Industrial Archaeology Review

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Archaeological Investigation and Industrial

Heritage Study of the Wanshan Mercury Mining
Site in Guizhou Province, China

Yingfu Li, Chunyan Ma, Fang Liu, Wan Huang & Yuniu Li

To cite this article: Yingfu Li, Chunyan Ma, Fang Liu, Wan Huang & Yuniu Li (2023)
Archaeological Investigation and Industrial Heritage Study of the Wanshan Mercury
Mining Site in Guizhou Province, China, Industrial Archaeology Review, 45:2, 74-84, DOI:
10.1080/03090728.2023.2257579

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03090728.2023.2257579

Published online: 24 Nov 2023.

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INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW
2023, VOL. 45, NO. 2, 74–84
https://doi.org/10.1080/03090728.2023.2257579

Archaeological Investigation and Industrial Heritage Study of the Wanshan Mercury

Mining Site in Guizhou Province, China
Yingfu Li, Chunyan Ma, Fang Liu, Wan Huang and Yuniu Li

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Mercury is the only natural liquid non-ferrous metal that occurs under normal temperature. Cinnabar, Wuling Mountains; Wanshan;
also known as Chensha 辰砂 and Dansha 丹砂 in ancient China, is a natural ore of mercury sulphide cinnabar mining; mercury
that exists in mercury mines and is the most common source ore for refining elementary mercury. smelting; mining industrial
heritage
The largest cinnabar deposit in China is at the Wanshan mercury mine in Wanshan Town, Guizhou
Province, which was an important centre for the mercury production industry since the Tang Dynasty
(AD 618–907). An archaeological field survey of the area identified 36 locations related to cinnabar
mining and mercury production spanning the period from the Tang and Song Dynasties (AD 960–
1279) to the late 20th century. This survey was the first comprehensive archaeological investigation
and exploratory research of these materials, and provides a fresh insight into the evolution of the
Wanshan mercury mine and its secondary development as a unique industrial heritage site.

Introduction important cinnabar and mercury production centres in the world.

Cinnabar is a natural ore of mercury sulphide that exists in mercury
mines and has been an extremely important mineral resource
since ancient times.1 Whilst there is archaeological evidence for
cinnabar having been used in association with burial practice
during the Neolithic period, it is known to have been employed
widely in alchemy, pigments and even medicine in addition to
burials by the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC–AD 220), when it
played an important role in economic life. It is recorded in the
Shiji (‘Records of the Grand Historian’ by Sima Qian, who died c.
90 BC), which relates the case of a widow named Qing of the
region of Ba and Shu, whose ancestors got possession of some cin-
nabar caves and were able to monopolise the profits from them for
several generations until they had acquired an inestimable
amount of wealth. Qing, although only a widow,
was able to carry on the business and used her wealth to buy protection
for herself so that others could not mistreat or impose upon her. The
First Emperor of the Qin, considering her a virtuous woman, treated
her as a guest and built the Nühuaiqing Terrace in her honour.2
According to legend, the cinnabar mine exploited by the
widow Qing is located along the Wu River in modern Pengshui
and Youyang counties in Chongqing and on the edge of the cin-
nabar mining zone of the Wuling Mountains.
Wanshan cinnabar mine is situated in the central area of the
Wuling Mountains cinnabar belt, which belonged to Qianzhong
Prefecture in the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC), Wuling Prefecture in
the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220) and Jin State in the Tang
Dynasty. Wanshan cinnabar rarely appears in the literature of the
Qin and Han Dynasties, but records of the cinnabar mine had
increased sharply by the Tang Dynasty. Historically, cinnabar pro-
duced in Wanshan was famous for its heavy ratio and bright red
colour. As recorded in the Yuanhe Junxian Tuzhi (‘Photo Story of
the Prefectures and Counties in the Yuanhe Period of the Tang
Dynasty’, written by Li Jifu in AD 813) and the Tongdian
(‘Ancient Laws and Regulations of Past Dynasties’, written by Du
You in AD 801), Guangming Dansha (‘bright cinnabar’) from
Wanshan was used as a tribute both in the Kaiyuan (AD 713–41)
and Yuanhe (AD 806–20) periods of the Tang Dynasty.3
The Wanshan mercury mining site is located in Wanshan Town,
Guizhou Province (Figure 1). Known as the ‘Kingdom of Cinnabar’,
it has rich reserves of high-grade cinnabar and was one of the most
The site covers a surface area of 2.5 square kilometres with a
mining area of about 32,000 square meters, including the Xianren-
dong, Heidongzi, Yunnanti and other mines (Figure 1). There are a
large number of important remains deriving from mining, benefi-
ciation and smelting in the mine tunnel, and the site is now listed
as an ‘Important Heritage Site under State Protection of China’.
The site was included on the Preparatory List of China’s World
Cultural Heritage in 2012. In the same year, the department of
archaeology of Sichuan University and Guizhou Provincial Institute
of Cultural Relics and Archaeology carried out a systematic archae-
ological investigation and trial excavations of the site. This was the
first comprehensive investigation and exploratory research of an
industrial archaeological site and provided a fresh insight into
the early mining practices at Wanshan. The preliminary results
from the project, focusing on the archaeological aspects, have
been published elsewhere and are summarised in this article to
provide a context for a discussion of the wider mining site and
its secondary development as a unique industrial heritage asset
and tourist destination.4
Archaeological Surveys
The archaeological surveys focused mainly on Wanshan District
and Bijiang District, Tongren City, Guizhou Province. A total of
36 locations related to cinnabar mining and production dating
from the Tang (AD 618–907) and Song Dynasties (AD 960–1279)
to modern times were found, including mining and smelting
sites, settlements, roads, bridges and docks, as well as modern
folk houses, city walls and modern industrial heritage buildings
(Figure 2).
The history of cinnabar and mercury mining in Wanshan
stretches back thousands of years. The earliest remains are rep-
resented by ancient cave groups that are relatively well preserved,
allowing their early shape and form to be recorded and providing
important empirical materials for the study of early open-pit
mining and cinnabar-mining technology.5 The extent and com-
plexity of the surviving remains testify to Wanshan having
become the cinnabar and mercury production centre with the
largest production scale and highest industrialisation level in
China by the Tang Dynasty.

CONTACT Yuniu Li xiang0723@hotmail.com, lyn723@scu.edu.cn

© The Association for Industrial Archaeology 2023

Figure 1. Location of the Wanshan mercury mining site (base map: National Platform for Common Geospatial Information Services and Omap).
In 2016, the archaeological team discovered a stone hammer in
Taoshaxi, said to be a cinnabar mining site during the Shang (c.
1600–1046 BC) and Zhou Dynasties (1046–256 BC), providing an
important basis for understanding the beginning of cinnabar
mining in Wanshan. Stone hammers were a common mining
tool before the introduction of metal tools, and were popular
from the late Neolithic to the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Com-
bined with a large number of settlement sites in the Shang and
Zhou Dynasties along the Jin River basin, it can be inferred that
the Wanshan cinnabar mineral resource may have been exploited
in the Jin River basin as early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties.
Cinnabar was largely excavated from the surface of the rock
mass during this early period due to the limitation of mining
tools and technical infrastructure.
In addition to the Xianrendong, Heidongzi and Yunnanti,
several mine caves discovered through archaeological field inves-
tigation were found to be consistent with literature records of the
Tang Dynasty. Fragments of porcelain dating to the Tang Dynasty
were discovered on three sites: Sanjiaoyan, Gaoliangwan and
Laoyuanzi, which were not well preserved. The investigation and
discovery of settlement sites and mercury mining sites in
Wanshan area proved that a complete industrial chain of cinnabar
and mercury had developed in the Wanshan area no later than the
Tang Dynasty.
The appearance of mining management agencies in the
Wanshan area was first recorded in Mingshi (‘History of the
Ming Dynasty’).6 During the Taizu period of the Ming Dynasty
(AD 1368–98), ‘only Dawanshansi 大万山司 (the Great
Wanshan Administration) in Guizhou had a bureau of cinnabar
mining’.7 The role of the bureau was to regulate tax collection
and mine safety management of private cinnabar and mercury
mining. The tombstone of Yang Zhengbang, discovered during
the archaeological survey, recorded that he was promoted
from Wupin Chengzhilang to Zhaoxin Xiaowei and inherited
the title of Dawanshan Zhengzhangguansi (principal officer of
INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 75
the Great Wanshan Administration) in the Guangxu Period of
the Qing Dynasty (AD 1875–1908). It can be seen that the cinna-
bar mining and management in Wanshan were already con-
trolled by the Yang family who served successively as
Dawanshan Zhangguansi (the Great Wanshan Administration)
in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties.
The spatial distribution of ancient paths and docks recorded
during the survey implies that the region’s transportation
network centred on Wanshan and radiated to the north and
south. Transport across land relied mainly on the ancient Mazil-
ing, Shenchong and Yangjiaodeng roads, whilst the River Jin was
used for transportation in Tongren, extending down into the
River Yuan and ultimately to the Yangtze, realising long-distance
and relatively low-cost shipping to destinations such as Zhijiang,
Xinhuang in Hunan Province. In addition, the discovery of the
ancient city wall of Tongren and the sites of three docks indicate
that water transportation had been important locally since the
Ming Dynasty (AD 1368–1644) and cinnabar and mercury pro-
duced at Wanshan was central to the development of the
local economy.
As the core area of cinnabar mining in the Wuling Mountains
area, Wanshan started large-scale cinnabar production no later
than the Tang and Song Dynasties and formed a complete pro-
duction chain of mining, smelting, transportation and market-
ing, promoting the regional economic and social development
of Guizhou Province and even south-west China. The pro-
duction and use of cinnabar certainly became an important
factor to promote the formation of the early civilisations and
social changes in the Ba, Shu and Chu regions. In historical
documents, the Wuling Mountains area existed as a ‘cinnabar
channel’ with cinnabar and mercury circulation as the media.
Cinnabar was not only the main trade of this channel, but
also the material carrier of many communication factors,
which has the same profound and extraordinary significance
as the ancient Silk Road.
76 Y. LI ET AL.
Figure 2. Archaeological remains discovered during the archaeological surveys. Mines: (a) Heidongzi, (b) Goulayan, (c) Yunnanti, (d) Xianrendong; (e–f) cinnabar ores;
(g–h) Maziling ancient path (Photo credit: Authors).
Theoretical Methods and its Significance
Archaeologists mapping and recording some cinnabar mining and
production tools introduced a number of digital recording
methods in the survey, and made digital models of mining
caves, roads and other relics in an attempt to create a visual
three-dimensional model. At the same time, the archaeologists
also carried out an oral history investigation that greatly enriched
the overall record to fully reveal Wanshan’s extraordinary history of
cinnabar mining. Artefacts collected during the archaeological
survey included stone tools and fragments of pottery.8
Chinese archaeology has traditionally paid more attention to
tombs and early remains, and the archaeological investigation
and research of ancient industries including cinnabar and
mercury is a comparatively new field. Until recently there had
been no archaeological investigation of a cinnabar and mercury
mining sites in China, despite the pioneering significance of the

industry. The systematic archaeological work at the Wanshan
mining site has filled an important gap in the archaeological
research of a key Chinese handicraft industry.
Industrial Heritage of the Wanshan Mercury Mining
Site
Wanshan mercury mine is an important industrial heritage asset that
retains a large number of physical remains and industrial buildings
deriving from the development of the site by the Anglo-French
Mercury Company from the late 1890s to the Guizhou Mercury
Mine Company (state-owned company) after 1950.9 The archaeologi-
cal survey of industrial sites is the basis for identification, recording
and research of industrial heritage, and its significance has been
widely recognised by the Chinese academic community.10 The
modern industrial heritage and the ancient remains found from the
archaeological field survey are the basic data for the Wanshan
mercury mining site’s application for the World Cultural Heritage.
The two are indispensable and mutually complementary, which can
completely reflect the history of mercury mine development from
ancient times to the present in Wanshan and its surrounding areas.
Figure 3. The ‘firing method’. (a) prospecting; (b) firing the rock; (c) pouring water on the rock; (d) exploiting; (e) crushing ore; (f) panning (Source: Wanshan Mercury
Mine Industrial Heritage Museum). Photo credit: Chen Shikun. Reproduced with permission.
INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 77
In 1899 (the 25th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu of the
Qing Dynasty), the Anglo-French Mercury Company was estab-
lished and obtained five mining rights under the Bazhai Mining
Bureau of Qingxi, Qingzhou. The company employed advanced
western mining technology and hired more than 1,000 foreign
managers, translators, engineers and employees. The Wanshan
Mercury Mine Industrial Heritage Museum still retains a large
number of photographs and materials deriving from this period.
The price of mercury soared during the period of the Republic
of China (1912–49), stimulating the rapid development of the
mercury industry in Wanshan; the output of mercury reached a
record high of 285 tons in 1918. During the War of Resistance
against Japanese Aggression (1937–45), mercury became one of
the important military resources and the state ownership of
mineral resources was implemented. The Guizhou Mining Bureau
was established in 1939 to manage the production and develop-
ment of cinnabar and mercury in Hunan and Guizhou Provinces.11
Most of the production during this period still followed the local
methods.12
The ‘firing method’ was one of the most important means of
mining cinnabar in the Wuling Mountains area (Figure 3). Its prin-
78 Y. LI ET AL.
ciple was that the surface temperature and hardness changed after
the rock was heated by exposure to high-temperature baking.
Cold water was then quickly poured on the rock surface. When
cold water seeped into cracks in the rock, the swelling force
caused fracture and the stone flakes peeled off naturally. The ore
obtained was then subject to preliminary screening and then
put into the panning basin, immersed in water and agitated. The
lighter proportion of silt was washed out to leave the larger pro-
portion of ore in the panning basin. Smelting the ore was a rela-
tively simple process due to the low melting point of cinnabar,
and only small and simple smelting furnaces were required.
Local mercury smelting furnaces were identified during the
archaeological survey.
Mercury smelting in Guizhou Province was carried out mainly
by the condensation method, utilising one of two approaches
(Figure 4). The first used two fu pots buckled together with
stone bricks or yellow mud to pile up in the furnace. The lower
pot was charged with approximately 20 litres of cinnabar ore,
laid in roughly ten layers. A smaller pot was filled and placed on
top, and the gap between two pots was sealed with salt mud.
This method required burning overnight. When it cooled, the
Figure 4. Local private mercury smelting in modern times: (a) prospecting; (b) firing the rock; (c) pouring water on the rock; (d) exploiting; (e) crushing ore; (f) panning
(Source: Wanshan Mercury Mine Industrial Heritage Museum). Photo credit: Chen Shikun. Reproduced with permission.
mercury hung in the upper pot and could be swept out easily.
The second method was to use a bamboo basket with carving
holes that were coated with salt mud to replace the upper part
of the pot. The holes were not blocked to permit ventilation,
and a hole was cut at the top and covered with a small ceramic
urn to condense the mercury. This method appears to combine
the two ways recorded in historical documents and will have
allowed mercury to be obtained in a very short time.
The transition from manual to mechanised production was
gradually realised after the establishment of the Guizhou
Mercury Mine Company in 1950. Beneficiation changed from a
manual to a mechanical process, and smelting developed from a
single clay furnace to a blast furnace, boiling furnace, distillation
furnace and other high-yield smelting furnaces in order to meet
an increasing demand for output. These methods have gradually
become the most representative advanced technology in
mercury mining in China.
China’s mercury mining industry continued to make signifi-
cant contributions to national development through the
second half of the 20th century, with the Wanshan site produ-
cing 33,000 tons of mercury and cinnabar from 1950 to 2001,
 INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 79

accounting for more than 80 per cent of the nation’s total
output. The mining area comprised mines, ore selecting work-
shops, production workshops, smelting workshops, transpor-
tation companies, auto-repair workshops and staff quarters,
together with community facilities such as an assembly hall,
cinema, dining hall, primary and secondary schools, open univer-
sity, hospital, research building, and the Soviet Expert building. In
2001, however, the Guizhou Mercury Mine Company was shut
down by the government due to the depletion of exploitable
mineral resources, which caused Wanshan to face a series of pro-
blems as it became an ‘empty city’ for a time. Repurposing as
Zhusha ancient town has since transformed the site as a cultural
and tourism destination.
Notwithstanding its closure for commercial mercury mining,
the Wanshan site retains a large number of production
remains deriving from ancient times together with the advanced
and unique technology employed in mining, ore selecting and
smelting that was developed during the 20th century. The site
encapsulates the history of mercury production and reflects
the course and level of scientific and technological development
in China. As an important physical example of non-ferrous metal
mining and smelting technology, the Wanshan mercury mining
site is a unique technical representation of China. It is also
one of the few industrial landscapes in China to have been
recognised and repurposed as a valuable and unique heritage
asset.
and geological landscape are valuable for ornamental, scientific
research and science popularisation. As the main resource for
mercury production and mining of Guizhou Province, the geologi-
cal conditions here also reflect the metallogenic characteristics of a
mercury mine, which is of great significance for prospecting and
developing mining technology.15
Open Pit
The Heidongzi mining pits are located in a magnificent open-air
cliff, with a cliff height of 101m and an arc length of 153m
(Figure 5). There are 87 mining pits and 27 mining tunnels cut
into the cliff, of which 14 main tunnels stretch for more than
70km. This unique historical and cultural landscape has high scien-
tific research value and tourist value. It is a rare mining-production
site and a core landscape element of the national mining park.
Vegetation Reclamation
Attempts to reclaim vegetation on the slag piles have been made
in order to improve the mining environment. Studies have found
that there are 47 species of naturally settled plants in the veg-
etation surrounding the core mining area, most of which are com-
posed of compositae.16 By 2020, vegetation reclamation had been
carried out for nearly five years and the vegetation coverage rate in
the national mining park is currently very high (Figure 6).

Utilisation and Display of Wanshan Mercury Mine

Industrial Heritage Buildings
Industrial Heritage
The industrial heritage buildings are distributed mainly in Tuping
The Wanshan mercury mining site was listed in the first batch of
Town, Sanjiaoyan, Zhangjiawan and Shanmudong, covering an
national mining parks in 2005, and was named as a key ‘National
area of 6.5 square kilometres. The surviving structures include a
Cultural Relics Protection Unit’ in 2006. In 2008, the first phase of
research building, the Soviet Expert building, an assembly hall,
the ‘National Mining Park’ project was launched. In 2011, the
labour service company offices, miners’ residence and dining
Wanshan Mercury Mine Industrial Heritage Museum was listed in
halls, and many other buildings dating from the 1940s to 1960s
the third batch of national museums and memorial halls with
(Figures 7 and 8). In addition, there are still boiling furnaces and
free entrance. In 2012, it was listed in China’s Preparatory List of
distillation furnaces preserved in the smelting and selecting
World Cultural Heritage and is targeting inclusion on the list of
workshops.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites by 2025.13
In 2015, under the leadership of the Tongren government,
Jiangxi Jiyang Company settled in Wanshan and invested in the
Underground Mining Facility
‘Zhusha (cinnabar) Ancient Town’ project. The original mining
related facilities and remains have been strengthened and con- The site retains most of the underground mining tunnels, with a
served, some of the underground mining pits and tunnels are total length of 970km and a mining area of 32,000 square kilo-
redeveloped, new glass walkways along the mountain have metres. There is still some exploration, mining and transportation
been built, and an altogether unique landscape of a mining site equipment preserved under the ground, which can help to visual-
park has been officially opened. The project aimed to build a com- ise the mining activities completely (Figure 9).
prehensive tourist attraction integrating sightseeing tourism, cul-
tural promotion, leisure and entertainment, a popular science
education and film and television base, and to build a mining Mining Production Sightseeing Area
leisure and nostalgia town with the theme of industrial heritage.
The history of cinnabar mining, smelting and mining culture that
The total planning area is 105 square kilometres, and the
has evolved over thousands of years is displayed fully at the
opened core area is about 5 square kilometres. Some of the surviv-
Wanshan site, which provides a comprehensive place for scientific
ing 20th-century industrial buildings have been renovated and
activities, exhibition and research, as well as tourism. At present,
redeveloped into an industrial-themed cliff hotel. The assembly
the Wanshan mercury mining site is open to the public. Unified
hall, cinema and the roads in the original mining area have also
planning that respects the distribution of underground tunnels
been renovated, successfully creating an ecological liveable
and mining pits has been carried out in the scenic area. Acoustic
‘ancient’ town with profound heritage, complete facilities and ser-
and photoelectric equipment and safety protection measures
vices. On the basis of protection of the original industrial heritage,
have been installed in the underground tunnels, and some rela-
the appearance of the buildings is upgraded with mining industrial
tively safe tunnels have been opened for tourists to visit. Red cin-
elements so that visitors can more truly experience various scenes
nabar can be seen clearly in some parts of the rock. Part of the
of the heyday of the Guizhou Mercury Mine Company.
mine still retains an ore transport tub and railway.
The scenic spot features a cliff walkway and glass walkway on
the cliff side of the mining park for tourists to visit the mine
Mineral Geological Resources
more closely. The cliff walkway is 1,213m long, about 1.6m wide
Wanshan mercury mine lies in an area with complex landforms and and over 100m high, connecting the Heidongzi and Xianrendong
numerous mountains. The rock mass is mainly quartzite, limestone caves, and includes 65m wide of glass walkway that was built with
and dolomite, with good geological conditions.14 The mine caves steel structure and compressive glass (Figure 9).
80 Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 5. The Heidongzi mining pits (Photo credit: Authors).

Figure 6. Reclaimed vegetation on the slag piles (Photo credit: Authors).

 INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 81

Figure 7. Industrial heritage buildings: (a–b) former workshops; (c) former primary school; (d) former hospital; (e) former store; (f) former residences (Photographed by
Chen Shikun in 2002. Reproduced with permission).

Cliff Hotel
The Cliff Hotel is built near the cliff in the core scenic area of the
Zhusha ancient town. Some of the former Soviet-style living and
production buildings have been redesigned and redecorated
(Figure 10). The hotel rooms are basically redecorated from the
former official and residential buildings of the Guizhou Mercury
Mine Company. The Chinese restaurant of the hotel is expanded
from the former dining hall, while the Russian restaurant is recon-
structed from the Soviet Expert Building. The interior retains the
original structure and decoration style of the Soviet Expert Building.
82 Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 8. Industrial heritage exhibition area, rebuilt and redecorated from the former residential area (Photo credit: Authors).

Figure 9. (a–b) Underground mining tunnels; (c–d) glass walkway and plank road (Photo credit: Authors).
 INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY REVIEW 83

Figure 10. The Cliff Hotel (a) and the Soviet Expert Building (b) before and (c) after reconstruction) (Photo credit: Authors).

Figure 11. The Wanshan Mercury Mine Industrial Heritage Museum: (a–b) before and after being rebuilt; (c) archives; (d) tools (Photo credit: Authors).
84 Y. LI ET AL.
The Wanshan Mercury Mine Industrial Heritage
Museum
The Wanshan Mercury Mine Industrial Heritage Museum was
founded in 2009 and is housed in the former office building of
the mining department of the Guizhou Mercury Mine Company,
which was built in 1983. It covers a floor area of 3,769.2 square
meters, and has four exhibition halls with a collection of 4,272
pieces. With the history of mercury mining as the main theme,
the exhibition of cinnabar ore samples, various production tools
and daily utensils are the unique materials left by various
periods of Wanshan mercury mining and production (Figure 11).
There are 3,706 boxes (volumes) of scientific and technological
archives of the Guizhou Mercury Mine Company, including more
than 1,000 copies of various drawings, geological survey and
mapping records, meeting minutes and photos, which have rela-
tively complete records of historic production processes and
special production methods, rich historical information and promi-
nent industrial technical features. These unique archival docu-
ments provide important data for studying the industrial
heritage of mercury mining and production in Wanshan.
Conclusion
Wanshan was once China’s largest mercury industrial production
base, known as the ‘Mercury Capital of China’. Wanshan Special
Zone was established in February 1966 as the earliest county
level administrative special zone with the approval of The State
Council of the People’s Republic of China. A large number of build-
ings dating from the 1950s to 1980s in the former residential area
of the Guizhou Mercury Mine Company reference the modern
architectural style of Wanshan mercury mine and various industrial
and living elements of the mercury mining boom period. The reno-
vation of these buildings has adhered to the principle of ‘restoring
the old as the old’. The landmark buildings of the mine, including
the former miners’ dormitory and technical school, have been
restored with nostalgic decoration, slogans reflecting the process
of mercury production, as well as figures and sculptures.
Wanshan mercury mine is not only a rare natural mineral
resource but also a precious treasure left by our ancestors that
charts the development of ancient mining, smelting, and pro-
duction and is worth passing on from generation to generation.
It has been crucial to regional development since ancient times,
as it is fundamental to the cohesion of regional history and huma-
nistic spirit. Today, as a city in transition from resource exhaustion,
Wanshan is constantly exploring a new model of the research and
industrial cultural heritage protection, exhibition and utilisation.
Notes
1. He Xianlong, Exploration of Chinese Cinnabar Culture, in Chinese 中国丹砂文
化探索 (Jilin: Jilin Daxue Chubanshe, 2019).
2. Qian Sima, translated by Burton Watson, Records of The Grand Historian: Han
Dynasty II Revised Edition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 440.
3. Li Jifu, Photo Story of the Prefectures and Counties in the Yuanhe Period of
the Tang Dynasty, in Chinese 元和郡县图志 (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju,
2005), 741–52; Du You, Ancient Laws and Regulations of Past Dynasties, in
Chinese 通典 (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1988), 128.
4. Yingfu Li, Bisu Zhou and Liguo Wei, ‘Report on the Wanshan Mercury Mining
Site in Guizhou Province’, in Chinese 贵州万山汞矿遗址调查报告, Jianghan
Kaogu 江汉考古 2 (2014): 22–40.
5. Li, Zhou and Wei, ‘Report on the Wanshan Mercury Mining Site in Guizhou
Province’, 22–40.
6. Containing valuable information on Ming government, society and promi-
nent individuals, the Mingshi was compiled from materials collected over
the course of the Ming period (1368–1644) and was presented to the Qing
throne in 1736 and published in 1739.
7. Zhang Tingyu, History of the Ming Dynasty, 18th ed. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju,
2020), 1974.
8. Li, Zhou and Wei, ‘Report on the Wanshan Mercury Mining Site in Guizhou
Province’, 22–40.
9. Luqin Yang, ‘Study of Industrial Heritage of Wanshan Mercury Mine’, in
Chinese 万山汞矿工业遗产研究. MA thesis, Guizhou Minzu Daxue 贵州民
族大学 (2016).
10. Jixiang Shan, ‘Focusing on the New Type of Cultural Heritage: Protection of
Industrial Heritage’, in Chinese 关注新型文化遗产——工业遗产的保护,
China Cultural Heritage 中国文化遗产 4 (2006): 11–14; Jixiang Shan, ‘Explora-
tion of International Industrial Heritage Protection’, in Chinese 国际工业遗产
保护的探索, The China Culture Post 中国文化报, April 28, 2009; Boying Liu,
‘Core Value of Modern China Industrial Heritage’, in Chinese探索中国工业
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Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This research was funded by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (grant no.
2019M653456), the National Social Science Fund of China (grant no. 15ZDB056),
and Sichuan University (2021CXC14 and 2035xd-02).
Notes on Contributors
Yingfu Li, is a professor at the School of Archaeology and Museology, Sichuan Univer-
sity, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
Chunyan Ma is a Ph.D candidate at the School of Archaeology and Museology,
Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
Fang Liu is a Ph.D candidate at the School of Archaeology and Museology, Sichuan
University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. Her research interests include protection and
utilisation of cultural heritage.
Wan Huang is a Ph.D. candidate at the School of Archaeology and Museology,
Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. Her research interests include archaeo-
metallurgy and conservation of iron objects.
Yuniu Li is a professor at the School of Archaeology and Museology & Centre for
Archaeological Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. His research
interests include archaeometallurgy, industrial archaeology and experimental archae-
ology. Correspondence to: Yuniu Li. Email: xiang0723@hotmail.com or lyn723@scu.
edu.cn.
ORCID
Yuniu Li http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5064-6606