headwall to the point where the surface of the upper nappe
strikes the stilling basin floor
L = Distance from the upstream face of the floor blocks to the end of the stilling basin

In the case where the tail water does not provide a depth equivalent to or greater than
y1, the jet will wash downstream as supercritical flow until its specific force is
sufficiently reduced to allow the jump to occur. This requires the designer to also
check normal depth just downstream of the drop to ensure that it is equal or greater
than y1.

The common vertical and sloped drop structure with aerated free-falling napped hits
the downstream basin floor with turbulent circulation in the pool beneath the napped
contributing to the energy dissipation are shown in Figure 7 and 8.

Fig.7 Flow geometry of a sloped drop structure.

10
 Fig.8 Flow geometry of a vertical drop structure.

A simple typical drop structure with a stilling basin is shown in Fig. 9

Fig. 9 A photograph of a drop structure.

Example 1: A rectangular horizontal channel 2 m wide, carries a flow of 4 m3/s. The

depth water on the downstream side of the hydraulic jump is 1 m.
a) What is the depth upstream?
b) What is the loss of head?
c) Hydraulic jump efficiency?
Solution:
According to Eq.(2):

+ = +
2 2

11
 4
= = =2 /
2
2 2 1
+ = +
9.81 2 9.81(1) 2
8 8
+ = +1
9.81 9.81(1)
0.815494
+ = 1.815494

Since the above equation is nonlinear (related to y3) , thus use iteration method:
+ 0.815494 = 1.815494
Try with y if the required depth is small, and with y3 if the required depth is large.
However , y1 is small due to supercritical flow (before jump y1< y2) , hence try with
y1 rather than y13:-
. yi yi+1
=
. 0.5 0.518
0.518 0.526 Stop iteration
Assume an initial guess for = = 0.526 0.529 when difference
0.529 0.530 is up to 1mm.
= 0. .531m
0.530 0.531

+ = + + ℎ
2 2
(2/0.531) (2/1)
0.531 + = 1 + + ℎ ; ℎ = ∆
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
1.254 =1.102 + ℎ
ℎ = 0.152 = 15.2
.
c) = = 1− = 87%
.

You can easily solved by using Eq.(5) {not Eq.(4)} why?

= 1+8
− 1

2
= = = = 0.407 < 1 .
9.81(1)

= 1 + 8(.4077) − 1

=0.531(1)=0.531 m

12
13
14
 Standard Stilling Basins
The energy dissipaters structures perform the energy reduction by converting the
kinetic energy into turbulence and finally into heat. The dissipation of energy can be
achieved by means of several methods such as stilling basins. For a hydraulic
structure stilling basin, the energy can be dissipated by means of a hydraulic jump
within the basin, so that the high energy supercritical flow entering the basin is
converted to lower energy subcritical flow before reaching the downstream channel.
The hydraulic jump should be confined to a heavily-armored channel reach, the
bottom of which is protected by a solid surface such as concrete to resist scouring.
Since the cost of concrete structure is relatively high, the length of the hydraulic jump
is usually controlled by accessories that not only stabilize the jump action and
increase the factor of safety, but also reduce the cost of the structure.
Optimum energy dissipation will occur when the flow enters the dissipater uniformly.
To ensure that a stilling basin performs its function efficiently, basin should be
designed in such a way that the elevation of tail water depth in the downstream
channel not be much less than the elevation of conjugate depth of jump.

Design Consideration
There are several consideration in designing hydraulic jumps and stilling basins
(Chow 1959-page 414) as follows:
a) Jump position: There are three jump alternatives that allow a hydraulic jump to
form downstream of a transition in the channel. These positions are controlled by
tailwater.
b) Tailwater condition: It should be taken into account in the design procedure.
c) Jump type: Various types of hydraulic jumps that may occur are summarized in
previously. The greater the Froude number, the higher is the effect of tailwater on
the jump.
Control of Jumps
Jumps can be controlled by several types of appurtenances such as chute blocks, baffle
pier and sills. Typical sketch of stilling basin is shown in Fig.10.

Fig 10. Typical sketch of stilling basins.

15
Chute blocks are located at the entrance to the stilling basin. Their function is to
furrow the incoming jet of flow and lift a portion of it from the floor producing
a shorter length of jump than would be possible without them.
Baffles are blocks placed in the intermediate position across the basin floor. Their
function is to dissipate energy mostly by impact action. They are useful in
small structures with low incoming velocities. They are unsuitable where high
velocities make cavitation possible.
Sills are usually provided at the end of the stilling basin. Their functions are to induce
jump formation and to control its position.

Classification
Stilling basins can be classified into:
a) Stilling basins in which Fr < 4.5. This is generally encountered on weirs and
barrages.
b) Stilling basins in which Fr > 4.5. This is a general feature for medium and high
dams

Stilling basins categories

Three major categories of basins are used for a range of hydraulic conditions (see
Chow 1959, P-415).

S.A.F. Stilling Basin (Saint Anthony Falls): This is recommended for use on
small structures such as small spillways, outlet works, and small canal structures. It
has a particularly wide range of application conditions (1.7 < < 17) and is very
effective in shortening the jump. The reduction in basin length achieved through the
use of appurtenances (baffle blocks, a sloping entrance and an end sill) designed for
the basin is about 80%. This stilling basin was developed at the St. Anthony Falls
Hydraulic Laboratory, University of Minnesota. The geometry and dimensions for a
straight-sided basin are shown in Fig.11and Fig.12. The design rules are summarized
as follows:
1. The stilling basin Length of basin (LB) is related to the incoming Froude number
Fr1 by:
.
= . ………………………………………………………………...…… (25)
where, y2 is the depth of water after the jump.

2. The height of the chute blocks and floor blocks is y1, and the width and spacing are
approximately 0.75y1.
3. The baffle piers are placed directly downstream of the openings between the chute
blocks at a distance equal to LB/3 from the ends of the chute blocks.
4. No floor block (baffle pier) should be placed closer to the side wall than 0.375 .
5. The floor blocks (baffle piers) should occupy between 40 and 55% of the stilling
basin width.
6. The widths and spacings of the floor blocks (baffle piers) for diverging stilling
basins should be increased in proportion to the increase in stilling-basin width at
the floor-block location.
16
7. The height of end sill is given by c = 0.07y2 , where y2 is the theoretical sequent
depth corresponding to y1.
8. The depth of tailwater above the stilling-basin floor is given by:

= (1.10 − ) for =1.7 to 5.5 …….…………….…. (26)

= 0.85 for =5.5 to 11 ………………….…. (27)
= (1.00 − ) for =11 to 17 ……………….…...… (28)

9. The height of the side wall above the maximum tailwater depth to be expected
during the life of the structure should allow a free board of = .
10. Wing walls should be provided for the transition from the basin to the downstream
channel equal in height to the stilling-basin side walls. The top of the wing wall
should have a slope of 1 on 1.
11. The wing wall should be placed at an angle of 45° to the outlet center line.
12. The stilling-basin side walls may be parallel (as in a rectangular stilling basin) or
they may diverge as an extension of the transition side walls (as in a trapezoidal
stilling basin).
13. A cutoff wall of nominal depth should be used at the end of the stilling basin.
14. The effect of entrained air should be neglected in the design of the stilling basin.

Fig. (11) SAF stilling basin geometry.

17
Fig. (12) SAF stilling basin parameters. (a) Rectangular stilling basin,
(b) Trapezoidal stilling basin (half-plan), (c) Centerline section.

18
 Stilling Basin Design for Low Froude Numbers Fr < 4.5

USBR Stilling Basin IV: This stilling basin is used for Froude number varying
between Fr = 2.5-4.5 which usually occur in canal structures such as weirs, canal
falls, and diversion dams. This type of basins is applicable only to rectangular cross
sections. For this range of Froude number an oscillating jump will be produced in the
stilling basin generating a wave that is difficult to dampen. USBR Stilling Basin IV is
designed to eliminate the wave at this source (see Fig. 13). This is achieved by
intensifying the roller, which appears in the upper portion of the jump.

Fig.(13) Proportions of USBR Basin IV (Chow 1959, p 422).

The number of chute blocks shown in Fig. 13 is the minimum required to serve the
purpose. For better hydraulic performance, it is desirable to construct the blocks
narrower than indicated, for better hydraulic performance 0.75w. The tailwater depth
is to set 5 to 10% greater than the sequent depth of the jump, i.e. to set the tail water
Tw = (1.05 to 1.1) D2. . The length of the basin is generally kept equal to5 (D − D ).

USBR Stilling Basins

1. USBR basin I: In this type of the stilling basins the hydraulic jump is
occurring on a flat floor without chute blocks, or sills. The basin length is
equal to the hydraulic jump length. However, such a basin is usually not very
practical because of its expensive length and its lack of control.

2. USBR basin II: used when Fr>4.5 and v=15m/sec. The basin contain chute
blocks at u/s end & sill near d/s end& no baffles. The length is related to Fr.
3. USBR basin III: is designed for a purpose similar to that of the SAF basin,
but it has a higher factor of safety. The performance of this basin indicates that
the jump-and-basin length can be reduced about 60% with the appurtenances,
as compared with 80% for the SAF basin. Therefore, the SAF basin is shorter

19
 and more economical but, in consequence, has a lower safety factor. The
basin is used for small structures and when Fr > 4.5.and V≤15m/sec .
4. USBR basin IV: will be described in the next article in details.
5. USBR basin V: is used where structural economies dictate the use of a
sloping apron, usually on high-dam spillways.
USBR basins II and IV will be described in this and the next articles,
Stilling Basin Design for Froude Numbers Fr > 4.5

USBR Stilling Basin II: various types of generalized design of stilling basin
have been developed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation as follows:

USBR basin II: This is recommended for use on large structures such as dam
spillways and for large canal structures when the incoming Froude number Fr is
greater than 4.5. The basin contains chute blocks at the upstream end and a dentated
sill near the downstream end. No baffle piers are used because the relatively high
velocities entering the jump might cause cavitation on piers. The dimensions of the
chute blocks, dentated sill, etc. are shown in Fig.14e.The length of the basin is related
to Froude numbers shown in Table. 1.

Table 1. Limits of basin length

Froude number, Fr Length of the basin

4 3.6 D2
6 4.0 D2
8 4.2 D2
10 or more 4.3 D2

The detailed design and the data for computations are shown in Fig. 14. The rules
recommended for the design are as follows:
1. Set apron elevation to utilize full sequent tailwater depth, plus an added factor of
safety if needed. The dashed lines in Fig. 14 are guides drawn for various ratios of
actual tailwater depth to sequent depth. Studies of existing designs indicate that
most of the basins were designed for sequent tailwater depth or less. However,
there is a limit, which is governed by the curve labeled “Minimum TW depth.''
This curve indicates the point at which the front of the jump moves away from the
chute blocks. In other words, any additional lowering of the tailwater depth would
cause the jump to leave the basin; that is, would produce a “sweep-out.” For design
purposes, the basin should not be designed for less than sequent depth. For
additional safety, in fact, the Bureau recommends that a minimum safety margin of
5 % of D2 be added to the sequent depth.

2. Basin II may be effective down to a Froude number of 4, but the lower values
should not be taken for granted. For lower values, designs considering wave
suppression are recommended.

20
3. The length of basin can be obtained from the length-of-jump curve in Fig. 14c.

4. The height of chute blocks is equal to the depth D1 of flow entering the basin. The
width and spacing should be approximately equal to D1; however, this may be
varied to eliminate the need for fractional blocks, A space equal to 0.5D1 is
preferable along each wall to reduce spray and maintain desirable pressures.

5. The height of the dentated sill is equal to 0.2D2, and the maximum width and
spacing recommended is approximately 0.15D2. In this design a block is
recommended adjacent to each side wall (Fig. 14e). The slope of the continuous
portion of the end sill is 2 :1. In the case of narrow basins, which would involve
only a few dentates according to the above rule, it is advisable to reduce the width
and the spacing, provided this is done proportionally. Reducing the width and
spacing actually improves the performance in narrow basins; thus, the minimum
width and spacing of the dentates is governed only by structural considerations.

6. It is not necessary to stagger the chute blocks and the sill dentates. In fact this
practice is usually inadvisable from a construction standpoint.

7. The verification tests on basin II indicated no perceptible change in the stilling-

basin action with respect to the slope of the chute preceding the basin. The slope of
chute varied from 0.6:1 to 2:1 in these tests. Actually, the slope of the chute does
have an effect on the hydraulic jump in some cases. It is recommended that the
sharp intersection between chute and basin apron be replaced with a curve of
reasonable radius (R ≥ 4 D1) when the slope of the chute is 1:1 or greater. Chute
blocks can be incorporated on the curved face as readily as on the plane surfaces.
On steep chutes the length of top surface on the chute blocks should be made
sufficiently long to deflect the jet. The above, rules will result in a safe,
conservative stilling basin for spillways with fall up to 200 ft and for flows up to
500 cfs per foot of basin width, provided the jet entering the basin is reasonably
uniform both in velocity and in depth. For greater falls, larger unit discharges, or
possible asymmetry, a model study of the specific design is recommended.

8. The approximate water-surface and pressure profiles of a jump in the basin are
shown in Fig. 14d.

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Fig.(14) Design curves and proportions of USBR basin II. a) Definition of symbols; (b)
minimum tailwater depths; (c) length of hydraulic jump; (d) approximate water surface
and pressure profiles (conjugate depth — sequent depth); (e) recommended proportions.

Discharge of the Overflow Spillway

The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation of most such formulas
can be expressed in the general form of Eq. (29). For spillways designed for the WES
shapes, considered this equation ;
Q = C L He1.5 ……………………………..(29)
where C is the discharge coefficient, L is the effective length of the weir
crest, and H is the measured head above the crest, excluding the velocity
head. The effective length of the weir may be computed by
L = Lˊ – 0.1NH ………………………………...(30)
where Lˊ is the measured length of the crest and N is the number of contractions. For
two end contractions, N = 2. For one end contraction, N = 1. When no contractions
are present at the two ends, N = 0.
According to a Rehbock formula for sharp crested weir, the coefficient C in Eq. (29)
is approximately by:
C = 3.27 + 0.40 H/ h English system of units
or: C = 1.805 + 0.22 H/ h SI system of units …………(31)
“ h” is the height of the spillway. H is the depth above the crest, whereas He followed
in Eq.(29) is the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head in the
approach channel. Model tests have shown that the effect of the approach velocity is
negligible when the height h of the spillway is greater than 1.33Hd , where Hd is the
design head excluding the approach velocity head.
Under this condition and with the design head (that is, h/Hd > 1.33 and He = Hd,
where the approach velocity head is negligible) the coefficient of discharge C has
been found to be Cd =2.224 (Cd = 4.03 in English system) .

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In low spillways ,i.e., h/Hd < 1.33, the approach velocity will have appreciable effect
upon the discharge or the discharge coefficient and, consequently, upon the nappe
profile. A dimensionless plot (Fig. 15) adopted from Waterways Experiment Station
(WES) can be used to show the effect of the approach velocity on the relationship
between He /Hd and. C/Cd, for spillways designed for WES shapes having vertical
upstream face. For spillways having sloping upstream face, the value of C can be
corrected approximately for the effect of the upstream-face slope by multiplying C by
a correction factor obtained from the attached chart in Fig.(15). This correction was
developed from the US Bureau of Reclamation data.

Miscellaneous Example

Determine the crest elevation

and the shape of an overflow-
spillway section having a a
crest length of 250 ft. The
design discharge is 75,000 cfs.
The upstream water surface at
design discharge is at El.1000
and the average channel floor
is at El.880 (as shown in Fig.).

Solution

1- Assuming a high overflow spillway, thus ; the effect of approach velocity is

negligible, and Cd =4.03 (since all dam measures are in English units). By the
discharge equation:
He1.5 = Q/CL = 75,000/(4.03 × 250) = 74.4, hence He = 17.8 ft.

2- The approach velocity is Va=75,000/(250 × 120)

= 2.5 fps, and the corresponding velocity head is
Ha =Va2/(2g)= 2.52 / 2(32.2) = 0.1 ft. Thus, the
design head is:
Hd = He-Ha=17.8- 0.1 = 17.7 ft.

3- the height of the dam is; h = (1000-880) - 17.7 =

102.3 ft. This height[ h >1.33Hd ], and, hence,
the effect of approach velocity is negligible. The
crest elevation is at 1000 - 17.7 = 982.3 .

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Curvature of Spillways at the Toe:
The theoretical velocity of flow at the toe of an overflow spillway can be computed
by Bernoulli as:
Total energy = Z + Ha = Z + =y + ; or in a simple
form:
V = 2g(Z + H − y ) ………………………….... (32)
where Z is the fall(water surface Elv. - bottom Elv.), or vertical
distance in ft from the upstream reservoir level to the floor at the
toe; Ha is the upstream approach velocity head, and y1 is the depth
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of flow at the toe. Owing to the energy loss involved in the flow over the spillway, the
actual velocity is always less than the theoretical value. The magnitude of the actual
velocity depends mainly on the head on the spillway crest, the fall, the slope of the
spillway surface, and the spillway surface roughness. By reasoning and experiments it
is shown that the deviation of the actual velocity from its theoretical value becomes
larger when the head is smaller and the fall is greater.
On the basis of experience, theoretical analysis , and a limited amount of
experimental information obtained from prototype tests on Shasta and Grand Coulee
dams, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has studied the relationship between the
actual velocity and a theoretical value, a theoretical velocity defined by the Bureau
is: V = 2g(Z − 0.5H) . ………………………………………(33)
In order to create a smooth transition of the flow and to prevent the impact of
the falling water from scouring the foundation, the surface at the spillway toe is
usually designed as a curved bucket. To be thoroughly effective the bucket should be
tangent to the foundation or nearly so. The radius R of the bucket, measured in meter,
may be estimated approximately by the following empirical formula:
= 10[ . ]/[ . ]
; or
= 0.305 × 10 in which, = + 6.4 + / 3.6 + ….(34)
where, V1 is the velocity of the flow at the toe, in fps (m/sec) and H is the head, on the
spillway crest, excluding approach velocity head. The design bucket pressure and the
maximum side-wall pressure should be equal to the centrifugal pressure plus the
hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the tailwater depth. The centrifugal pressure
can be computed for known radius of the bucket and velocity of the flow at the toe by
Newton's law of acceleration, as the product of the mass of water of height d and a
cross section of 1 m2, that is, γd/g, and the centrifugal acceleration v2/r; or:
P = ………………….……………………..(35)
where γ is the weight density of water, is the gravitational acceleration , V is
the velocity of flow, and r is the radius of curvature. Determination of the
bucket pressure, however, can be made more accurately by flow-net analysis or by the
relaxation method, or, still more precisely, by model tests. The results of such
determination have indicated that the effect of the bucket curve on pressure actually
extends even beyond the ends of the curve.
The flow leaving the toe of a high overflow spillway is a high-velocity jet, containing
a large amount of energy capable of causing heavy scouring. Unless the downstream
approach is resistant to such scouring, measures to avoid the danger of scouring
should be taken in the design. Popular methods are design of a ski-jump spillway,
utilization of submerged tailwater as a brake, and use of a hydraulic jump as energy
dissipater.
From example above V = 2g(120 − 0.5(17.7)) = 84.6 fps
q (Q/W) (75000/250)
y = = = = 3.55 ft
V V 84.6
V 84.6
= = = 7.91
gy 32.2(3.55)
Thus, you can us stilling basin No. II , since Fr >4.5 , the structure is large, and
velocity greater than 15m/sec (50fps).

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