Karnataka Quality Inspector Book

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inin
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INDEX
S.No Title Name Page No
1. Morphology of cereals & pulses – their constituents & miling 3 – 18
procedures
2. General problems of storage of good grains at commercial / 19 – 29
Farm level
3. Food Policy of India 30 – 35
4. Milling processing, packaging of food grains & their finished 36 – 46
products technology of cereal processing
5. Technology of leume & oilseed proessing 47 – 55
6. Storage insect – Pests & their management 56 – 60
7. Control of vertebrate pests – Rats, Bandicoots, Birds 61 – 66
8. Toxic contaminants in food, their effects prevention toxins in 67 – 71
food
9. Pesticide residues in food 72 – 77
10. Pesticide contaminants 78 – 92
11. Source & detection of insect infestation in stored grains 93 – 95
12. Principle of scientific godown construction 96 – 97
13. Metallic & Non-metallic storage structures 98 – 109
14. Pesticide formulation, their physical, chemical & biological 110 – 116
method of handling, application & their efficacy insecticide
15. Pesticide formulation 117 – 119
16. Pesticide application methods 120 – 121
17. Role of moisture in godown its measurement in food grains 122 – 125
18. Godown management & code of storage practices 126
19. Principle of godown sanitation & hygiene 127 – 130
20. Fumigation of food grains by different fumigants & use of 131 – 135
safety equipment
21. Handling & transportation of food grains 136 – 139
22. Inspection of food grains terminology, necessing & utility 140 – 142
23. Sampling Techniques & grading of food grains 143 – 159
24. Uniform specification of rice, paddy, maize, ragi, jowar, etc. at 160 – 163
the time of procurement
25. Consumer Protection Act & its importance 164 – 171
26. Food Safety & Standard Act, 2006 & its Importance 172 – 210
27. Insecticide Act & its importace 211 – 213
28. Minimum support price & central issue price their importance 214 – 219
29. Issue of food grains to state government & their agencies for 220 – 223
tpds & other welfare schemes
30. Basics computer knowledge in MS Office 224 – 233
31. Word Processing 234 – 238
32. Microsoft Windows 239 – 242

MORPHOLOGY OF CEREALS & PULSES – THEIR CONSTITUENTS
& MILING PROCEDURES
MORPHOLOGY OF CEREAL, MAJOR & MINOR MILLETS
 The cereal crops that are grown for their edible fruit are generally called grain, but
botanically referred to as caryopsis.
 The cereal seed consists of two major components, the endosperm and embryo or germ.
 The endosperm encompass the bulk of the seed and is the energy source of stored food.
 An outer wall called the pericarp that develops from the ovary wall encases the
endosperm.
 A semi permeable layer under the pericarp, which is called testa, surrounds the embryo
and is derived from the inner ovary wall.
 The testa is permeable to water, but not to dissolved salts, and is important for
germination.
 The thirdlayer, which is called aleurone, contains thick-walled cells that are free of
starch. The pericarp, testa, and aleurone layer are collectively called the bran.
Average composition of cereals and legumes

Raw Whole Whole Sorghum Millets Legume Broad
brown wheat Maize Lentils beans
rice (kernels)
Moisture 12.0 12.5 13.8 11.0 11.8 12.2 10.6
(per cent)
Calories / 360 330 348 332 327 351 354
100 gm
Protein 7.5 12.3 8.9 11.0 9.9 23.7 25.0
(per cent)
Fat 1.9 1.8 3.9 3.3 2.9 1.3 1.8
(per cent)
N-free 77.4 71.7 72.2 73.0 72.9 57.4 53.7
extract,
(per cent)
Fibre 0.9 2.3 2.0 1.7 3.2 3.2 5.9
(per cent)
Ash 1.2 1.7 1.2 1.7 2.5 2.2 3.0
(per ctnt)
Thiamine , 0.34 0.52 0.37 0.38 0.73 - -
mg / 100
gm
Riboflavin, 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.38 - -
mg / 100
Niacin, mg 4.7 4.3 2.2 3.9 2.3 - -
/ 100 gm

FOOD PRODUCTS FRON CEREAL, MAJOR & MINOR MILLETS
 Traditional Food Products:

Various types of flours, Roti/Bhakari, Annum, Boiled grains, Grits, Rava, Semolina,
Malted grains/flours, Fermented flours, pops, flakes, etc.
 Ethnic Food Products:

Papad, Kurdai, Chiwada, Chakali, Idli, Dosa, Upma, Shira, Khakara, Pakoda, Wada, etc.
 Bakery Food Products:

Bread, Toasts, Buns, Butters, Sweet rolls, Biscuits, Cookies, Cakes, Kharies, etc.
 Nutraceutical/Industrial Food Products:

Diabetic flour, High fiber food products, Starch, Beer, Weaning foods, Fortified food
products, Syrups, Alcohol/Ethanol, etc.
Average Composition of Cereals

Food grains Rice Wheat Maize Sorghum Millets
Moisture,% 12.0 12.5 13.8 11.0 11.8
Protein, % 7.5 12.3 8.9 11.0 9.9
Fat, % 1.9 1.8 3.9 3.3 2.9
NFE, % 77.4 71.7 72.2 73.0 72.9
Fiber, % 0.9 2.3 2.0 1.7 3.2
Ash, % 1.2 1.7 1.2 1.7 2.5
Thiamine, 0.34 0.52 0.37 0.38 0.73
mg / 100g
Riboflavin, 0.05 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.38
mg / 100g
Niacin, mg / 4.7 4.3 2.2 3.9 2.3
100g
Calories 360 330 348 332 327
Composition of some oat, rye & barley products

Millet Moisture Protein Fat CHO Dietary NSPS
fiber
1. Oat
Oat Meal 8.8 11.8 6.8 68.4 6.3 6.8
Rolled 10.1 12.0 6.8 67.2 - -
Quick cook 8.2 11.2 9.2 66.0 6.8 7.1
2. Rye

Whole flour 15.0 8.2 2.0 66.0 - 7.1
Bread 37.4 8.3 1.7 45.8 5.8 4.4
Crisp bread 6.4 9.4 2.1 70.6 11.7 -
3. Barley
Whole grains 11.7 10.6 2.1 64.0 - 14.8
Pearled 10.6 7.9 1.7 83.6 5.9 -
RICE GRAIN
WHEAT GRAIN (4- to 10-mm)

CORN GRAIN 2 to 3.5 m tall
OAT GRAIN

BARLEY GRAIN
RYE GRAIN

SORGHUM GRAIN
Nutritive value of cereals (per 100 g)

Food Energ Protei Fa Carbohydrate Calciu Iro Caroten Thiamin Riboflavi Niaci
y n t s m n e e n n
k.cal. g. g. g. mg. mg. mcg. mg. mg. mg.
Bejra 361 11.6 5.0 67.5 42 8.0 132 0.33 0.25 2.3
Jowar 349 10.4 1.9 72.6 25 4.1 47 0.37 0.13 3.1
Maize, dry 342 11.1 3.6 66.2 10 2.3 90 0.42 0.10 1.8
Maize, tender 125 4.7 0.9 24.6 9 1.1 32 0.11 0.17 0.6
Ragl 328 7.3 1.3 72.0 344 3.9 42 0.42 0.19 1.1
Rice, 349 8.5 0.6 77.4 10 2.8 9 0.27 0.12 4.0
parboiled,
handpounde
Rice, 346 6.4 0.4 79.0 9 1.0 - 0.21 0.05 3.8
parboiled,
milled
Rice, raw, 346 7.5 1.0 76.7 10 3.2 2 0.21 0.16 3.9
handpounde
Rice, raw, 345 6.8 0.5 78.2 10 0.7 0 0.06 0.06 1.9

milled
Wheat flour 341 12.1 1.7 69.4 48 4.9 29 0.49 0.17 4.3
(whole)
Wheat flour 348 11.0 0.9 73.9 23 2.7 25 0.12 0.07 2.4
(refined)
Wheat bread 245 7.8 0.7 51.9 11 1.1 - 0.07 - 0.7
(white)
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF WHEAT
The wheat plant is a typical grass with all characteristic features of the family Poaceae
(Graminaeae). Young wheat plants are bright green. They turn golden brown when the grain
is mature. The plant is an annual with numerous ―Tillers‖
It has two types of roots, primary or seminal which develop from the embryo and secondary
or coronal which are adventitious and develop from the basal underground nodes of the
main axis and the tillers. The primary roots live only for six to eight weeks while the
secondary roots represent the permanent root systems of the plant.
The main stem (culm) as well as tillers are erect cylindrical structures. Each is made up of 5-
7 nodes and grows to a height 0.3 to 1.5m. The lower internodes are short but the upper
ones are longer. These are hollow and usually glabrous.
The leaves show an alternate arrangement. Each leaf has a basal sheath. It encircles the
stem and forms a complete tube in its lower region. The sheath splits higher up and
continues into the lamina or blade. The lamina is flat, long, narrow with an acuminate tip. It
shows parallel venation and more stomata on the adaxial surface. The graminaceous

stomata are characteristic of the family Gramineae; dumpbell shaped guard cells having
special ‗bulliform‘ cells are present in adaxial epidermis. At the junction of the sheath and
lamina, there is a colourless membranous ligule. A pair of auricles is also present at the
base of the lamina.
The inflorescence is a terminal spike made up of numerous spikelets. The inflorescence axis
is tough and does not shatter (break up) when the grain is ripe. The spikelets are in two rows
on alternate sides of the axis. Each spikelet is sessile with 2-5 florets . The spikelet consists
of a pair of sterile glumes, a shortened rachilla and 2-5 pairs of fertile glumes. Each pair of
fertile glumes consists of an outer lemma and an inner palea.
These fertile glumes enclose the floret. The apex of the lemma is usually extended into an
awn. The floret consists of 2 lodicules which represent the perianth and regulate the opening
of the flower. There are 3 stamens with slender filaments and bilobed versatile anthers. The
gynoecium is monocarpellary (or according to some taxonomists tricarpellary syncarpous)
with a superior ovary and 2 terminal styles having feathery stigmas. There is a single ovule.
The fruit is a caryopsis. It is a one

seeded, dry indehiscent grain. Usually
two grains develop in each spikelet. Each
grain is oval with convex dorsal surface
and a centrally grooved ventral surface. A
tuft of hairs is present at the tip of the
grain. The fruit wall and the seed coat are
completely fused and these layers
constitute the bran of the grain. Bran
encloses the endosperm which forms the
major portion (about 82-86%) of the
grain. This is mainly made up of starch
and gluten. The outermost layer of the
endosperm is the aleurone which
contains vitamins, minerals, and proteins but does not contain gluten. The small embryo is
present at the basal end of the grain. It consists of the plumule and radical. The plumule is

enclosed in a sheath called the coleoptiles. A coleorhiza or root sheath encloses the radical.
A fleshy shield like cotyledon called the scutellum is also present.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF RICE
The rice plant is a semi-aquatic, freely tillering, annual grass. It has a cylindrical jointed stem
(culm) about 50 The primary root emerges on germination and it is followed by two additional
roots. Adventitious roots are then produced from the basal nodes of the primary stem and
tillers. The roots can be grown under low oxygen concentrations. They form a dense surface
mat and they are highly branched and have a profusion of root hairs.
The stem or culm is usually erect, smooth and 6-10 mm in diameter. The nodes are solid but
the internodes are hollow. Above each node there is a prominent pulvinus and an intercalary
meristem. The lower internodes are short, and become progressively longer towards the
apex. There are 10-20 internodes on each stem.
The first leaf at the base of the culm and each tiller is rudimentary. It consists of a bladeless
prophyllum. All other leaves on the plant have a sheath and lamina. The leaves are borne
alternately on the stem in two ranks one at each node. Each leaf consists of the sheath,
blade, ligule and auricles. The sheath is split down its entire length and encircles the node.
The lower sheaths are longer than the internodes but after the 10th leaf the sheath becomes
progressively shorter than the internodes.
The sheath is finely ribbed and glabrous. At the junction of the sheath and blade, there is a
triangular membranous ligule. It is usually colorless and tends to split with age. On either
side of the ligule there are small fringed appendages called auricles. The leaf blade is

narrow. The lamina of the uppermost leaf below the auricle is wider and shorter than the
other leaves. This is called the ―boot or flag leaf‖.
The inflorescence is a loose terminal panicle 14-42 cm long. The main axis bears a variable
number of primary branches. The angle at which the primary branches are borne determines
the compactness of the inflorescence. The primary branches bear secondary branches each
of which has one or more spikelets. Each spikelet is bilaterally compressed and has a single
bisexual floret. The pedicel is short and firm. There are two glumes of equal length. The
lemma is large, boat shaped and rigid. It is hard, keeled and strongly five-nerved. The apex
may be pointed or extended to form an awn. The palea is narrow, keeled and three-nerved.
The apex of the palea is projected as a solid point which forms the apiculus of the caryopsis
with the apex of the lemma. Each floret has two broad lodicules, six stamens in two whorls
and the gynoecium with a single ovule. There are two styles with white or purplish plumose
stigmas. The fruit is a caryopsis closely enclosed in the husk formed by the lemma and
palea. This is called paddy. During milling the hull is removed and the rice grain is
separated.
In India about half of the rice produced is parboiled. The paddy is steeped in cold or hot
water for varying period upto 3 days. It is then steamed at low pressure and dried. The hull is
then removed by milling. Parboiling results in less breakage of the grain during milling. The
important nutrients are also retained in the grain and the grain can be stored for longer
period. However, it is important to ensure that clean water is used and parboiling done under
hygienic conditions so as to obtain good quality grain. Improper parboiling leads to inferior
color and unpleasant odor in the grain.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF BARLEY
 Self-pollinated crop (up to 5% cross-pollination).
Root system
 Fibrous root system.
(i) Seminal / primary / seedling root
 Emerges from radical at seed germination.
(ii) Adventitous / nodal / crown root
 Emerges from the based of the crown at the time of crop establishment.
Stem system
 Consists of 5 – 8 cylindrical, hollow internodes whose length increses from base to the
top,
 In some varieties, stem is purple colored due to the presence of anthocyanin pigment.
Leaf
 Single leaf arises from the nodes, arranged alternatively on opposite side of the stem.
 Each leaf consists of a sheath, a ligule, and a long blade.
 Leaf blade of barley is much longer than wheat‟s leaf blade.
 Generally, sheath is glabrous with purple-red color (lack of chlorophyll).
 The last leaf is known as flag leaf or boot; smallest leaf.
Inflorescence
 Known as spike or head or ear.
 Glume bears awn.
Seed
 It is a caryopsis.
 It adheres to lemma, palea, and rachilla.
 Caryopsis consists of pericarp, endosperm, and embryo.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF MAIZE
Family: Gramineae or Poaceae

Tribe: Tripsaceae
 Cross-pollinated crop.
 Monoecious plant, staminate flowers on the end of the end of the terminal branch
(tassel) and pistillate flowers on the axillary shoots (ear shoots).
Root system
 In maize three types of roots are found.
Seminal root
 Present in un-germinated seeds.
 Remain functional during the initial stage.
 Decay after the development of permanent adventitious roots.

Associated lateral root
 Originated at the nodes from the portion of stem above the soil level (generally at the
lower most 2 – 3 nodes), called as prop or brace roots.
 Keep plant up right or prevent plant to lodge.
Leaf
 Consists of basal portion (sheath) + distal or tip portion (blade).
 Two auricles (wedge-shaped, light green) and one ligule (fused hair) are found
between sheath and blade.
Tassel
 It is a branched inflorescence or cluster of male flowres as terminal panicle on the top
end of the stem.
 Consists of the rachis (central spike) and 10 – 50 lateral branches.
 Each male flower releases a large number of pollen grains, each of which contains the
male sex cell.
Ear
 Each auxiliary bud is covered with 8 – 14 modified leaves, called husk and a prophyll.
 It has no lateral branch and its axis known as a cob.
Fertilization
 Each female flower has one ovary; terminated by long style, known as silk.
 Silk is covered with fine hairs which capture wind-blown pollen.
 At tassel 30 – 60 million pollens are produced per plant.
 Pollen of tassel falls on silk and start to germinate as a result a pollen tube formed which
penetrate the tissue of silk.
 Fertilization of 2 female nuclei by 2 male nuclei is called double fertilization.
 The lower most joint of the stalk is known as mesocotyl.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF PEARL MILLET
Family: Gramineae (Poaceae)

P. glaucum (pearl millet) = 2n – 14 (diploid)
P. purpureum = 2n – 28 (allotetraploid)
 C4, short day plant, cross-pollinated.
 The rachis is cylindrical, not zig-zag as in wheat.
 Grain is caryopsis, oval-shaped and gynoecium are protogynous.
 Spikelet has two sterile glumes and two florets; lower floret is male while upper is
hermaphrodite.
According to Stapf genus Pennisetum have 5 sections:
 P. glaucum and P. purpureum (Napier grass) belong to Pennicillaria.
 Napier grass is perennial; cultivated for forage.
 Pusa Giant Napier is a cross between P. glaucum and P. purpureum.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF SORGHUM
Family: Poaceae
 2n = 20
 Often cross-pollinated, C4 plant short day plant (SDP)

Root system
1. Temporary/seminal root
 Emerge from radicle.
 Support seedling establishment.
 Remain alive up to 4 – 5 days.
2. Adventitious root
 Mature root.
 Emerge from the base of the coleoptile.
 Remain active from 30 DAS to anthesis.
3. Nodal/crown root
 Emerge from the lowest node of te stem at 30 – 40 days plant age.
 These are branched, green and strong.
 Remain active from anthesis to maturity.
 Support the stem.
Stem
 Consists fo alternate nodes and internodes.
 Nodes are in a ring around the base of the leaf sheath.
Leaf
 Terminal leaf is called as ‗flag leaf‘.
 Stomata are found on both side of the leaf and also present motor cells that cause
the leaf to roll inwards during a drought that‘s the reason behind the drought-
adaptation of sorghum.
 Leaves are protected by waxy cuticle.
Inflorescence
 It is called panicle or head.
 Spikelets are found in a pair; one of these is sessile and fertile while another one is
male or sterile.
Grain
 Known as caryopsis.
 The yellowish pigement is found in seed coat or may be in the endosperm.
 Grain is composed of endosperm, pericarp, testa, and germ.
 Test weight is 25 – 30 g.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF PULSES
Pigeonpea
 Pigeonpea is a perennial woody shrub mostly grown as annual for the seeds. Stem is
strong and woody.
 Plants are freely branching and can grow up to 4 m tall. It has a very strong, profused
and deep tap root extending up to 2 m below soil.
 Leaves are alternate, pinnately trifoliate, stipulate, stipels small. Leaflets are lanceolate
to elliptical, entire, acute apically and basally, penninerved, resinous on lower surface
and pubescent.

 Leaves grow up to 15 cm long and 6 cm wide. Inflorescence will be in terminal or axillary
racemes in the upper branches of the bush.
 Flowers are multi-coloured with yellow being predominant, red, purple, orange occur in
streaks or fully cover the dorsal side of the flag.
 Flowers are zygomorphic and often cross (5-40%) pollinating in nature.
 Pods are compressed, bear 2-9 seeds and unshattering in nature after maturity.
 Seeds are lenticular to ovoid, measuring up to 8 mm in diameter and weight about 10
seeds/gram.
 Seeds are separated from each other by slight depression in pod. Germination is
cryptocotylor (hypogeal).
Greengram
 Greengram is erect or semi-erect, shrubby annual herb growing to a height of 30-120
cm. It is profusely branched with a tendency to twine at the tips. It possesses highly
proliferated deep root system with the maximum root mass found in the first 30-cm
depth.
 Leaves are alternate, trifoliate and dark green with scattered hair on both sides on a long
petiole. Fowers are pale yellow, crowded in axillary or termina lrecemes in clusters of 10
– 25.
 Pod colour varies from black grey to brownih and it measure 2.5 – 10 cm long and 4 – 6
mm wide. Each pod contains 10 – 20 globose or oblong seeds measuring 3.2 – 5.0 mm
long and 3.0 – 3.8 mm wide.
 Seeds are usually green but may be olive, yellow, brown or purplish brown or marbled or
mottled etc.
 The hilum of the seeds is flat and 1.3 – 1.7 mm long and 0.5 – 0.6 mm wide. It is
narrowly obovate and margin slightly concave.
 Seed-coat surface is smooth or light coloured marked with fine crenulated lines.
 Micropyle is elevated with pore facing the hilum. The 100 – seed weight varies from 1.5
to 4.0 g depending on variety. Green gram exhibits phanerocotylor (epigeal) type of
germination.
Blackgram
 Like greengram, blackgram is an annula, semi-erect to spreding herb growing to a height
of 25 – 90 cm.
 Stem are diffuse, branched, sometimes procumbent, and covered with long dense brown
hairs. It prossesse strong tap root system with many laterals.
 Leaves are trifoliate, hairy with large ovate to lanceolate, entire leaflets. Flower are pale
yellow, 12 – 15 mm widty, with a yellow spirally coiled keel.
 The flowers are borne in clusters of five to six on a short hairy peduncle in axillary
racemes.
 Pods are short, erect to sub-erect, 4 – 7 cm long and 0.6 cm wide, brown to black, hairy,
and with stout hooked beak, containing about 6 – 10 seeds.
 Seeds are small, oblong, cylindrical to ovoid oblong, slightly truncated at ends measuring
4.0 – 5.2 mm long and 3.5 – 4.1 mm wide; averaging about 4 g/100 seeds with varying
colour from black, dark brown to green.
 The testa is smooth and hilum white and concave. Germination is phanerocotylar
(epigeal).
 Pods do not shatter readily. Flowers are self-fertile and self-pollinated. Flowering is
indeterminate.

Cowpea
 Cowpea is an annual herb having erect or semi-erect or spreading habit. It can gorw up
to 80 cm or more tall.
 It has a very strong tap root system with profuse nodulation. The spread of the root
system is large in upper portion and tapers towards underground.
 Stem is mostly procumbent often tinged with purple colour. The first leaves above
cotyledons are simple and opposite but subsequent leaves are trifoliate and alternate.
 The terminal leaflet is often bigger and longer than the two asymmetrical laterals.
Petioles are stout, grooved and measure 5 – 15 cm long.
 Leaflets are ovoid to rhombic in shape, may be entire or slightly lobed, with acute apex
and meaure about 6.5 – 16.0 cm long and 4 – 11 cm wide.
 Inflorescence is axillary with 2 – 4 flowres crowded near tips on short curved peduncles
and measures about 2.5 – 15.0 cm long.
 Corolla may be short curved peduncles and meaures about 2.5 – 15.0 cm long. Corolla
may be short curved peduncles and meaures about 2.5 – 15.0 cm long.
 Corolla may be dull white or yellow or violet in colour with standard petal measuring 2 – 3
cm diameter.
 Pods may be curved or straight or coiled. Seeds are 2 – 12 mm long globular to reniform,
smooth or wrinkled.
 Colour varies from red, black, brown, green buff to white as dominant. Seeds may be
fully coloured or spotted, marbled, speckled, eyed or blotched.
 The test weight varies 5 to 30 g/100 seed depending upon the variety. Germination is
phanerocotylar (epigeal).
 Flowering depending upon the variety. Germination is phanerocotylar (epigeal).
 Flowering depends on varietal sensitivity to local photoperiod and temperature condition.
Horsegram
 It is a short statured, slender, sub-erect, annual help with slighty twining downy stems
and branches.
 Plant height varies from 30 to 50 cm. Leaves are trifoliate, leaflets pilose, entire,
membranous, broadly ovate, acute and measure about 2.5 – 5.0 cm long.
 Laterals oblique, stipules ovate-lanceolate and are about 1 cm long. Stipels are minute.
 Flowers are yellow or greenish, 1 – 3 on a very short, sessile or sub sessile, 2 – 4
flowered axillary racemes.
 It is self-pollinated crop. Pods are shortly stipulate, linear-oblong 2.5 – 6 cm long about 6
mm broad slightly curved, sessile smooth or tomentose, slightly hairy, 6 – 8 seeded and
tipped with a persistent style 0.6 cm long.
 The seeds are ovoid, 5 – 8 seeds/pod, colour varies from pale fawn, light, red, brown or
black. Sometimes they may be with faint mottles or with small scattered black spot, hilum
central.
 Horsegram exhibits phanerocotylor (epigeal) mode of germination.
Mothbean
 Mothbean is an annual herbaceous plant having spreading and prostate habit. It
resembles a small mat as it is ground hugging type and grows to a height of about 30 –
45 cm.
 It possess deeply notched leaflets on long leaf branches. The terminal leaflet bears 5
acuminate lobes and lateral leaflet bears 4 lobes.
 Trailing primary branches number up to 12, measure 60 – 130 cm long and emerge from
short erect main stem. Branches are hairy and are relatively long.

 Inflorescence is axillary, flowers are small, yellow; pods are short measuring up to 5 –
7.6 cm, smooth, glabrous in nature. Each pod contain 4 – 9 seeds.
 Seeds are small, colour varies from light brown to dark reddish brown with white hilum.
The root system is medium in depth and support Rhizobium nodules, proliferation
depends on moisture status of soil and environmental conditions.
 Germiantion is phanerocotylor (epigeal).

GENERAL PROBLEMS OF STORAGE OF GOOD GRAINS AT
COMMERCIAL / FARM LEVEL
Stored grains are usually damage. Mainly from four sources, viz., rats, insects, mites and
microorganisms. The problems of rats, being basically different from those of the other three,
these three can be talked together first.
The safety of stored grains from damage caused by insect‟s mites and micro-
organisms largely depends on the proper management of three factors, viz.:
(1) The moisture content of the grain,
(2) The availability of oxygen, and
(3) The development of “temperature gradient” within the stored grain.
For its rapid development, each of the different insect and mite species requires particular
humidity which in stored grains depends on the moisture-content of the grain a certain
percentage of oxygen in the air and a certain range of temperature. The requirements of the
micro-organisms are also somewhat similar although some of them are capable of
sustaining them self even in the absence of oxygen.
Hence, for ensuring the safety of the grain from insects, mites and micro-organisms, all
these three factors have to be properly manipulate, firstly, through the design and
construction of the storage structures and storage godowns and, secondly, through storage
practices. If, however, these ecological safety measures are not practicable under a
particular set of conditions, then recourse to the chemical or physical control of infestation
becomes necessary.
(1) Moisture-Content:
The moisture requirement of some storage pests are given in Table 5.1. This table will show
that if arrangements can be made to maintain the moisture-content of the stored grain below
about 8 percent, then most of the insect infestation can be avoided except that of the Khapra
beetle which can be avoided by the proper manipulation of the oxygen content of the air. The
moisture-content has also to be kept low for ensuring
freedom from micro-organisms and the quality and viability of most of the grains. The
question is how best manage the moisture-content of the grain.
Moisture-content of the grains at which Different Species can Breed

S.No. Insect Species Minimum Moisture Optimum Moisture
Content‟s Content‟s (%)
1. Trogoderma granarium 0 to 1.9 11.5
2. Sitophilus orvzae 9.5 to 11 14 to 14.7
3. Rhizopertha dominica 9.10 11 to 14
4. Tribolium Castaneum 10 11.5 to 16
5. Corcvra cephalonica 9 15 to 20
6. Cadra cautella 10 16

The initial moisture content before storage can be brought down by sun-drying or by means
of different types of grain-dries. But, if this dried grain is stored under conditions wherein it
keeps coming into direct contact with atmosphere moisture, it will soon adjust its moisture in
accordance with atmospheric humidity.
It will also absorb the moisture if the grain is in direct or indirect contact with a moist surface.
A third source for the increase of moisture is the metabolic water produced within the grain
through insect and / or the grain respiration but this source remains insignificant if the above
two sources are taken care of.
Also at times there is increase of moisture in different portions of the stored grain due to the
development of a kind of temperature-gradient within the grain, the moisture evaporating
from the warmer portions and condensing in the cooler spots of the grain stock. All these
points have to be kept in view in designing storage structures and storage godowns and also
in finalizing the schedules of storage practices.
(2) Oxygen Availability:

All animals and plants require oxygen for their respiration. When a grain like wheat is stored
in an airtight storage structure, the oxygen- content of the air in this enclosed microcosm
goes on getting reduced as it is consumed in respiration both by grain and by the insects, if
any, infesting the grain. Weight for weigh, the oxygen consumption by insects is 130,00
times the consumption in grain respiration.
Hence, the reduction in oxygen-content is much quicker if the grain is infested by insects.
And, as each insect species requires a particular minimum concentration of oxygen, it is
killed once the oxygen-content goes below that minimum.
Oxygen-content of Air in an Enclosed Environment with Wheat Grain at which the different
stages of Storage Pest were Found to be Dead
S.No. Insect Species Stage Oxygen Content

1. Tribolium castaneum Full-grown larvae 6.37%
2. Tribolium castaneum Adults 7.24%
3. Trogoderma granarium Eggs 16.77%
4. Trogoderma granarium First instar larvae 5.35%
5. Trogoderma granarium Full-grown larvae 1.08%
6. Trogoderma granarium Adults 3.39%
It is obvious that further multiplication of a particular species will stop as soon as the oxygen-
content goes below- the level required by the most susceptible stage and not the one
required by the most resistant stage. Thus, for example, the Khapra eggs lose their viability
at 16.8 per cent oxygen-content, while full-grown larvae can stand up to about 1 percent.
Naturally this pest cannot multiply when the oxygen content goes below 16.8 per cent.
The insects generally die much before the oxygen gets completely exhausted and before the
question of real anaerobic respiration by the grain of the micro-organisms can be expected

to arise although some micro-aerophilic bacteria grow in reduced oxygen tension. It is also
clear from this date that complete airtightness is not needed.
It will be enough if the storage structure is sufficiently airtight so as to bring down the
oxygen-content of the enclosed air to the desired levels, as shown in Table 5.2 Further, it will
be seen that the Khapra pest, which can thrive even at much lower moisture content, is very
susceptible to the reduction in oxygen-content.
Hence, if the grain is dried up to about 8 per cent moisture content and then kept in a
reasonably airtight enclosure, most of the species will not multiply due to the storage of
moisture and those that will multiply for some time will get annihilated due to the shortage of
oxygen.
The time taken for the reduction of oxygen to the lethal level will depend on the extent of
infestation, the volume of empty space in the storage structure etc. For example, if the empty
space is more, the amount of available oxygen will also be more and more time will be
needed to reduce the oxygen content to the lethal level. This explains why some times
insects can remain alive in practically empty structures for quite long periods even if they are
airtight.
(3) Temperature Complications:

Temperature is the most important factor controlling the development and multiplication of
insects in general. Besides this simple and universal temperature effect, there are a number
of harmful side complications arising out improper or ineffective manipulation of the
temperature factor.
These are mainly due to:

(a) Heat spot developing within the stored grain, and
(b) Development of temperature gradient generally from the middle towards the periphery.
The development of the heat spot is due to the excessive heat produced either by insect
multiplication or by microbial infection in some localized pocket. Insect respiration produces
both water and heat and due to comparative non-conductivity of the grain, heat dissipation
does not take place effectively.
The result is that both temperature and moisture increase, leading to greater multiplication,
first of insects and later of micro-organisms. Sometimes these heat spots can develop even
without insect infestation in case the moisture-content of the grain happens to be high
enough for microbial activity.
Also sometimes this chain activity goes on to such an extent that the heat developed in
pockets of infestation kills the insects there but this self-sterilization of the grain is not of
much help because by the time this stage is reached, the grain becomes very much
damaged and spoiled. Lumps of grain are formed which give off offensive smell. The
process is commonly known as ‗caking‘.
Hence all efforts have to be directed towards the prevention of such heat spots and to cool
them down in case some heating has started in some pockets. This can be done by various
means, such as forced aeration turning the grain, control of infestation by fumigation, etc.

The development of the temperature gradient is due to unequal heating in the different
portions of the stored grain.
Generally, it is from the middle where the temperature rises due to the respiratory activities
of grain, insect infestation microbial infection, etc., to the periphery where the temperature
may be low particularly if the wall of the storage structure is made of some good conductor
(say metal) which dissipates that heat outside.
Also if a metallic storage structure like a big silo happens to be under direct sun, the surface
facing from south-east to south-west may get comparatively more heated and a temperature
-gradient may develop from south to north inside the grain. The main harm done by these
temperature-gradients is in what‘s sometimes known as sweating of the grain.
The moisture evaporating from the grain in the warmer region migrates to the cooler region
and condenses there. This lead to the increase in the moisture-content in the cooler region
sometimes even to the extent of the grain getting wet; the dam grain then provides better
environment for the multiplication of insect infestation and microbial and microbial infection,
for increased grain respiration and even for caking of the grain.
Thus, it will be seen from the above, that the grain suffers both from a poor conductivity of its
own and from the good conductivity of its container. It is, therefore, advisable to make the
wall of the storage structure from a material with poor conductivity and also on the other
hand to make suitable arrangement to overcome the harm due to the poor conductivity of the
grain itself.
Keeping in view the few basic principles initiate above, it should become fairly easy to come
o rational decisions regarding various disputed points about storage structure, storage
godown and storage practices. The main points for which it is necessary to have quite clear-
cut ideas are being discussed below.
A. Analysis of Airtight versus Ventilated Storage:

It has been demonstrated again and again that insects do not multiply long under airtight
storage. However, as grain is also a living material it cannot be theoretically kept indefinitely
under completely airtight conditions because ultimately the oxygen is bound to get
considerably exhausted and thereafter the grain will also die and deteriorate.
Under practical conditions, however, it has been observed that insects die long before
oxygen gets completely exhausted and thereafter the grain which consumes very little
oxygen can remain healthy for quite long-periods, provided its moisture content is not high,
i.e., above 10 percent or so under Indian conditions.
Also in the case of airtight storage, there is no fear of increase in moisture-content from out-
side source. The one disadvantage of this type of storage is that it is comparatively difficult
to maintain the airtight conditions ventilated storage on the other hand provides a very good
environment both for insects and the grain. But on the whole, insects multiply quickly and
damage the grain very much unless special disinfestation operations are resorted to.
Despite this distinct disadvantage, some specialists on pest control have expressed opinion
in favour of ventilated storage. Obviously when the storage conditions are such that the
airtightness is not enough to keep the pest infestation down, then it is certainly better that the

storage to be kept thoroughly ventilated. Under such circumstance, the advantage of full
ventilation is that the storage conditions remain more hygienic for the workers and the
chances of the development of heat spots remain somewhat reduce.
However, on the whole the above analysis of the pros and cons of ventilated and airtight
storage leads to the conclusion that whenever possible and practicable airtight storage
should be preferred to ventilated storage and all planned efforts should be made in that
direction.
B. Analysis of Bag Storage versus Bulk Storage:

Bag storage is largely in vogue, particularly in the Government and trade godowns, mainly
because of the ease in handling and transport; otherwise there are quite strong scientific
considerations in favour of bulk storage which is in vogue both at the level of cultivators who
construct various kinds of storage structures like bukhari, Kothari, morai etc., and also at the
level of very advanced storage organizations making big silos and underground pits.
The points in favour of bag storage are:

(a) That each bag constitutes a definite unit which as such can be brought in, sent out,
purchased or sold,
(b) That under present Indian conditions it is easier to load and unload grain packed in bags,
(c) That bags can be neatly arranged in stocks of different sizes, and
(d) That if any individual bag is noticed to be infested it can be easily segregated and
treated, (ex) that the surface of the bag being practically exposed to atmosphere the
problem of sweating is less etc.
On the other hand, the main scientific considerations in favour of bulk storage are:
(a) That the peripheral exposed surface area per unit weight of grain is much less in the
case of bulk storage and consequently the damage from external sources is reduced,
and
(b) That because of the slow movement of air in the inter granular space the conditions in
the deeper layers of the grain stored in large bulk are nearer to those of airtight storage
and that results in the consequent reduction in infestation which tends to remain confined
to the periphery. These two main considerations in favour of bulk storage are on the
whole much weightier than several of the smaller considerations in favour of bag
storage, particularly if adequate precautions have been taken against sweating of grain
in bulk storage.
C. Analysis of Underground Storage versus Above-Ground Storage:

There is no intrinsic scientific difference between underground and above-ground storage
provided the basic requirements of safe storage enunciated earlier have been provided for.
However, there are certain practical advantages and disadvantages of these two storage
practices as they are generally in vogue in the country at present.
These practical considerations in favour of underground storage are:

(a) That the grain in underground storage is more free from the seasonal vicissitudes of
temperature and humidity provided of course adequate precautions have been taken
against seepage etc., in the underground pits particularly in regions where the water
table is likely to rise; this is very desirable if the grain has been brought to the proper
condition of moisture and temperature before storage,

(b) That the underground storage pits are nearer to airtight storage with its consequent
advantages,
(c) That in underground storage the grain is generally stored in bulk which has its own
advantages, and
(d) That underground storage is safer from various external sources of damage including
theft etc.
The considerations in favour of above-ground storage on the other hand are:

(a) That the above-ground storage can be maintained in more hygienic conditions
(b) That the above-ground storage is more convenient for inspection and for operations like
turning the grain, and
(c) That the danger of the grain heating up due to internal sources is somewhat less.
There has not been much controversy about other aspects like dunnage etc. It should,
however, be kept in mind that there is no point in making temporary dunnage in a permanent
storage godown, as is generally found to be the case. It is better to provide permanent
dunnage so as to avoid annual recurring expenditure.
D. Analysis of Storage for Different Periods:

The period for which the storage is to be arranged is of vital importance in deciding about
various storage practices.
On the basis of this criterion, storage can be classified into the following categories:
(a) Transit Storage:
In this category comes shortest-term storage in which case the grain is practically on the
move or where some kind of rotation in practised so that the old stock moves out as the
fresh stock comes in. The examples are many of the Government godowns, godowns at the
seaports, godowns of retailers and also of some wholesalers. In such cases, when the grain
is handled at very short intervals, bag storage has to be preferred for the ease of handling
and transportation; this has to be preferred till such time as modern means of handling and
distribution are provided for in this country.
(b) Short-Term Storage:

Sometimes the storage is practiced by cultivators who generally like to store their seed grain
from harvest to sowing and food grain from harvest to harvest, if not for longer periods. The
storage in the Warehousing Corporation may also be included in this category. These people
generally and rightly use various types of storage structures like bukhari, Kothari, morai etc.
Which are all examples of non-airtight bulk storage? The necessity of bringing about the
desired improvements in these structures has been realized for sometimes past and the
Indian Standards Institution has formulated standards for these different types. The Indian
Agricultural Research Institute has, on the other hand, devised what is called Pusa Bin for
such storage and the combines in itself the various ideal storage requirements mentioned.
(c) Long-Term Storage:

Sometimes the storage is made for such long periods as required by:
(i) Large-scale trade stockiest, and
(ii) Government agencies desiring to deep bufler stocks or to maintain food banks.

It is for such long- term storage that we must make very carefully thought-out planning and
recommendations.
E. Chemical Control Operations for Grain Storage:

If the recommendations given above for safe storage are properly followed and provided for,
there should be no necessity to use insecticides in grain storage.
If, however, it has to be done, the following points may be kept in view:
(a) Mixing of Insecticides:
It has been shown beyond doubt that persistent insecticides mixed with grains can keep the
grain safe from insect infestation for varying and quite long periods. Although this provides
quite a potent method for storing grain meant solely for seed purposes, a recommendation to
this effect cannot be free from serious hazards particularly because the grain though
originally meant solely for seed can always find its way to the food market.
Also if the general public becomes well conversant with this method, it will become quite
difficult to check the unscrupulous people from applying the same method to food grain.
Hence, it is advisable to desist from this otherwise tempting recommendation.
(b) Impregnation of Bags with Insecticides:

This recommendation is also quite tempting and has been made by a number of workers but
there is a subtle limitation due to which this method generally does not work. The storage
pests, particularly the beetles, take just a few minutes to enter the weave of the bag unless it
is very close and tight and during this short period, they generally do not pick up the lethal
dose. Due to this limitation, this method cannot be much depended upon.
(c) Dusting of the Bags:

This is likely to be more effective than impregnation because in the case the dust can stick to
the insect body and some of it may be carried along with the insect. Of course, this may also
lead to greater contamination than impregnation. The safest dust to be used for this purpose
is the one based pyrethrum as an active ingredient fortified by a suitable synergist. However,
this insecticide is not of persistent type and breaks down within a very short time.
(d) Fumigation and Fumigants:

This is the best and most dependable technique for disinfesting grain. One has, however, to
be careful about the choice of the proper fumigant. In this connection it may be mentioned
that a fumigant like carbon tetrachloride is comparatively less toxic to insects but its good
point is that it is less absorbed by the grain.
Another fumigant like ethylene di-bromide is comparatively highly toxic to the insects, but its
bad point is that it is highly absorbed by the grain. Other fumigants like ethylene dichloride
occupy an intermediate position in both respects. Hence great care has to be taken in the
choice of a fumigant. An ethylene dichloride-carbon tetrachloride mixture in the 3:1 ration
has been much in vogue because of its comparative safety to operators.
Methyl bromide is a very good general-purpose fumigant but it has to be handled with utmost
care and with special fumigation appliances. During recent years, phostoxin has become
quite popular, but due to the extremely hazardous nature of phosphine gas, generated by
the tablets, its use by untrained individuals has not been recommended.

(e) Disinfestation of Godowns:
Fumigation is the best technique for disinfesting godowns, provided the godowns are
structurally fit for this operation. Otherwise a good spray of the walls with a suitable
persistent insecticide can be resorted. The safest spray is the one based on pyrethrums
fortified by a suitable synergist. At present Malathion, which is also a relatively safe
insecticide, is use widely for this purpose.
F. Recommendations for Grain Storage:

1. Grain Dryers:
As stated already, the moisture-content of the grain is the most vital factor to be taken care
of in order to ensure safe storage of the grain. In dry months and in dry areas, the grain can
be dried directly in the sun but the same is not possible in wet areas and in wet months even
in dry areas. Hence, it is highly advisable that a suitable grain dryer is provided for each
storage godown without exception. This should be considered as an item of highest priority
for any storage organization.
2. Storage Structures and Godowns:

These have to be somewhat different for short-term, long-term and transit storages.
(a) Short-Term Rural Storage:

For this purpose and ideal storage has been devised Pusa Bin. The rationale of the
structural design of this bin is as follows- Earthen structures of various shapes and size
provide the easiest and most economic methods for the storage of grains under rural
conditions in many parts of our country. However, in this method of storage, one often finds
the grains infested with insects.
In some localities rats also pose a serious problem in this kind of storage, since they easily
cut through the mud walls and do considerable damage to the grains stored inside the mud
structure. In some wet regions of the country, grains are also found to be affected by the
high humidity conditions prevailing outside and leading to a process which ultimately results
in the caking of the grains.
As a result of all these troubles, the loss of food grains in storage is often quite considerable
will) a view to reducing these losses, a thin sheet of polythene film (0.17 to 0.18 mm thick) is
embedded in the mud wall of an ordinary earthen structure. The idea behind the sandwich in
of the polythene film within the body of the wall is to combine the mechanical strength of the
mud wall with the just effective imperviousness of polythene films to vapors and gases.
The polythene film being fairly impervious to water vapors does not allow the atmospheric
moisture to enter the grains. Also this film is impervious enough to oxygen with the result
that the oxygen tension within the structure is reduced to such an extent that insect
multiplication becomes impossible.
On the other hand, the earthen layers both inside and outside the polythene film keep the
film safe from mechanical injuries due to abrasion and handling stress and strain. When a
polythene film is used as an inner or outer lining instead of being embedded within the wall,
it gets damaged quickly and becomes ineffective. Also earthen layers provide very goods
walls for the storage structures because they have poor thermal conductivity and reduce the
dangers of sweating at the periphery.

Thus it will be seen that the Pusa Bin combines in itself all three major requirements
of safe storage, viz.:
(i) It is moisture- proof,
(ii) It is just sufficiently airtight, and
(iii) Its walls have poor thermal conductivity.
The earthen layers can be replaced by any other material of poor thermal conductivity; 4 of
course, wood has the danger of being attacked by termites.
Results of comparative tests have shown that freshly-harvested and dried wheat could be
kept safe for a long time in improved type of storage structure. It has also been shown that
none of the four principal storage pests, viz. Sitophilus oryzae, Phizopertha Dominica,
Trogoderma granarium and Tribolium castaneum, could breed well in this improved type of
storage structure (even when they were introduced), provided the initial moisture-content of
wheat was at a level of 10 percent or below. The viability of the wheat seeds is also not
affected when stored in this type of structure for more than three years. There is no obvious
factor which is likely to limit the size of the storage structure.
However, the details of the constructional procedure and the cost involved in making
a structure of about 2,000 kgs, are given below:
Shape Rectangular
Capacity 1.7 tonnes (approx.)
Size 1.40 metres long x 1.00 metre broad x 1.60 metres high (internal
dimensions)
Four walls These consist of two layers of mud (or unburnt bricks) with a polythene
film sandwiched in between. Each layer of mud or bricks is about 11 cm
thick.
Floor and roof These consist of two layers of mud with a polythene film sandwiched in
between. Each layer of the roof is 5 cm thick, while each layer of flower
is 7 cm thick.
Manhole 50 cm x 50 cm in one corner of the top surface.
Quantity of 8.5 metres (700 gauge) 180 cm width.
polythene film
Cost of Rs. 60.00 approx.
polythene film
No. of bricks 1,150 (brick-size 22 cm long x 11 cm broad x 7 cm thick).
(Kutcha)
required
No. of bricks 160
(burnt) required
Outlet An ordinary pipe made of galvanized tin sheet of 9 cm diameter and 30
cm in length with a tight fitting lig.

Wooden frame Used on the top of the structure for supporting the roof.
The structure is constructed over a pucca brick floor. It a pucca brick floor is not available, it
should be made at a suitable site. Next, a mud platform of roughly 1.7 cm × 1.2 cm × 7 cm
(thick) sizes is made and a polythene film of 1.8 m × 1.4 size is placed over it. A 7 cm thick
layer of mud is then applied over the film covering the same size as the platform under the
polythene film.
The inner wall (111 cm thick) of the structure covering the four sides is then constructed. The
inner layer of the mud roof of the structure is then made by using 5 cm-thick mud slabs
prepared earlier and placing them over a wooden frame. An area of 50 cm x 50 cm is,
however, kept open in one corner to serve as a manhole.
The entire structure is then covered with the polythene film carefully, the polythene cover
having been prepared earlier by the method of heat-sealing; thereafter, the free edges of the
polythene sheet near the base are also similarly sealed. At this stage, the outlet is fixed by
making a hole in the inner mud layer as well as the polythene film.
Finally, the outer layers of the walls of 11 cm thickness are created all-round the structure
covering the polythene film. A 5 cm thick mud plaster is also put over the polythene film at
the top, leaving out the manhole. The portion of the polythene film covering the manhole is
then cut diagonally for making the necessary passage.
When the structure is filled with grain, the manhole is finally sealed with a square piece of
polythene film. Normally, grains are to be taken out as and when necessary through an
outlet fixed near the base of the structure except that at the end of the storage season, the
manhole at the top can also be used for this purpose.
For making the structure rat-proof, the outer wall of the structure may be constructed using
pucca (burnt) bricks upto a height of 45 cm. Alternately, a tin-band (from old kerosene tins)
may be provided round the structure upto the same height. By this way the structure is
protected from damage by rats.
(b) Long-Term Storage:

Airtight bulk storage is best suited if the stock has to be maintained really on a long-term
basis. It is generally in the form of modern silos above ground or as airtight moisture-proof
underground pits. Of course, there are often storage arrangements which are far from
satisfactory. Large-sized structures constructed on the basis of the Pusa Bin will also serve
well for long-term storage.
Of course, these structures have to be located under fairly rainproof conditions. Where fresh
arrangements for long-term storage are under consideration, the best course will be to
provide both for a good storage godown and for a good storage structure in this godown.
The godowns should have adequate provision for making the whole godowns sufficiently
airtight for fumigation with poisonous gases and also for proper aeration after fumigation.
This can be easily managed by having ventilators fitted with both proper exhaust fans and
also a suitable arrangement for closing the ventilator airtight. The doors should also be
suitable for this purpose. Then inside the godown there should also be permanent structure

for airtight bulk storage. The structure based on the principle of the Pusa Bin will be best
suited for such godowns.
If these permanent provisions are made from the very beginning, the cost of storage is
bound to be quite cheap in the long run. If both the godown and the storage structures are
properly made, there may be no necessity for taking any chemical control measures. If,
however, some infestation somehow creeps in, on can disinfest either the individual storage
structure or the whole godown as such.
(c) Transit Storage:

In the past, transit storage has been maintained in a variety of sheds available on
emergency basis instead of proper storage godowns. In these sheds, generally bagged
storage has been practised, the bags being arranged in stacks.
In these godowns, there should be permanent cubicles in which the bagged grain can be
suitably stacked. The cubicles should be such as can be made airtight both for storage and
for fumigation, if need be. This will mean a proper combination of airtight storage and bag
storage. This combination will provide both ideal storage conditions and all handling facilities
of bag storage specially needed for transit storage. The structure based on the principle of
the Pusa Bin will do very well for this purpose also.

FOOD POLICY OF INDIA
 Food security, as defined by the United Nations Committee on World Food Security,
means that all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and
nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and
healthy life at all times.
 Food security can be divided into four major components known as the "four pillars of
food security."
 Availability: It is defined as the availability of food in sufficient quantities and on a

consistent basis. It takes into account stock and production in a given area, as well
as the ability to import food from elsewhere via trade or aid.
 Access: True food security implies that people have the resources they need to
obtain a sufficient quantity and quality of nutritious food. A variety of physical, social,
and policy factors influence food access.
 Pricing, household proximity to suppliers, and infrastructure all have an impact on
our access to food.
 Utilization: Not all food has the same or sufficient nutritional value. It is critical to
have access to high-quality food in order to be food secure.
 It is critical that food be nutritious and healthy enough to provide people with the
energy they require for their daily activities.
 It is also critical that people have the knowledge and tools they need to properly
'use' the food that is available to them.
 This includes having the means to properly select, prepare, and store readily
available and accessible foods.
 Stability: Food stability means that food access, availability, and consumption
remain relatively stable over time. It is critical to try to reduce any threats to this
stability.
 Natural disasters, climate change, conflict, and economic factors such as volatile
price fluctuations are all threats to food stability.
Food Security Programs of India

 Public Distribution System Food Subsidies (Implemented through Targeted Public
Distribution System which account for a large portion of government expenditure on food
security)
 Mid-Day Meal Program
 Integrated Child Development Services Program
 Mega Food Parks
 Sampada Yojana
National Food Security Act of 2013 (NFSA)

 The National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013, which was passed on July 5, 2013,
represents a paradigm shift in the area of food security, shifting away from a welfare-
based approach and toward one based on rights.
 According to the Act, up to 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population
are legally entitled to receive subsidised foodgrains via the Targeted Public Distribution
System through:

 Antyodaya Anna Yojana: The poorest of the poor are entitled to 35 kg of foodgrains
per household per month under this scheme.
 Priority Households (PHH): Households in the PHH category are entitled to 5 kg of
foodgrains per month per person.
 For the purpose of issuing ration cards, the eldest woman in the household of 18 years
or older is mandated to be the head of the household.
 Furthermore, the act makes special provisions for children aged 6 months to 14 years
old, allowing them to receive a nutritious meal for free through a vast network of
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) centres known as Anganwadi Centres.
 As a result, the Act covers nearly two-thirds of the population in order to provide them
with heavily subsidised foodgrains.
 The National Food Security Act of 2013 (NFSA) is being implemented in all of India's
states and union territories.
Significance of Food Security in a Nation

 It will benefit the agricultural sector.
 A boost in the agricultural sector would result in more job opportunities, as agriculture is
a labor-intensive industry.
 This would boost economic growth and reduce poverty.
 It would help the government to regulate prices.
 Access to nutritious food would benefit the public's overall health.
 Food security is also important for national security and stability.
International Organizations Ensuring Food Security

 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): It was founded in 1945 and is
headquartered in Rome, Italy.
 It is a United Nations specialised agency that leads international efforts to combat
hunger and improve nutrition and food security.
 It is the United Nations' oldest surviving agency.
 World Food Programme (WFP): It is the world's largest humanitarian organisation

addressing hunger and promoting food security.
 It was established in 1961 and headquartered in Rome, Italy.
 It is the United Nations' food assistance branch.
 International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD): It is an international financial

institution and a United Nations specialised agency that works to alleviate poverty and
hunger in developing countries' rural areas.
 Its headquarters are located in Rome, Italy.
 World Bank: It was founded in 1944 and is headquartered in Washington DC. It is

actively involved in funding food related projects and programmes.
Revolutions in Food Security

 Green Revolution - Agriculture Production
 Pink Revolution - Meat and Poultry Production
 Red Revolution - Meat and Tomato Production
 Silver Revolution - Egg/Poultry Production
 White Revolution - Milk/Dairy Production

 Yellow Revolution - Oil Seed Production
 Blue Revolution - Fish Production
 Brown Revolution - Leather/Cocoa Manufacturing
 Golden Revolution - Horticulture and honey production
Food Security Challenges in India
 Soil degradation caused by excessive or inappropriate agrochemical use, deforestation,

and natural disasters poses a significant challenge to sustainable food production. One-
third of the world's soil has already degraded.
 Threats from Invasive Weeds: Over the last 15 years, India has faced more than ten
major invasive pest and weed attacks.
 In 2018, the Fall Armyworm (Pest) destroyed nearly the entire maize crop in the
country. Due to the pest's damage in 2018, India was forced to import maize in 2019.
 A locust attack was reported in Rajasthan and Gujarat districts in 2020.
 Inadequate food distribution via public distribution mechanisms (PDS i.e. Public
Distribution System).
 The Public Distribution System faces challenges such as food grain leakage and
diversion, inclusion/exclusion errors, fake and bogus ration cards, and a lack of
grievance redressal and social audit mechanisms.
 Due to a minimum support price, farmers have diverted land from coarse grain
production to rice and wheat production.
 Furthermore, there is a huge waste of around Rs.50,000 crore per year due to both
improper accounting and insufficient storage facilities.
 Climate Change: Changing precipitation patterns, as well as an increase in the
frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as heatwaves and floods, are
already reducing agricultural productivity in India and thereby posing a serious food
security threat.
 Inaccessibility to remote areas: For tribal communities, living in remote, difficult
terrains and practising subsistence farming has resulted in significant economic
backwardness.
 Increased rural-to-urban migration, a large informal workforce, and unplanned growth
of slums with inadequate health and hygiene facilities, insufficient housing, and
increased food insecurity.
 Overpopulation, poverty, illiteracy, and gender inequality.
 The expansion of the biofuel market has reduced the amount of land used to grow food
crops.
 Food can be used as a weapon in conflict, with enemies cutting off food supplies to
gain ground.
 There is a lack of coherence in food and nutrition policies, as well as a lack of
intersectoral coordination among various ministries.
 Because of the risk of increased nutritional imbalance in food grains, the government
must broaden subsidies to include other protein-rich food items.
 Diverting grains to the open market for a higher margin, selling poor quality grains at
ration shops, and irregular shop openings all contribute to the problem of food insecurity.
 Farmers receive government support for crops such as wheat, paddy, and sugarcane.
The MSP is higher than the market price.

 The government purchases very few other crops at MSP. Farmers lack the incentive
to grow other crops, such as pulses, as a result of this factor.
 Because the crops listed above require a lot of water, this puts a lot of strain on the
water table.
Measures to Ensure Food Security in India

 Moving Towards Sustainable Farming: Improving productivity through greater use of
biotechnology, intensifying watershed management, using nano-urea and access to
micro-irrigation facilities, and bridging crop yield gaps across States through a collective
approach should be priorities for ensuring food security in India.
 Adoption of low-water-requirement crops and techniques, such as the System of
Rice Intensification (SRI) method of rice production, contributes to resilience by allowing
for equal or higher yields with less water withdrawal.
 Crop diversification: Increased profitability and production stability highlight the
importance of crop diversification, such as legumes as an alternative to rice and wheat.
Non-cereal crops such as oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, and so on must be
encouraged.
 Food and nutrition can be obtained from the sea, lakes, and rivers. Fish are an
excellent source of protein and do not require fertile soil.
 Precision Agriculture: There is a need to increase the use of information technology
(IT) in agriculture in order to ensure that crops and soil receive exactly what they require
for optimal health and productivity.
 Farmers' incomes will increase as precision agriculture and high-tech farming
practises are implemented, production input costs will be reduced, and many other
issues of scale will be addressed.
 Revitalizing Aadhaar Seeding of Ration Cards: To expedite the process of linking

Aadhaar to ration cards, ground monitoring measures must be implemented to ensure
that no valid beneficiary is denied their share of food grains, which can help to achieve
the goal of zero hunger.
 Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) Through JAM: There is a need to streamline food and
fertiliser subsidies into direct benefit transfers to identified beneficiaries' accounts via
the JAM trinity platform (Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, and Mobile), which will reduce massive
physical movement of foodgrains, provide beneficiaries with greater autonomy to choose
their consumption basket, and promote financial inclusion.
 Ensuring Transparency in Food Stock Holdings: Using IT to improve communication
channels with farmers can help them get a better deal for their produce, while improving
storage houses with cutting-edge technology is critical for dealing with natural disasters.
 Foodgrain banks can be established at the block/village level, from which people can
obtain subsidised food grains in exchange for food coupons.
 Umbrella Approach to Problem Solving: India can look forward to a sustainable green
economy by viewing disparate issues through a common lens, such as inequality, food
diversity, indigenous rights, and environmental justice.
Food Subsidy – Largest Component of the Department of Food and Public

Distribution.
Food subsidy is calculated as the difference between the economic cost of procuring food
grains (including procurement, stocking, distribution), and their Central Issue Price
(CIP). Central Issue Price (Rs/kg) is the price at which the Government sells the food grains

to households belonging to Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY), Below Poverty Line (BPL), and
Above Poverty Line (APL).
1. Food subsidy is the largest component of the Department of Food and Public
Distribution.
2. Food Subsidy accounts for 95% of the total budget allocated to the Department of Food
and Public Distribution.
3. Currently, Food Subsidy covers 81 crore people.
4. As per the National Food Security Act of 2013, food subsidies should cover 50% of the
population in urban areas and must cover 75% of the population in rural areas.
5. Department of Food and Public Distribution gives the food subsidy to the Food
Corporation of India (FCI) and states. These entities in turn procure food grains from the
farmers at the Government notified Minimum Support Prices (MSP).
6. Once the food grains are procured from farmers, the Food Corporation of India (FCI)
sells the food grains at lower subsidized prices also known as Central Issue Prices (CIP).
It is sold to people from economically weaker sections of the society through fair price
shops under the public distribution system.
7. Foodgrains are also given to intended beneficiaries through mid-day meal schemes.
8. The budget allocated for food subsidy also covers the costs incurred for storing food
grains by the Food Corporation of India.
Food Subsidy – 3 Main Components
The 3 ways of spending food subsidy by the Department of Food and Public Distribution are
listed below
1. The subsidy is given to the Food Corporation of India
2. The subsidy given to the states.
3. Sugar subsidy
Nutritional Requirements of Poor People – Implementation

1. Currently, the food items provided by the central government for distribution under PDS
are rice, wheat, and sugar.
2. 5 kg of food grains will be given to per person, per month at subsidized prices. This rule
is based on the National Food Security Act, 2013.
3. As per Antyodaya Anna Yojana, each of the households belonging to the poorest of the
poor section will be provided 35 kg of food grains per month at subsidized prices.
4. The National Food Security Act, 2013 requires the central and state governments to
undertake steps to diversify commodities distributed under PDS.
Food Subsidy Delivery – Challenges

There are many challenges related to Food Subsidy and its implementation using PDS. The
challenges associated are shared below.
Public Distribution System (PDS) – Leakages

As per the 2011 data, the leakages in Public Distribution System (PDS) were estimated to be
around 47%. The leakages in the Public Distribution System (PDS) is due to the following
reasons which are listed below
1. Damage to food grains during transportation

2. Pilferage of food grains
3. Diversion of food grains to non-beneficiaries at fair price shops through the issue of
forged cards.
4. Exclusion of people entitled to food grains but who are not on the beneficiary list
Targeted Public Distribution System – Other Issues

1. Situations, where entitled beneficiaries do not get food grains, are called Exclusion
errors. It refers to the percentage of poor households that are entitled to but do not have
PDS cards. This exclusion error had decreased to 41 % in 2011-12 from the figures of
2004-05.
2. Inclusion errors occur when those that are ineligible for subsidized food grains get undue
benefits. This inclusion error had increased to 37% in 2011-12 from the figures of 2004-
05.
Increase in Inclusion Errors and & Decrease in Exclusion Errors – 2 Main Reasons
1. Despite a decline in the poverty rate, non-poor are still identified as poor by the
government thus allowing them to continue using their PDS cards.
2. An increase in the coverage of the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) has
reduced the proportion of poor who do not have access to PDS cards.

MILLING, PROCESSING, PACKAGING OF FOOD GRAINS & THEIR
FINISHED PRODUCTS TECHNOLOGY OF CEREAL PROCESSING
Cereal processing, treatment of cereals and other plants to prepare their starch for human
food, animal feed, or industrial use. Cereals, or grains, are members of the grass family
cultivated primarily for their starchy seeds (technically, dry fruits). Wheat, rice, corn (maize),
rye, oats, barley, sorghum, and some of the millets are common cereals.
The processing and utilization of the major cereals—wheat, rice, barley, rye, oats, corn,
sorghum, millet, and buckwheat; of important starchy foods consumed in certain countries
instead of cereals, including potatoes and cassava; and of soybeans, legumes widely used
in the bakery industry. Wheat species are treated in detail, other cereals in a more general
way.
Milling
The purpose of milling and pressing is to make the starch or sugar more available for
enzyme action. Crushing and pressing (grapes and other fruits), milling (cereal grains), or a
combination of milling and pressing (sugarcane) are used. In milling grains are reduced to a
meal to allow wetting of their starch cells. Various types of mills are used. Roller mills, where
the grain passes through a series of corrugated rollers, was long the most common type.
The grinding action of the rollers is mainly a shearing action. More efficient and economical
impact-type mills (such as hammer mills) are now gaining in importance. After Industrial
Revolution, steam replaced water as the power source for milling. Since the mid-20th
century, electricity has been almost the exclusive power source in milling.
Mashing
Mashing is done in a vessel called a mash tun, which is equipped with a means of agitation
for mixing and is either jacketed or contains coils for heating and cooling. In mashing, the
starch cells of the grain, enclosed in their own protective coatings, are broken to allow
wetting and liquefaction of the entire starch mass. The process usually begins with the grain
most difficult to treat. When corn is used, the ground meal is wetted at a temperature of
approximately 66 °C (150 °F), and the temperature is then raised to boiling or sometimes
higher while under pressure. The temperature is reduced when the starch cells are broken.
The grain ranking second in cell resistance (usually rye) is added next. Other starchy
substances, such as potatoes, are usually crushed and heated, exploding the starch cells.
The temperature of the mash is reduced before ground malt meal, either in dry form or as a
water slurry (insoluble mixture), is added. The amylase enzymes in the malt then produce a
mixture in which the starches have been converted to fermentable sugars, suitable for
utilization by the yeast. The sugars, principally dextrose and maltose, vary in concentration
among producers but, generally, are sufficiently concentrated to make a final product
ranging from 7 to 9 percent alcohol.
Any germinating cereal grain can be used for malt. In rare cases, rye malt is used in making
rye whiskey, but, because the enzyme activity of malted barley is the highest, barley is used
almost exclusively in the distilling industry. Barley malt contains sufficient enzymes to
convert approximately 10 times its weight in other unmalted grains. Of the two enzymes—α-
amylase and βamylase—the former is the more important for conversion of other grains. In

addition to converting starches from other carbohydrates to sugars, barley malt contains
soluble proteins (amino acids), contributing flavour to the distillate secured from fermentation
and distillation of grain-malt mixtures.
Corn is often milled by wet processes, but dry milling is also practiced, especially in the
developing countries. Corn, with its high germ content, is inclined to respire more during
storage and, unless precautions are taken, may increase in temperature during incorrect
storage. Most other cereals are ground in the dry state. Some cereal grains are polished,
removing most of the bran and germ and leaving the endosperm.
USES
Human food
Cereals are used for both human and animal food and as an industrial raw material.
Although milled white flour is largely used for bread production, especially in industrialized
countries, the grain may be converted to food in other ways. In India the major part of the
grain is not ground into flour in roller mills but is roughly ground in small crushing mills into a
meal called atta. This meal is cooked into flat cakes known as chapatis.
Animal food
The principal cereals used as components of animal feeds are wheat and such wheat by-
products as the outer coverings separated in the preparation of white flour (bran and the
more floury middlings), corn, barley, sorghum, rye, and oats. These are supplemented by
protein foods and green fodders. Animal foods require proper balance between the cereals
(carbohydrates) and the more proteinous foods, and they must also contain suitable
amounts of necessary minerals, vitamins, and other nutrients.
The compounded ration for a milking cow generally contains about 50–80 percent cereals,
consisting of wheat by-products, flaked or ground corn, barley, sorghum, wheat, and oats.
Requirements for most balanced rations for pigs and poultry are similar. Corn is especially
useful in high-energy feeds either as meal or as the flaked and partly gelatinized product;
barley is desirable for fattening, and oats help provide better balanced cereal for livestock.
Without cereals for use in farm animal foods, the available supply of the animal protein
required in the human diet would be greatly reduced.
Industrial uses
The relatively minor use of cereals in non-food products includes the cellulose in the straw of
cereals by the paper industry, flour for manufacturing sticking pastes and industrial alcohol,
and wheat gluten for core binders in the casting of metal. Rice chaff is often used as fuel in
Asia.
SOME COMMON CEREALS
1. WHEAT FLOUR:
The milling of wheat into flour for the production of bread, cakes, biscuits, and other edible
products is a huge industry. Cereal grains are complex, consisting of many distinctive parts.
The objective of milling is separation of the floury edible endosperm from the various branny
outer coverings and elimination of the germ, or embryo. Because wheats vary in chemical
composition, flour composition also varies.

Although some important changes have occurred in flour milling, basic milling procedure
during the past 100 years has employed the gradual reduction process as described below.
Milling
In modern milling considerable attention is given to preliminary screening and cleaning of the
wheat or blend of wheats to exclude foreign seed and other impurities. The wheat is
dampened and washed if it is too dry for subsequent efficient grinding, or if it is too damp it is
gently dried to avoid damaging the physical state of the protein present, mainly in the form of
the elastic substance gluten. The first step in grinding for the gradual reduction process is
performed between steel cylinders, with grooved surfaces, working at differential speeds.
The wheat is directed between the first ―break,‖ or set of rolls, and is partially torn open.
There is little actual grinding at this stage. The ―chop,‖ the resulting product leaving the rolls,
is sieved, and three main separations are made: some of the endosperm, reduced to flour
called ―first break flour‖; a fair amount of the coarse nodules of floury substances from the
endosperm, called semolina; and relatively large pieces of the grain with much of the
endosperm still adhering to the branny outsides. These largish portions of the wheat are fed
to the second break roll. The broad objective of this gradual reduction process is the release,
by means of the various sets of break rolls, of inner endosperm of the grain, in the form of
semolina, in amounts sufficient that the various semolinas from four or five break rolls can be
separated by suitable sieving and the branny impurities can be removed by air purifiers and
other devices. The cleaned semolinas are reduced to fine flour by grinding between smooth
steel rolls, called reduction rolls.
The flour produced in the reduction rolls is then sieved out. There are usually four or five
more reduction rolls and some ―scratch‖ rolls to scrape the last particles of flour from branny
stocks. Since the various sieving and purification processes free more and more endosperm
in the form of flour, flour is obtained from a whole series of processing operations. The flour
is sieved out after each reduction roll, but no attempt is made to reduce to flour all the
semolina going to a particular reduction roll. Some of the endosperm remains in the form of
finer semolina and is again fed to another reduction roll. Each reduction roll tends to reduce
more of the semolina to flour and to flatten bran particles and thus facilitate the sieving out of
the branny fractions. The sieving plant generally employs machines called plan-sifters, and
the air purifiers also produce a whole series of floury stocks.
Modern flour processing consists of a complicated series of rolls, sieves, and purifiers.
Approximately 72 percent of the grain finally enters the flour sack.
The sacked flour may consist of 20 or more streams of flour of various states of purity and
freedom from branny specks. By selection of the various flour streams it is possible to make
flour of various grades. Improvements in milling techniques, use of newer types of grinding
machinery in the milling system, speeding up of rolls, and improved skills have all resulted in
flour produced by employing the fundamentals of the gradual reduction process but with
simplified and shorter milling systems. Much less roll surface is now required than was
needed as recently as the 1940s.
The purest flour, selected from the purest flour streams released in the mill, is often called
patent flour. It has very low mineral (or ash) content and is remarkably free from traces of
branny specks and other impurities. The bulk of the approximately 72 percent released is
suited to most bread-making purposes, but special varieties are needed for some
confectionery purposes. These varieties may have to be especially fine for production of

specialized cakes, called high-ratio cakes, that are especially light and have good keeping
qualities.
In many countries the flour for bread production is submitted to chemical treatments to
improve the baking quality.
In modern processing, regrinding of the flour and subsequent separation into divisions by air
treatment has enabled the processors to manufacture flour of varying protein content from
any one wheat or grist of wheats.
Composition and grade

Flour consists of moisture, proteins (mainly in gluten form), a small proportion of fat or lipids,
carbohydrates (mainly starch, with a small amount of sugar), a trace of fibre, mineral matter
(higher amounts in whole meal), and various vitamins. Composition varies among the types
of flour, semolinas, middlings, and bran.
Protein content
For bread making it is usually advantageous to have the highest protein content possible
(depending on the nature of the wheat used), but for most other baked products, such as
cookies (sweet biscuits) and cakes, high protein content is rarely required. Gluten can easily
be washed out of flour by allowing a dough made of the flour and water to stand in water a
short time, followed by careful washing of the dough in a gentle stream of water, removing
the starch and leaving the gluten. For good bread-making characteristics, the gluten should
be semi-elastic, not too stiff and unyielding but not soft and flowy, although a flowy quality is
required for biscuit manufacture.
The gluten, always containing a small amount of adhering starch, is essentially hydrated
protein. With careful drying it will retain its elasticity when again mixed with water and can be
used to increase the protein content of specialized high-protein breads.
Sometimes locally grown wheat, often low in protein, may be the only type available for flour
for bread making. This situation exists in parts of France, Australia, and South Africa. The
use of modern procedures and adjustment of baking techniques, however, allow production
of satisfactory bread. In the United Kingdom, millers prefer a blend of wheat, much of it
imported, but modern baking procedures have allowed incorporation of a larger proportion of
the weak English wheat than was previously feasible.
Treatment of flour
Use of ―improvers,‖ or oxidizing substances, enhances the baking quality of flour, allowing
production of better and larger loaves. Relatively small amounts are required, generally a
few parts per million. Although such improvers and the bleaching agents used to rectify
excessive yellowness in flour are permitted in most countries, the processes are not
universal. Improvers include bromates, chlorine dioxide (in gaseous form), and
azodicarbonamide. The most popular bleacher used is benzoyl peroxide.
Grade
The grade of flour is based on freedom from branny particles. Chemical testing methods are
employed to check general quality and particularly grade and purity. Since the ash (mineral
content) of the pure branny coverings of the wheat grain is much greater than that of the
pure endosperm, considerable emphasis is placed on use of the ash test to determine

grade. Bakers will generally pay higher prices for pure flour of low ash content, as the flour is
brighter and lighter in colour. Darker flours may have ash content of 0.7 to 0.8 percent or
higher.
A widely employed modern method for testing flour colour is based on the reflectance of light
from the flour in paste form. This method requires less than a minute; the indirect ash test
requires.
2. BARLEY
Most of the barley grown in the world is used for animal

feed, but a special pure barley is the source of malt for
beer production. Barley is also used in the manufacture
of vinegar, malt extract, some milk type beverages, and
certain breakfast foods. In addition, in flaked form it is
employed in some sections of the brewing industry, and
pearl barley (skins removed by emery friction) is used in
various cooked foods.
Barley can be cultivated on poorer soil and at lower

temperatures than wheat. An important characteristic in
barley is ―winterhardiness,‖ which involves the ability to
modify or withstand many types of stresses, particularly
that of frost. However, barley is subject to many of the
diseases and pests that affect wheat.
The use of barley in animal feed is increasing; it has

been a basic ingredient of pig foods for years and is
increasingly used for cattle feed. Its use in poultry foods has decreased because it has a
lower starch equivalent when compared with wheat or corn and thus provides a lower-
energy ration, unsuitable in modern poultry production. Barley vitamin content is similar to
that of wheat.
3. CORN
Corn, or maize, a cereal cultivated in most warm areas of

the world, has many varieties. The United States, the
principal producer of corn, cultivates two main
commercial types, Zea indurata (flint corn) and Z.
indentata (dent corn). The plant grows to a height of
about three metres or more. The corn kernel is large for
a cereal, with a high embryo content, and corn oil
extracted from the germ is commercially valuable. The
microscopic appearance of the starch is distinctive, and
the principal protein in ordinary corn is the prolamin zein,
constituting half of the total protein. On hydrolysis zein yields only very small amounts of
tryptophan or lysine, making it low in biological value. The proteins of corn, like those of most
cereals other than wheat, do not provide an elastic gluten.

Corn, dry-milled as grits or as meal or turned into flaked corn with some of its starch partially
gelatinized, is a popular component in compounded animal feedstuffs. In dry-milled form it is
also the basis of human food throughout large areas of Africa and South America. Its
nutritive value is limited by its low lysine content. Much recent research has involved
development of a corn with higher lysine content. Mutants have been produced containing
much less zein but possessing protein with higher than normal lysine and tryptophan
contents, sometimes increased as high as 50 percent. These corns, called Opaque-2 and
Floury-2, possess certain drawbacks. They are generally lower in yield than dent hybrids,
are subject to more kernel damage when combine-harvested, and may be more difficult to
process. Nevertheless, these new hybrid corns are expected to become widely cultivated,
and the principles involved in their production may also be applied to sorghum, wheat, and
rice. Corn is popular for use in breakfast foods.
4. SORGHUM
Sorghum, also called milo, is of smaller size than

corn but is generally the same type of cereal,
with similar appearance. Its numerous types are
mainly used for animal feeding. It is grown
extensively in the United States, Pakistan,
central India, Africa, and China. In the sorghum
endosperm, the proteins soluble in hot 60
percent alcohol, called kafirin, constitute the
major portion of the protein. Milo germ oil is
similar to corn germ oil; its major fatty acids are palmitic, stearic, and particularly oleic and
linoleic. Milo is commercially graded in the United States. In waxy varieties the starch is
principally in the form of amylopectin, with very little amylose. Such starches possess special
viscosity characteristics.
5. OATS
Oats belong to the botanical genus Avena, which

includes a large number of types, the principal being A.
sativa, A. sterilis and A. strigosa. Oats are widely grown
in most countries but are not suitable for Mediterranean
climates. Oats are frequently grown on farms as feed for
the farm‘s livestock. They are well balanced chemically,
with fairly high fat content, and are particularly suitable
for feeding horses and sheep.
Although a large portion of the world‘s oat production is used for animal feed, oatmeal is a
popular human food in many countries. Thin-skinned grains, fairly rich in protein and not too
starchy, are selected. Preliminary cleaning is essential for human consumption. The oats are
then kilned (roasted). Thin-husked oats yield 60 percent oatmeal; varieties with thick husks
yield only 50 percent.
Rapid development of rancidity is a serious problem in oats and oat products. The free fatty
acid content must be controlled because formation of these acids tends to produce a soapy
taste resulting from the activity of the enzyme lipase. A few minutes of steam treatment
normally destroys the lipase activity in the grain.

6. RYE:
Rye, which has been known for some 2,000 years, ranks second to wheat as a bread flour.
The principal rye producers are Russia, Poland, Belarus, Germany, and Ukraine. The
popularity of true rye bread is decreasing, and a similar bread, retaining some of the original
characteristics, is now made from a rye and wheat blend. The protein of European rye tends
to be low and does not yield gluten in the same way as does wheat. Rye bread, closer-
grained and heavier than wheat bread, is aerated by the use of a leaven (sourdough) rather
than yeast. The grain is susceptible to attack by the parasitic fungus ergot (Claviceps
purpurea).
7. RICE:
Cultivated rice is known botanically as Oryza sativa, only one of some 25 species comprising
the genus Oryza. The importance of this cereal to certain parts of the world may be seen
from the fact that in Sanskrit there exists, besides the usual word for rice, another term
signifying ―sustainer of the human race.‖ Rice is the staple food for millions in Southeast
Asia, almost equal to wheat in importance among the world‘s cereal crops.
Cultivation
More than 90 percent of the world‘s rice is grown in Asia, principally in China, India,
Indonesia, and Bangladesh, with smaller amounts grown in Japan, Pakistan, and various
Southeast Asian nations. Rice is also cultivated in parts of Europe, in North and South
America, and in Australia. The bulk of the rice cultivated in Asia is grown under water in
flooded fields. Successful production depends on adequate irrigation, including construction
of dams and waterwheels, and on the quality of the soil. Long periods of sunshine are
essential. Rice yields vary considerably, ranging from 700 to 4,000 kilograms per hectare
(600 to 3,500 pounds per acre). Adequate irrigation, which means inundation of the fields to
a depth of several inches during the greater part of the growing season, is a basic
requirement for productive land use. Dryland paddy production, with harvesting by modern
mechanical means, is limited to a few areas, and it produces only a fraction of the total world
crop. As with other cereals, weeds, especially wild red rice, are a constant problem. The
commonest pests include plant bugs, stem borers, worms, and grasshoppers.

The crop, often harvested with a sickle, is frequently dried in earth or concrete pits.
Threshing is often carried out by trampling or with crude implements. Only in a few rice-
growing regions are more modern procedures used in harvesting. Manpower requirements
for crops vary enormously, but over 400 man-hours per acre are required in smallholdings in
Asia, where labour is cheap.
Milling
Milling methods used in most of Asia are primitive, but large mills operate in Japan and
some other areas. Hulling of the paddy is usually accomplished by pestle and mortar worked
by hand, foot, or water power. Improvements are slowly taking place. The yield of milled rice
is dependent on the size and shape of the grain, the degree of ripeness, and the extent of
exposure to the sun. Some large mills, handling 500 to 1,000 tons of paddy daily, have
specialized hulling plants with consequent smaller losses from broken grain. They generally
employ modern milling techniques and rely on controlled drying plants instead of on sun
drying.
The weight of the husk is about 20 percent of the weight of the paddy, and there are losses
of about 5 percent from dirt, dead grains, and other impurities. Approximately 74 percent of
the paddy is available as rice and rice by-products. The yield from milling and subsequent
emery polishings includes about 50 percent whole rice, 17 percent broken rice, 10 percent
bran, and 3 percent meal. Rice grains have a series of thin coats that can be removed or
partially removed in the process of pearling and whitening.
About 60 percent of the Indian rice is parboiled. In the parboiling process the paddy is
steeped in hot water, subjected to low-pressure steam heating, then dried and milled as
usual. Parboiling makes more rice available from the paddy, and more nutrients (largely
vitamin B1) are transferred from the outer coverings to the endosperm, improving the
nutritive value of the finished product. Parboiled rice may contain two to four times as much
thiamine (vitamin B1) and niacin as milled raw rice, and losses in cooking may also be
reduced.
Alcoholic drinks, such as sake in Japan and wang-tsin in China, are made from rice with the
aid of fungi. The hull or husk of paddy, of little value as animal feed because of a high silicon
content that is harmful to digestive and respiratory organs, is used mainly as fuel.
Nutritive value
The lysine content of rice is low. As rice is not a complete food, and the majority of Asians
live largely on rice, it is important that loss of nutrients in processing and cooking should be
minimal. Lightly milled rice has about 0.7 milligram of vitamin B1 per 1,000 nonfatty calories,
and the more costly highly milled product has only 0.18 milligram of B1 on the same basis.
For adequate nutrition, vitamin B1 in the daily diet on this basis should be 0.5–0.6 milligram.
The amount of fat-soluble vitamins in rice is negligible. In some countries rice is enriched by
addition of synthetic vitamins. According to U.S. standards for enriched rice, each pound
must contain 2–4 milligrams of thiamine, 1.2–2.4 milligrams of riboflavin, 16–32 milligrams of
niacin, and 13–26 milligrams of iron. In enriched rice the loss of water-soluble vitamins in
cooking is much reduced because enrichment is applied to about 1 grain in 200, and these
enriched grains are protected by a collodion covering. In ordinary rice, especially when open
cookers are employed or excessive water is used, nutrient losses can be high.

8. MILLET
This term is applied to a variety of small seeds originally cultivated by the ancient Egyptians,
Greeks, and Romans and still part of the human diet in China, Japan, and India, though in
Western countries it is used mainly for birdseed. The genus is termed Panicum. The small
seed is normally about two millimetres long and nearly two millimetres broad. The term
proso is one of several alternative names. Japanese barnyard millet is a well-known variety.
Other starch-yielding plants:
i. Cassava:
Cassava, often called manioc, is not a cereal but a tuber; however, it replaces cereals in
certain countries, supplying the carbohydrate content of the diet. The botanical name is
Manihot esculenta, and the plant is native to South America, especially Brazil. It is now
grown in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and parts of Africa. A valuable
source of starch, cassava is familiar in many developed countries in a granular form known
as tapioca.
Easily cultivated and curiously immune to most food-crop pests, cassava is a staple crop in
several areas of Latin America. The actual tubers may weigh up to 14 kilograms (30
pounds). Some tubers may be bitter and contain dangerously large amounts of prussic acid.
Dry milling of cassava is rarely practiced because it yields a product inferior to wet-
processed starch in which the tubers are crushed or rasped with water and the starch is
permitted to settle. Wet starch is dried to a point where it can be crumbled by pressing it
through metal plates (or sieves). This crumbled material is subjected to a rotary motion,
sometimes carried out on canvas cloth fastened to cradle-shaped frames. Another method is
to tumble the material in revolving steam-jacketed cylinders so that the particles assume a
round pellet form and are partially gelatinized as they dry. Sun drying is employed in both
homes and small mills.
Many tapioca factories and mills are equipped with modern raspers, special shaking or
rotating sieves, and settling tanks of various types; but some fermentation takes place, and
small rural mills can often be identified by the smell of butyric acid. In larger mills, centrifuges
are replacing the settling tanks. For its various industrial uses, the tuber usually goes under
its alternative name, manioc. It is used in the textile industries, explosives manufacture,
leather tanning, and production of glues and dextrins and alcohol.
Fresh cassava leaves are rich in protein, calcium, and vitamins A and C. Their prussic acid
level must be reduced to safe limits by boiling; the duration of boiling depends on the variety
of the leaves. Cassava leaves are a popular vegetable in Africa, and the tuber also is used in
meal for animal feed.
Soybean
Soybean (Glycine max) is not a cereal but a legume; because of its widespread use in the
baking industry, it may appropriately be dealt with here. Soybean provides protein of high
biological value. Although Asia is its original source, the United States became the major
world producer in the late 20th century.
The valuable oil of the soybean, widely used in industry, is extracted either by solvents or by
expellers. The amino acid distribution of soy protein is more like that found in animal protein

than the protein from most vegetable sources; for example, lysine comprises about 5.4
percent. The oil content includes useful amounts of phosphorus; the phosphatide content of
soy flour is about 2 percent and is a mixture of lecithin and cephalin. The low carbohydrate
content exists mainly as sugars. The Table shows the amino acid composition of soy protein.
Amino acid composition of soy protein (calculated to 16 percent nitrogen)
Amino acid Percent %

Arginine 5.8
Histidine 2.3
Lysine 5.4
Tyrosine 4.1
Tryptophan 1.2
Phenylalanine 5.7
Cystine 0.9
Methionine 2.0
Threonine 4.0
Leucine 6.6
Isoleucine 4.7
Valine 4.2
Glutamic acid 21.0
Aspartic acid 8.8
Although soybeans are a good source of thiamine, much of this may be lost in processing.
Average vitamin contents of soybean (as micrograms per gram) are as follows: thiamine 12,
riboflavin 3.5, nicotinic acid 23, pyridoxine 8, pantothenic acid 15, and biotin 0.7.
The bulk of the soybean produced in the United States is used for animal feed; the Asian
crop goes principally for human diet.
Soybean milk is produced and used in the fresh state in China and as a condensed milk in
Japan. In both of these preparations, certain antinutritive factors (antitrypsin and soyin) are
largely removed. In the Western world most soy products are treated chemically or by heat
to remove these antinutritive factors along with the unpopular beany taste. Such processing
affects the enzymatic activity in the milk.
Soybean is milled to produce soy flour. The flour is often used in a proportion of less than 1
percent in bakery operations. It stiffens doughs and helps to maintain crumb softness.
Unprocessed soy flour, because of its lipoxidase enzyme system, is employed with high-
speed mixing to bleach the flour in a dough.
In addition to their use in bread, soy products are used in confectionery, biscuits, macaroni,
infant and invalid foods, ice cream, chocolate, sausages, sauces, lemon curd, mayonnaise,
meat and fish pastes, certain diabetic foods, and in such nonfood products as paint, paper,
textiles, and plastics.
A recent development is the isolation of the soybean proteins for use as emulsifiers and
binders in meat products and substitutes. Enzyme-modified proteins provide useful egg-
albumen supplement for whipped products.

i. Buckwheat:
Botanically, buckwheat is not a cereal but the fruit of Fagopyrum esculentum. Its name is
probably derived from its resemblance to beechnut. Believed to have originated in China, the
plant grows to a height of about one metre and thrives best in cool, moist climates, although
it does not easily tolerate frost. It can be grown on a wide range of soils, and a crop can be
obtained within 10–12 weeks of sowing.
The seed is dark brown in colour and often triangular in shape. It contains about 60 percent
carbohydrate, 10 percent protein, and 15 percent fibre. A white flour can be obtained from
the seeds (buckwheat cakes and pancakes are popular in certain areas), and buckwheat
meal is also used in animal feed. The whole seed may be fed to poultry and game birds.
There is some medical interest in buckwheat as a source of rutin, possibly effective in
treatment of increased capillary fragility associated with hypertension in humans.

TECHNOLOGY OF LEGUME & OILSEED PROCESSING
PROCESSING OF PULSES
Pulses are the edible seeds of pod bearing plants are widely grown throughout the world.
Pulses have a high protein content ranging from 20-30% and this makes them important in
human food from the point of view of nutrition. Because of this high protein content, they are
also known as ―poor man‘s meat‖. An alternative name for pulses is ―legumes‖, which is
common in many parts of the world. In India, the term ―gram‖ is commonly used for dry
legume seeds with husk, while split decorticated grains are called ―dhal‖. Like many
leguminous crops, pulses pay a key role in crop rotation due to their ability for fix nitrogen.
Green gram, red gram, bengal gram, horse gram, cluster bean, field bean, cow pea are
some of the common types of pulses. In general, their protein content is high and is
commonly more than twice that of cereal grains, usually constituting about 20 per cent of the
dry weight of seeds.
Pulse seeds are also sources of other nutritionally important materials, such as vitamins and
minerals. Milling of pulses is removal of outer husk/hulls and splitting the grain into two equal
halves. The husk/hull is more tightly held by the kernel of some pulses poses problems. The
alternate wetting and drying method is used to facilate de-husking and splitting of pulses.
The traditional method of milling yields only 65-70 % as compared to 82-85 % potential yield.
Also, traditional methods results in high losses in the form of powder and broken. Therefore,
it is necessary to improve the traditional methods of pulse milling to increase the total yield of
de-husked and split pulses and reduce losses.
Definition of terms used in pulse processing
Gram: Dry legume seeds with husk
Decortications/dehusking: Removal of outer husk from gram
Splitting of pulses: Breaking a seeds in to two halves
Milling of pulses: Removing the husk and splitting the grains into two halves
Dhal: Split decorticated grains
Gota: Unhusked pulse grains coming out of the roller mill
Dust/chuni: Powder obtained as byproduct from the milling operation of pulses
Brokens: Broken grains coming out of the roller along with dhal
Cleaning: Removing the various inorganic impurities present in the raw grains
Grading: Separating the cleaned grains based on size
Conditioning: loosening of the husk to facilitate its separation from the kernel, thus reducing
the milling losses(e.g. Hydrothermal treatment, water treatment, heating, use of salt or
chemicals)
Polishing: Mixing edible oil and water with dhal by publishing through a screw conveyer to
impart desirable color and shine to milled pulses

Grading of dhal: separation of dhal as per the size and soundness
PULSE MILLING PROCESS
Basic processes in dhal milling are cleaning, de-husking, splitting, separation and bagging.
Major variation is involved with de-husking process only. Dhals like Arahar, urad, moong and
lentil are difficult to de-husk as a result repeated operations by de-husking rollers are
required. Rewetting and drying is done to loosen portions of husk sticking after repeated
rolling. Linseed oil is used to impart shine or better appeal to the milled dhal.
The removal of the outer husk and splitting the grain into two equal halves is known as
milling of pulses. To facilitate de-husking and splitting of pulses alternate wetting and drying
method is used. In India trading milling methods produce de-husked split pulses. Loosening
of husk by conditioning is insufficient in traditional methods. To obtain complete de-husking
of the grains a large number of abrasive forces is applied in this case as a result high losses
occur in the form of broken and powder.
In India, there are two conventional pulses milling methods; wet milling method and dry
milling method. The latter is more popular and used in commercial mills. The dry milling
quality is found to be good and on an average 70-72 % dhal recovery is reported. Wet milled
dhal is of better taste than dry milled dhal, but takes longer cooking time.
There is no common processing method for all types of pulses. However, some general
operations of dry milling method such as cleaning and grading, rolling or pitting, oiling,
moistening, drying and milling have been described here.
Cleaning and grading: Pulses are cleaned from dust, chaff, grits, etc., and graded
according to size by a reel type or rotating sieve type cleaner.
Pitting: The clean pulses are passed through an emery roller machine. Husk is cracked and
scratched in this operation. This is to facilitate the subsequent oil penetration process for the
loosening of husk. The clearance between the emery roller and cage (housing) gradually
narrows from inlet to outlet. As the material is passed through the narrowing clearance
mainly cracking and scratching of husk takes place by friction between pulses and emery.
Some of the pulses are dehusked and split during this operations which are then separated
by sieving.
Pretreatments with oil: The scratched or pitted pulses are passed through a screw
conveyor and mixed with some edible oil like linseed oil (1.5 to 2.5 kg/tone of pulses). Then
they are kept for about 12 hours for diffusion of the oil.
Conditioning of pulses: Conditioning of pulses is done by alternate wetting and drying.

After sun drying for a certain period, 3-5 % moisture is added to the pulse and tempered for
about eight flours and again dried in the sun. Addition of moisture to the pulses can be
accomplished by allowing water to drop from an overhead tank on the pulses being passed
through a screw conveyor. The whole process of alternate wetting and drying is continued
for two to four days until all pulses are sufficiently conditioned. Pulses are finally dried to
about 10 to 12 % moisture content.
De-husking and Splitting: Emery rollers, known as Gota machine are used for the de-
husking of conditioned pulses About 50 % pulses are de-husked in a single operation (in one
pass). De-husked pulses are split into two parts also, the husk is aspirated off and de-
husked split pulses are separated by sieving. The tail pulses and unsplit de-husked pulses
are again conditioned and milled. The whole process is repeated two to three times until the
remaining- pulses are de-husked and split.
Polishing: Polish is given to the de-husked and split pulses by treating them with a small
quantity of oil and/or water.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR PULSE PROCESSING
Vibratory sieve separator: For cleaning of raw grains
Cleaner with aspirator: For removing lighter impurities such as dust, husk, brokens of
insects etc.
Destoner: To separate mud and stones from raw grains
Auger Mixer/Screw conveyor: For mixing water/oil/red earth during conditioning and
polishing of grains/dhal
Pulse scourer: An emery scourer (emery roller) machine is used to obtain cracking and
scratching of clean pulses passing through it. For loosing the husk to facilitate the
subsequent oil penetration this required. Gradually the clearance between the emery roller
and cage (housing) is narrowed from inlet to outlet. Cracking and scratching of husk takes
mainly by friction between pulses and emery as the material passed through the narrowing
clearance. During the operation some of the are de husked and split which are separated by
sieving.
Pulse splitter: For splitting and dehusked grains into two halves
LSU Drier: For conditioning of the grains before milling
Emery coated rollers: For dehusking and milling of pulses.
Rotating reel grader: For separating the dhal based on size and soundness, in which
separate compartments with different size screens are present. Various sizes of dhal though
the openings of these screens and graded dhal are bagged separately.
METHODS OF MILLING OF PULSES
Dry milling method of pigeon pea
It is generally practiced in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. In this, the pulses are
subjected to pitting in a roller and then oil treatment by applying 0.5-2.0 per cent linseed oil
or any edible oil. Then the pulses are spread in the drying yard for sun drying for 2 – 4 days.
The pulses are tempered by heaping and covering during the nights in between these days.
After sundrying, again pulses are moistened uniformly with about 5 % water and kept as
such on heaps overnight for moisture equilibrium. Then, these pulses are allowed to pass
from the roller for splitting and dehusking. About, 50 % of the pulses are dehusked and split
in first operation. After this, the husk are removed by aspiration and split dhal are separated
from the mixture of husked and un- husked whole pulses. The mixture is once again
moistened and dried in the sun and then dehusked and split. This process of alternate
wetting and drying is repeated until almost all the remaining pulses are converted in to split
dhal. The average yield of dhal ranges from 68-75 %.

Wet milling method of pigeon pea
The grains are soaked in water for 3-12 hours in this method of milling. The soaked pulses
are mixed with red earth at about 5 % thoroughly. The mixture is kept in heaps overnight.
The whole mixture is then dried in the sun for 2-4 days until the husk of the grain are
shriveled and loosened. The pulses are tempered overnight in between these days. By
sieving, the red earth is separated from the pulses. The dried grains are dehusked and split
in disc sheller. The dhal and other fractions are separated. In a single milling operation,
about 95 % of the pulses are dehusked and split. The rest material again pretreated and
milled to convert in to dhal. The red earth may facilitate in increasing the rate of drying and in
loosening the husk. This method requires about 5 to 7 days for processing of a batch of
pulses.

CFTRI method of Pigeon Pea milling

There are some other methods like CFTRI method, which eliminates mixing of oil and water
for loosening the husk. Clean and graded grains are conditioned by dry heat treatment by
two passes through LSU drier with hot air. After each passes through the dryer the grains
are tempered for 6 hours in tempering bin. The preconditioned pulses are conveyed to the
pearler or dehusker where almost all pulses are dehusked in single operation.
The gota (dehusked whole grain) are separated from split pulses and mixture of husk,
brokens, etc. Water is added at controlled level to Gota and then collected and allowed to
remain as such for about 1 hour. Some of the moistened Gota form lumps of varying sizes.
These lumps are fed to the lump breaker to separate them. These Gota are conveyed to
LSU dryer where it is exposed to hot air for few hours. The Gota are dried to proper moisture
level for splitting. The hot, conditioned and dried dehusked whole pulses are split in the
emery roller. The mixture is graded in to Grade I pulses, dehusked whole pulses and small
brokens. The unsplit dehusked pulses are again fed to the conditioner for subsequent
splitting. Average yield by this method is 80 %, in lesser time and lesser processing cost
compared to other methods.
Pantnagar process of pigeon pea milling

In this process the pigeon pea after cleaning and grading are passed through an emery roller
mill for scratching. The pitted grains are 10% sodium bicarbonate solution and tempered for
4 hours in shade. Then the grains are dried under sun to 9.5% moisture content followed by

milling in a concentric cylinder roller mill. The milled grains are cleaned and graded with the
help of blower, cyclone separator and reel grader. Dhal recovery is 80 % in this method.
CIAE method pigeon pea milling

In this method use of edible oil in pretreatment process is eliminated. First the pigeon pea,
green gram and black gram is cleaned and fed to the roller mill developed at CIAE for
scratching. After cleaning the scratched grains are soaked in tap water at ambient
temperature for 30 minutes in case of pigeon pea and hour for black gram and green. The
water is the drained off and the grains are dried to 9-10% moisture content. Such
conditioned grains are again fed to the roller mill to produce dehusked split cotyledons.
Method of Black gram milling

After cleaning the black grams are subjected to pricking in a rough roller mill for some
scratching as well as partial removal of the waxy coating on the black grams. The scratched
grains are then coated with 1 to 2 percent oil in the grains. The scratched and oil coated
pulses are sprayed in drying yards for sun drying for 4 to 6 hours. The partially dried grains
are moistened with a spray of 4 to 5 percent water and kept over night for moisture
equilibration. The wetted pulses are then dried in the sun for 3 to 4 days and tempered over
nights. Thoroughly dried pulses are de-husked in a roller machine. About, 40 to 50 percent
pulses are de-husked and split in first milling operation. The husk and powder are then
aspirated off. Then, the split ‗dhal‘ is separated from the de-husked whole dhal and un-
husked pulses by sieving. Both husked and un-husked whole grains are again dried in the
sun and milled as above and the same process is repeated until the desired milling of pulses
is achieved. The average yield of dhal is 70-71 percent. Sometimes, the last part of the
unsplit grains and partially husked grains are allowed to pass through sheller and polisher
machines for splitting and removal of the husk and polisher machines for splitting and
removal of the husk, which result in a large amount of losses due to formation of powder and
brokens. In some cases, policing is done in a buffing machine. In order to give a white finish
and to protected from insect attack a coating of soapstone powder is generally given to
these ‗dhals‘.
Method of Bengal gram milling

It is comparatively easy to de-husk and split Bengal gram, Lentil and Peas as their husks are
loosely attached to the cotyledons. It requires shorter period of preconditioning prior the
milling these pulses. After cleaning, the pulses are pitted in a roller machine. The pitted
grains are then wetted with water (5 to 10 percent) in a worm mixer and then these are kept
in helps for a few hours for diffusion of water into the grains. These grains are dried in the
sun for a day or two, with overnight tempering. About, 60 to 70 percent dried pulses are then
de-husked and split in the first pass by a roller machine. The husk and powder are aspirated
off. The split pulses are separated from the un-husked and husked whole grains by sieving.
The alternate wetting with 5 percent water and sun drying and subsequent milling operations
are repeated till the most of the pulses is converter to ‗dhal‘.
Method of Lentil and peas milling

The preconditioning and milling of Lentils and Peas are comparable with Bengal gram. The
same initial pitting, wetting, conditioning, sun drying and subsequent milling by de-husking
and splitting in a roller and aspiration of husk with a blower and separation of split dhal from
the mixture of un-husked and husked whole grains with a sieve are being followed. The
whole process of preconditioning and milling are repeated till most of the pulses are
converted into dhal. However, the conversion of these pulses into dhal is easy as compared
to tur. It takes about 3 to 5 days for complete processing of batch of pulses.
Method of Green gram milling

In dry milling of green gram, both oil and water treatments are given to the pulses. The
wetted pulses are dried in the sun. Then the dried pulses are simultaneously de-husked and
split using a de-husking machine. After removal of husk, split dhal is separated from the
mixture as usual. The yield of dhal is poor which varies from 62 to 65 percent only.

PROCESSING OF OIL SEEDS
Introduction
India is fourth oilseed producing country in the next only to USA, China and Brazil. Many
varieties of oilseeds, the major oilseeds are soybean, cottonseed, groundnut, Sunflower,
Rapeseed, Sesame seed, Copra, Castor seed and Palm Kernels. India occupies the place of
pride as the world‘s largest producer of Groundnuts, Sesame seeds, Linseeds and Castor
seeds. Ending on the period of cultivation, the oilseeds are classified as ―Kharif crop‖ and
―Rabi crop‖.
The oils and fats are composed of mixtures of glycerides of various fatty acids. The fats and
oils are broadly classified in to edible and non edible. Groundnut, soybean, mustard are
some of the sources of the edible oil. The edible oil is main source of fat taken in daily meals
and is used for cooking purposes and salad dressings. Oils are also used in the soap
industry, paint, varnishes and plasticizers industry. The mechanical expression and solvent
extraction methods are employed for the manufacture of oil from the oil seeds.
Raw material preparation

Oilseed and nut should be properly dried before storage, and cleaned to remove sand, dust,
leaves and other contaminants. All raw materials should be sorted to remove stones and
moudly nuts. Some moulds, especially in the case of groundnuts, can cause aflatoxin
poisoning. When storage is necessary, this should be in weather proof, ventilated rooms
which are protected against birds, insects and rodents. Some raw materials (for example
groundnuts, sunflower seeds) need dehusking (or decorticating). Decortication is important
to give high yields of oil and reduce the bulk of material to processed. However, expellers
normally require a proportion of fibrous material in order to work and, particularly with
groundnuts; some husk is normally added to allow oil to escape more freely from the press.
Coconut is dehusked and split manually by skilled operators. Most oilseeds (copra, palm
kernels and groundnuts) need grinding in mills before oil extraction to increase the yields of
oil. All oil-bearing materials need to have correct moisture content to maximize the oil yields.
Oil Extraction methods
a) Mechanical expression:
During the process of mechanical expression, the oil seeds are compressed in various types
of compression devices/equipment. Expression is the process of mechanically pressing
liquid out of liquid containing solids. Screw press, roll presses, collapsible plate are some
examples of wide range of equipment used for expression of liquid.
i) Hydraulic press: The hydraulic press is considered of a series of horizontal corrugated

iron plates. These plates are separated by 4 – 14 premoulded oil seed cakes. Pressing is
completed in two stages. In first stage, the oil seeds are pressed at about 5 MPa for 15-20
min and then pressure of 28 MPa is applied for 5-10 min to complete the expression
process. The recovery of the oil varied depending upon the sizes and seed being pressed.
But, the at commercial level, the hydraulic press is replaced by screw type presses.
ii) Screw press: A screw press has a horizontal main shaft. The screw assembly is formed
integrally with this shaft. The screw rotates within a cage or barrel. The barrel is made of
case hardened, tool steel bars or rings to allow drainage of the oil as the pressure on the
feed material is increased. At the discharge end, a movable choke or cone controls the
operating pressure. It is achieved by changing the width of annular space through which the
oil cake passes. The choke is adjusted by a hand wheel on the opposite end of the screw.
The configuration of screw is such that the volume displacement at the feed end of the press
is considerably greater than at the discharge end. As a result of such configuration, as the
material is conveyed from feed end to discharge end, it is subjected to increasing pressure.
As pressure increases, the material is compressed and oil is expelled through the spacers
between the cage lining bars.

iii) Ram press: A long pivoted lever moves a piston backwards and forewords inside a
cylindrical cage constructed from a metal bars spaced to allow the passage of oil. At one end
of the piston‘s stroke, it opens an entry port from the seed hopper so that seed enters the
press cage. When the piston is moved forward, the entry post is closed and the oilseed is
compressed in the cage. As a result, oil is expelled from the oilseed the emerges through the
gaps in the cage. Compressed seed is pushed out through the gaps in the cage.
Compressed seed is pushed out through circular gap at the end of the cage.
b) Oil Extraction:
Extraction is a process of separating a liquid from a solid system with the use of a solvent.
Extraction is also a process of diffusion with the help of low boiling point solvent. This
process gives a higher recovery of oil and a drier cake than expression. Solvent extraction is
capable of removing nearly all of the available oil from oilseed meal. This extraction process
provides meal of better preservation qualities and with higher protein qualities.
In this process, the solvent is poured to the well prepared material. It is then followed by the
diffusion of oil solvent mixture to the surface of solid for recovery of oil. The most common
solvent used in India is n-hexane having boiling point of 65.5 ºC. The oil is separated from
mixture of oil and hexane called miscella by distillation and stripping under vacuum. The
extracted meal having hexane is de-solventized by heating with live steam in a de-
solventizer. This meal is known as deoiled cake and it contains about less than 1 % residual
oil. The solvent from the distillation and stripping columns as well as from the de-solventizer
is condensed and recovered and stored in the solvent storage tank. The separated from the
miscella goes to the storage tank after cooling.
Solvent extraction plant use hexane as a solvent to extract oil from oilseed cake. These
plants are expensive and only suitable for large volumes which justify the capital cost of
equipment. Where large amounts of oilseed cake are available, solvent extraction becomes
a commercially- viable option to extract residual oil left in the cake and leave an almost oil-
free powder known as oilseed meal. Both cake and meal are incorporated in animal feeds.
Process of Oil Refining
In many local markets further refining is not required as the complexes of unrefined oils are
preferred. International markets tend to prefer lighter less intense oils for cooking which
means further processing of the oil. There is serious of refining processes that can be
carried out after the oil has been filtered.
i) De-odorising:
Volatile compounds that produce bad odours can eliminated through the process of
sparging, i.e. bubbling steam through the oil, under a vacuum.
ii) Wintering:
Allowing the oil to stand for a time at low temperatures so that glycerides, which naturally
occur in the oil, with higher melting points solidify and can then be removed from the oil by
filtering. Over time glycerides can degrade releasing fatty acids into the oil increasing the
acidity levels and reducing the quality.
iii) Neutralisation:
Fatty acids can be neutralized by adding a sodium hydroxide solution, also known as caustic
soda, or by stripping, which is a similar process to de-odorising.
iv) Bleaching:
Some oils have a very dark colour to them that is unpopular with consumers. The
appearance of the oil can be lightened by bleaching.
v) De-gumming:

De-gumming is a way of treating seed that have high phosphatide content. The phosphetide,
which makes a gummy residue, is removed by mixing the oil with 2 to 3% water. This
hydrated phosphatide can then be removed by settling, filtering or centrifuged.

STORAGE INSECT – PESTS & THEIR MANAGEMENT
LIST OF STORAGE INSECTS:
S.No. Common name Scientific name Family Order

1. Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae Curculionidae Coleoptera
2. Grain weevil Sitophilus granarium Curculionidae Coleoptera
3. Larger rice Sitophilus zea mais Curculionidae Coleoptera
4. Lesser grain Rhizopertha dominica Bostrichidae Coleoptera
borer
5. Red rust four Tribolium castaneum Tenebrionidae Coleoptera
beetle
6. Khapra beetle Trogogerma granarium Dermestidae Coleoptera
7. Saw tooth beetle Oryzaephilus Silvanidae Coleoptera
surinamensis
8. Tobacco Lasioderma serricorne Anobidae Coleoptera
(cigarette bettle)
9. Drug store beetle Stagobium penisecum Anobidae Coleoptera
10. Pulse beetle Callosobruchus Bruchidae Coleoptera
(gram dhora) chinensis
11. Groudnut beetle Caryodon cerratus Bruchidae Coleoptera
12. Large head four Latheticus oryzae Tenebrionidae Coleoptera
beetle
13. Anguimois grain Sitotroga cerealella Gelechidae Lepidoptera
moth
14. Almond moth Ephestia cautella Phycitidae Lepidoptera
15. Indian meal moth Plodia interpunctella Phycitidae Lepidoptera
16. Rice moth Corcyra cephalonica Pyralidae Lepidoptera
17. Potato tuber Phthorimaea Gelechidae Lepidoptera
moth operculella
STORAGE INSECTS CARRIED INFESTATION BY TWO TYPES:
1. Internal Feeder: Larvae/pupae remains inside the grains and insects lay eggs inside
or on the seeds. E.g Rice weevil, Pulse beetle, Sitotroga, Rhizopertha.
2. External feeder: Passes all life stages outside the grain and all stages are visible. E.g.
Khapra beetle. Corcyra, Red flour beetle, Oryzaephilus etc.
OTHER CATEGORY:
1. Primary pests: Which infests the whole grains and capable of damaging all kind of
storage grains e.g., Sitophilus, Rhizopertha, Bruchids etc.
2. Secondary pests: They infest which is already infected by other insects or they are
capable of attack the broken or milled grains only e.g. Tribolium castaneum,
Oryzaephilus etc.
COMMON STORAGES PESTS:
A. COLEOPTERAN PESTS:
1. Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae
HOST:
 Serious pests of wheat, rice and barley
MARK OF IDENTIFICATION:
 First reported in rice so named rice weevil

 It prefers humid climate
 Dark brown in colour
 Most identified structure is presence of rostrum
 Head is protruded into snout (rostrum)
 Reddish orange circular markings on the elytra
 Grub is most injurious stage of damage
 Very difficult for this weevil to survive at low moisture
 In adult two pair of spot are presented on elytra
OTHER SPECIES:
a) Sitophilus granarium: Could not fly, wings are fused, other species are strong fliers.
b) Sitophilus zeamais: Largest in sized, can tolerate to high moisture and damage is
done at milky stage.
2. Lesser grain borer: Rhizopertha dominica
HOST:
 Perfer the dark and most place

 Wheat, rye, jowar
 Beetle is more harmful than grubs.

 Pronotum is rounded at the front whereas the transfer row of teeth centrally and
posterior flattened.
 Lay eggs pear shaped and white later change into pinkish color.
 Pupation takes place inside the grains.
 Profuse powdery substances is characteristic feature of its damage
 Adults are good fliers.
3. Khapra beetle: Trogoderma granarium

 External feeder, secondary pest
DAMAGER:
 At high temperature & less humidity damage is done by grub larvae.
 Its eggs stage is highly sensitive to oxygen.

 Can be live at less moisture availability.

 Adult are harmless only larvae cause damage on whole grain.
 Adults are blackish in color usually 2.5 mm in size with distinct marking on wings.
 Larve having long hairs on the hind end of body which helps in movement of body.
 It can be live without food up to 4-5 year even 7 years.
 At serious infestation in wheat grain eaten completely and white portion left looked like
rice.
4. Red four beetle: Tribolium castaneum

 It is germ (external) feeder
DAMAGE:
 Adult and larvae both are damaging stage.

 Damage the processed food, flour, suji, meda.
 In case of huge damage, the flour turned grayish yellowish colour & gives peculiar
pungent smell.
 Female lay eggs singly in flour up to 400 eggs.

 Eggs are white cylindrical and hatch about 4 – 10 days.
 In adult head, thorax and abdomen is very distinct.
 Cannibalism is also very common in this insect.
5. Saw tooth beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis

 Secondary pest
 Larvae are straw coloured & dark patches on both side of the body.
 In adult each side of thorax found six teeth like projection.
 Generally, larvae feed endosperm of the grain.
6. Pulse beetle: Collosobruchus chinensis

 First discovered in China so named chinesis.
 Mostly damage the pulses in storage but it‘s also pest of pulse field.
 Only eggs and adult are visible.

 Antennae are serrate in female but pectinate in male.
 Elytra covers the full body.
 In hind femur spine teeth are present.
 Adults are small chocolate dark brown coloured.
 Only grubs are destructive.
B. LEPIDOPTERAN PESTS:
1. Anguimois grain moth: Sitofroga cerealella

 It also pest of field.
 In storage the infestation is restricted by surface.

 Damage is done by larvae.
 At high moisture infestation is more.
 Eggs are red coloured.
 The hole made by the larvae is very small.
 After entering the larvae hole is closed by silken web so difficult to see.
 If grain is small the pupation occur 2 – 3 grains holding together.
 Adult moth are golden brown colored with two pair of wings.
 Wing margin is fringed and wings are pointed at the tip.
2. Rice moth: Corcyra cephalonica : Pyralidae, Lepidoptera

 Present in humid area
 External feeder
 Heavy infestation recognized by webbing
 Larvae are pale white except the head capsule brown
 Hind wing are mid brown & fore wing with thin lines of darker along the wing veins
3. Almond moth: Ephestia cautella

 External feeder
 Only larvae are germ feeder
 Adult are 13 mm in length wings are roof like on the abdomen
 Fore and hind wings are rounded at the tip
FACTORS GOVERNING STORED GRAIN INFESTATION:
A. PHYSICAL FACTORS:
1) Temperature: It is one of the most important factors of environment as the
multiplication of insect pests of stored grains depends on it. The minimum temperature
at which these insects are able to develop and multiply is between 15.5 to 18.3 0C
many of insects can live for long periods at lower temperature. The optimum
temperature for most of the species lies between 28 – 32 0C.
2) Moisture: Most of storage insect need more than 10% moisture and the optimum is
around 14% therefore, grains having less than 10% moisture are considered safe for
storage. If moisture is less than 10% the most of insect avoided the infestation except
Khapra beetle. Low moisture avoided the growth of insects and maintains the viability
of seed.
3) Oxygen: Insects required more O2 as compare to grain respiration. Khapra beetle at
eggs stage is highly susceptible to oxygen concentration.
B. BIOLOGICAL AGENCIES:
1) Insects: The average loss due to stored grain pests is about 10 – 15% of grains but
contaminate the rest with undesirable odour and flavors. The majority of storage
insects belong to the order coleopteran (60%) and Lepidoptera (8 – 9%) of total
number of species.
2) Mites: Mites infect and deteriorate the quality and quantity of grains.
3) Birds: Birds also cause damage to grain crops and fruits.
4) Fungi: Al favorable moisture availability development of fungi also serious causes for
grain spoilage common storage grains fungi are Aspergillus spp. and Fusarium spp.
etc.

MANAGEMENT OF STORAGE PESTS:
1. Seed treatment: Malathion 5% dust @ 250g/qt. of seeds is recommended or 2ml of

fenvalerate in 500 ml of water for one qt. of seeds.
2. Surface treatment: Bags dipped into 0.0125% fenvalerate 20 EC or cypermethrin 25

EC for 10 minutes and drying them in shade or Spray 0.05% malathion 50 EC
emulsion on floor, wall and ceilings.
3. Fumigation: Fumigats the stored grains with Ethylene Dichlorine + Carbon

Tetrachloride (EDCT 3:1) @ 1 lit/20 qt. of grains or Methyl bromide @ 3.5 kg/100
m3 for 10 – 12 hours or Hydrogen phosphide or aluminium phosphide 1 tab. Per
metric tons of grains.

CONTROL OF VERTEBRATE PESTS – RATS, BANDICOOTS, BIRDS
CRABS
 Crabs are arthropods which belong to group Crustacea. They are aquatic animals.
 The rice field crab, Parutelphusa hydrodrumus has oval body tucked beneath the
thoracic region.
 It lives in holes mad ein the sides of field bunds, irrigation channels etc., where water
does not stand. Holes are protected by heaping soil around their openings.
 About 300-700 crabs are seen over a ha of infested field. A female can lay about 200
eggs inside her pouch-like abdominal flaps.
Nature of damage
 Seedlings at ground level are cut into bits and carried to the holes for feeding. In addition
to crop damage, crab holes made into bunds lead to breaches and waterloss.
Management
 Manual collection and disposal. Place 4-5 gunny bags on the ground adjacent to field.
The crabs have tendency to conreagate underneath.
 Poison baits with warfarin (0.025%).
 Spray with 0.25% parathion over a thin sheet of water in the field and draining after 3
days.
 Encouragement of natural biological control exerted by pond heron, Ardeola grayi and
rats dependingon the gravity of crab-menace.
BIRDS
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME IMPORTANT CROPS
ATTACKED
Cow Corvus spp Wheat, maize cobs, fig,
mulberry
Mynah Acridotheres tristis Grapes, berries
Parrot Psittacula cyanocephalus Guava, pearl millet,
sorghum, maize, mango, fig
Green parakeet P. krameri Sorghum & millets
House sparrow Passer domesticus Sorghum, pearl millet, maize,
soft fruits
Yellow throated Sparrow Gymnorhis xanthocollis Wheat, barley
Blue rock pigeon Columba livia Maize, groundnut
Wood pigeon C. palumbus casiotis Pulses
Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus Sorghum, pearl millet
Wood pecker Picoides himalayensis Foresuy seedlings
Peacock Pavo cristatus Tender seedlings like
cabbage, cauliflower,
ornamentals
Management
 Bird damage can be prevented by scarring them away using mechanical bird scarrers
setup in orchards/fields. These include LPG gas guns, electronic device, radio, flashing
and rotating lights, scare crows, reflective mirrors or tapes, helium or air filled balloons
and predator models or kites.
 Shooting involves a lot of labour and mist nets are very costly and not easily available.

 Roosting deterrents: a variety of spikes, coils and wire products are available to
exclude birds from perching on buildings and infrastructure.
 Use of metalized reflective ribbons / plastic garbage bags of various colours to repel
them.
 Installation of carbide gun, scare – crow etc. strategic places. About one kg calcium
carbide is required for eight hours to repel birds from 2 – 3 acres.
 Application of Pestgo, a highly viscous gel at roosting to create stickness.
 Use of catapults, tin drums, rackers and other indigenous tactics.
 Baiting with rnisorol (Camino pyridine), a behavioural repellent. It has to be applied
with preferred food for particular bird species e.g., guava for parrots while meat for
vultures.
 Fencing and netting especially for peacocks, keeping in find their small flight range as
well as existence of an object suited for the sortie.
 Playing of distress calls prevents brown-eared bulbuls-damaging fruits in orchards.
 Trapping the birds in nets or catching them with the help of sticky substance
„Lassa‟.
 Loud sounds due to the burning of acetylene gas produced at intervals are utilized to
scare away birds and small animals.
RODENTS
S.No. COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME IMPORTANT FEATURES
1. House mouse Mus musculus  Colour is dark brown to
sandy brown with
smooth short hairs and
under parts whitish to
light grey.
 Long bald tail is
usually longer then
head and body.
 The droppings are
scattered and spindle
shaped.
2. House Rat Rattus rattus  Soft grey to black
coloured, snout pointed.
 Tail length usually
longer than head and
body, but not always so
 Dropping are found
scattered and banana
shaped.
3. Norway rat or brown rat Rattus norvegicus  Soft skinned brownish
grey with whitish belly.
 Tail not uniformly
tapered.
 Dropping found in
groups and spindle
shaped.
4. The greated bandicoot rat Bandicota indica  Largest size and
ferocious in
appearance.
 Tail is equal to length of
head + body
 Droppings scattered

and spindle shape
5. The lesser bandicoot rat B. bengalensis  Rats have dark brown
or brownish gray body.
 Tail shorter than head
and body
 Signs of Rodent Infestation includes Droppings, Trakcs, Gnawing Damage, Burrows,

Runways, Grease Marks, Urins Stains, Live Or Dead Rodents, Sounds of Rodents,
Rodent Odors.
CONTROL MEASURES
I. SANITATION
1. Elimination of potential rodent harborages
2. Proper removal of trash and garbage piles
3. Removal of grass, weeds and undesirable vegetation
4. Proper storage practices to allow cleaning inspection
II. EXCLUSION (RODENT PROFING)

1. Trapping programs
2. Baiting programs (a. Rodent inspections, b. Sanitation, c. Population reduction)
3. Predation (cats can be helpful in rodent control)
4. Cultural practices
a. Use coars steel wool, sheet metal, hardware cloth, mortar, etc. for sealing
openings.
b. Seal all openings greater than ¼ for mice and ½ for rats
c. Use 12 inches of a 24 gauge sheet metal at the bottom of doors
III. MECHANICAL CONTROL (PLACEMENT OF TRAPS)

1. Snap Trap: This is the odlest type of trap and uses a spring-loaded bar to kil a
rodent on contact. Some modern snap traps prevent risk to children and pets by
enclosing the device in a plastic box.
2. Electronic Trap: This battery-powered trap delivers and electric shock that kills
rodents quickly. This is a newer type of trap, and models are available for both rats
and mice.
3. Live-Animal Trap: This is a catch and released system that avoids killing a rat or
mouse. Some states prohibit releasing rodents into the wild.
4. Multiple-Catch Live Mouse Trap: This is a catch and release system that allows for
capture of multiple mice. See warnings for the live animal trap above.
5. Glue Trap: Glue traps are nto recommended because the adhesive plate that is
used to capture rodents can also birds, baby animals, lizards, and even pets. These
traps also cause undue suffering to rodents.
IV. CHEMICAL CONTROL

 This group is generally used to kill the rats with various rodenticides.
 The rodenticides can be divided in to two groups.
 Single dose poison (ACUTE POISON): This group comprises acute posion
which kill the rats by single exposure to poison baits. Ex. Zinc phosphide @
2.5%.

 Multiple dose poison (CHRONIC POISON): These chemicals are effective only
after the multiple feeding of poison baits by rats, because their cumulative effects
lead the death of animals. Ex. Warfarin, ratanfin, rodafrin, Vacor (RH-782),
silmurin and bromadiolone etc.
 RODENTICIDES ANTICOAGULANTS
First generation: Warfarin, Chlorophacinone, Diphacinone, Coumatetralyl,
Counachlor, Coumafury1
 RODENTICIDES NON-ANTICOAGULANTS
Zinc Phosphide (1:39), Bromethalin e.g., Assault, Vengeance, Cholecalciferal
e.g., Quintox (not re-registered).
 Poison bait- 1:39 (975 g of best quality grain + 25 gram Zinc phosphide)
 The common rats found are Rattus rattus, Rattus, neltada, Rattus norvegicus, Mus
musculus, Mus booduga, Bandicota indica & Bandicota bengalensis.
 Zinc phosphide and Barium carbonate are registered Acute rodenticides (Single does
and quick acting)
 Warfarin & Bromadiolone are chronic or multi does anticoagulants.
 Furadantine & colchicines are used as rat chemosterilants @ 0.02g and 0.14g
respectively to make femals and male rats sterile.
 The droppings are spindle shaped in roof rat.
 Rodenticides of botanical origin are Red squill and Strychnine.
 For effective management of rat menace, surveillance should be carried out at the
first phase in order to know the species present and create public awareness on
avoidable losses as well as contagious diseases caused by the infected rats.
 In the field, look for live burrows, runways (greasy, sticky, darkened tracks) in and
around domestic areas, besides foot-prints, trail marks and body rubs. If infestation is
heavy, one may come across rats movement and chopped plant heads as if cut by
sickles.
 Rodent proofing using plastic walls around crop/metallic/cement sheets for storage
facilities.
 Trapping through multi-capture rat traps bamboo shelters.
 Repellent like ―Pestgo‖ a sticky gel or supersonic sound based electronic devices.
 Elimination of harbourages and proper disposal of waste crop residues.
 Poison baiting with zinc phosphide (2% in preferred food stuff with a smear of fat.
 The bait is prepared by mixing 1 part of zinc phosphide with 40 parts of whole or
cracked grains of wheat, gram, and bajra with vegetable oil.
 Poison baiting with zinc phosphide should not be repeated within 2 – 3 months. The
residual population should be controlled by the fumigation of burrows or by baiting
with warfarin.
 Fumigation of burrows with aluminium phosphide (3 – 6 per burrow) or poison free
baits for 3 – 9 days followed with anticoagulant like bromadiolone, under expert
supervision.
 The aim should be to kill more than 90% of the population, otherwise they breed so
fast that population reaches the same level within few months.
RODENTICIDE CLASSIFICATION
Single dose or acute They kill the rat by a single exposure to the poison. Ex: Zinc
dose poison: phosphide, strychnine alkaloids, barium carbonate etc.
These toxic poisons create bait shyness in rodents and therefore
pre-baiting is done. Zinc phosphide inactivates the heart and

also damages the alimentary canal and kidney. This leads to
nausea, vomiting, pulmonary edema, and eventual death.
Multiple dose They affect mainly by causing internal haemorrhage by by
anticoagulants: affecting clotting as anticoagulants (resulting in inability to
produce essential blood-clotting factors) are antagonistic to Vit.
K. These symtoms gradually appear and so, rats are not able to
perceive poisoning.
Ex: Warfarin, difenacoum
Single dose They are also called as second generation anticoagulants. They
anticoagulants: cause death in rats by the same way as in multiple does
anticoagulants, but in a single dose. Ex. Bromadiolone. It is
vitamin K antagonist. The main site of its action is the liver.
Chemosterilants The chemicals is given orally or injected into the body of
rodents. Ex. TEPA, MeTAPA
Fumigants: They are effective where it is not possible to control rats either
by poison bait or trapping. They are mostly used to control the
field rodents. Cyano gas and phosphine gas fumigation are
commonly used. Ex. Aluminium phosphide, ethylene
dibromide, calcium cyanide.
SNAILS & SLUGS
 Snails and slugs are part of the class of creatures called Gastropods.
 Gastropod comes from the Greek words gastros (stomach) and podos (foot).
 In India 9 species of snails and 12 species of slugs have been reported as the pest of
ornamental plants, vegetables, fruits and field crops.
 Snails and slugs are hermaphrodites.
 The phytophagous species, the giant African snail, Achatina fulica Ferusac – serious
pest of fruits, vegetable and ornamental plants in the costal areas.
 The black slug Filicauli salte Ferusac, the common garden snail Laevicauli salte Ferusac
– ornamental plants.
 Another slug Limax spp. occurs all over the India.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SNAILS & SLUGS

CHARACTERS SNAILS SLUGS
HABITAT Snails are found in all soil types Are pests in high rainfall areas
EXAMPLES Small pointed or small conical Black keeled slug: Milax gagates
snail: Cochlicella harbara. Reticulated slug: Deroceras
White Italian snail: Theba pisana reticulatum
Vineyard or common white snail:
Cernuella virgate
PRESENCE OR Snails have a well-developed shell Slugs have only a rudimentary
ABSENCE OF shell often enclosed in a visceral
SHELL hump.
SLIME TYPE Snails secrete light yellow slime Slugs secrete colourless slime
which becomes silvery after drying
MANAGEMENT
1. CULTURAL CONTROL
 Abundant ground cover and vegetation growth provide ideal moisture levels, shelter
and harbourage where snails and slugs thrive.
 A short fallow period can be effective in controlling snails and slugs.

 A protective border can be used to prevent the movement to crops, Lines of sawdust,
ash, lime, and copper sulphate are effective barriers but efficacy is often reduced on
wetting.
 Keep area under crops free weeds, creating a belt of clear land around garden or
farm and use barrier strip of dehydrating chemical like common salt, quick lime or
copper sulfate.
2. MECHANICAL CONTRL
 Smooth copper or zinc sheets (0.8 mm thick) can be used as mechanical barriers.
3. CHEMICAL CONTROL
 Poison bait consisting of 10 per cent of carbaryl 50 WDP in wheat bran having 6 per
cent mango flavour can be used to attract and kill the pests. Offer 2.0 g of this bait on
paper pieces to pests at 2 m distance in the evening. Collect the dead aniamls for the
next 2 – 3 morning and bury them in soil.
 Spray copper sulphate 3 per cent @ 12 kg dissolved in 400 litres of water per ha.
 Dust 15 per cent metaldehyde @ 50 kg per ha or pray 50 per cent metaldehyde
power @ 10 kg per ha in 500 litres of water per ha or spinkle 5 per cent
mentaldehyde pellets around infested fields.
 Superphosphate fertilisers applied in rings around the trunk of the trees may stop
snails from reaching the trunk.
4. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
 Use of predatory snail Eugladina rosea. It is a fast and voracious predator, hunting
and eating other snails and slugs. The smaller species of prey are ingested whole.
So named as ‗cannibal snail‘.
 Some predatory beetles and lizards feed on them, but birds and rats are the most
effective among birds Ducks, chickens or Guinea fowl can provide effective controls.

TOXIC CONTAMINANTS IN FOOD, THEIR EFFECTS & PREVENTION
TOXINS IN FOOD
Key facts:
 Some natural toxins can be formed in food as defense mechanisms of plants, through
their infestation with toxin-producing mould, or through ingestion by animals of toxin-
producing microorganisms.
 Natural toxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health
threat to both humans and livestock. Some of these toxins are extremely potent.
 Adverse health effects can be acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions to severe
stomachache and diarrhoea, and even death.
 Long-term health consequences include effects on the immune, reproductive or nervous
systems, and also cancer.
 A scientific expert committee jointly convened by WHO and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) – called JECFA – is the international body
responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins in food.
 International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to natural toxins from
certain foods are established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission based on JECFA
assessments.
What are natural toxins?
Natural toxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by living organisms. These
toxins are not harmful to the organisms themselves but they may be toxic to other creatures,
including humans, when eaten. These chemical compounds have diverse structures and
differ in biological function and toxicity.
Some toxins are produced by plants as a natural defense mechanism against predators,
insects or microorganisms, or as consequence of infestation with microorganisms, such as
mould, in response to climate stress (such as drought or extreme humidity).
Other sources of natural toxins are microscopic algae and plankton in oceans or sometimes
in lakes that produce chemical compounds that are toxic to humans but not to fish or
shellfish that eat these toxin-producing organisms. When people eat fish or shellfish that
contain these toxins, illness can rapidly follow.
Some of the most commonly found natural toxins that can pose a risk to our health are
described below.
Aquatic biotoxins
Toxins formed by algae in the ocean and fresh water are called algal toxins. Algal toxins are
generated during blooms of particular naturally occurring algal species. Shellfish such as
mussels, scallops and oysters are more likely to contain these toxins than fish. Algal toxins
can cause diarrhea, vomiting, tingling, paralysis and other effects in humans, other
mammals or fish. The algal toxins can be retained in shellfish and fish or contaminate
drinking water. They have no taste or smell, and are not eliminated by cooking or freezing.

Another example is ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) which is caused by consuming fish
contaminated with dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins. Some fish known to harbour
ciguatoxins include barracuda, black grouper, dog snapper, and king mackerel. Symptoms of
ciguatera poisoning include nausea, vomiting, and neurologic symptoms, such as tingling
sensation on fingers and toes. There is currently no specific treatment for ciguatera
poisoning.
Cyanogenic glycosides
Cyanogenic glycosides are phytotoxins (toxic chemicals produced by plants) which occur in
at least 2000 plant species, of which a number of species are used as food in some areas of
the world. Cassava, sorghum, stone fruits, bamboo roots and almonds are especially
important foods containing cyanogenic glycosides. The potential toxicity of a cyanogenic
plant depends primarily on the potential that its consumption will produce a concentration of
cyanide that is toxic to exposed humans. In humans, the clinical signs of acute cyanide
intoxication can include: rapid respiration, drop in blood pressure, dizziness, headache,
stomach pains, vomiting, diarrhoea, mental confusion, cyanosis with twitching and
convulsions followed by terminal coma. Death due to cyanide poisoning can occur when the
cyanide level exceeds the limit an individual is able to detoxify.
Furocoumarins
These toxins are present in many plants such as parsnips (closely related to carrots and
parsley), celery roots, citrus plants (lemon, lime, grapefruit, bergamot) and some medicinal
plants. Furocoumarins are stress toxins and are released in response to stress, such as
physical damage to the plant. Some of these toxins can cause gastrointestinal problems in
susceptible people. Furocoumarins are phototoxic, they can cause severe skin reactions
under sunlight (UVA exposure). While mainly occurring after dermal exposure, such
reactions have also been reported after consumption of large quantities of certain vegetables
containing high levels of furocoumarins.
Lectins
Many types of beans contain toxins called lectins, and kidney beans have the highest
concentrations – especially red kidney beans. As few as 4 or 5 raw beans can cause severe
stomachache, vomiting and diarrhoea. Lectins are destroyed when the dried beans are
soaked for at least 12 hours and then boiled vigorously for at least 10 minutes in water.
Tinned kidney beans have already had this process applied and so can be used without
further treatment.
Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by certain types of moulds.
Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried
fruits, nuts and spices. Mould growth can occur before harvest or after harvest, during
storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid conditions.
Most mycotoxins are chemically stable and survive food processing. The effects of food-
borne mycotoxins can be acute with symptoms of severe illness and even death appearing
quickly after consumption of highly contaminated food products. Long term effects on health
of chronic mycotoxin exposure include the induction of cancers and immune deficiency.

Key facts:
 Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain moulds (fungi) and can be
found in food.
 The moulds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including cereals, nuts,
spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid conditions.
 Mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health
threat to both humans and livestock.
 The adverse health effects of mycotoxins range from acute poisoning to long-term
effects such as immune deficiency and cancer.
responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins including mycotoxins.
 International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to mycotoxins from
assessments.
Mycotoxins commonly found in food and why they are of concern

The effects of some food-borne mycotoxins are acute with symptoms of severe illness
appearing quickly after consumption of food products contaminated with mycotoxins. Other
mycotoxins occurring in food have been linked to long-term effects on health, including the
induction of cancers and immune deficiency. Of the several hundred mycotoxins identified so
far, about a dozen have gained the most attention due to their severe effects on human
health and their occurrences in food.
Aflatoxins are amongst the most poisonous mycotoxins and are produced by certain moulds
(Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus) which grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay,
and grains. Crops that are frequently affected by Aspergillus spp. include cereals (corn,
sorghum, wheat and rice), oilseeds (soybean, peanut, sunflower and cotton seeds), spices
(chili peppers, black pepper, coriander, turmeric and ginger) and tree nuts (pistachio,
almond, walnut, coconut and Brazil nut). The toxins can also be found in the milk of animals
that are fed contaminated feed, in the form of aflatoxin M1. Large doses of aflatoxins can
lead to acute poisoning (aflatoxicosis) and can be life threatening, usually through damage
to the liver. Aflatoxins have also been shown to be genotoxic, meaning they can damage
DNA and cause cancer in animal species. There is also evidence that they can cause liver
cancer in humans.
Ochratoxin A is produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium and is a common

food-contaminating mycotoxin. Contamination of food commodities, such as cereals and
cereal products, coffee beans, dry vine fruits, wine and grape juice, spices and liquorice,
occurs worldwide. Ochratoxin A is formed during the storage of crops and is known to cause
a number of toxic effects in animal species. The most sensitive and notable effect is kidney
damage, but the toxin may also have effects on fetal development and on the immune
system. Contrary to the clear evidence of kidney toxicity and kidney cancer due to ochratoxin
A exposure in animals, this association in humans is unclear, however effects on kidney
have been demonstrated.
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of moulds, particularly Aspergillus, Penicillium

and Byssochlamys. Often found in rotting apples and apple products, patulin can also occur

in various mouldy fruits, grains and other foods. Major human dietary sources of patulin are
apples and apple juice made from affected fruit. The acute symptoms in animals include
liver, spleen and kidney damage and toxicity to the immune system. For humans, nausea,
gastrointestinal disturbances and vomiting have been reported. Patulin is considered to be
genotoxic however a carcinogenic potential has not been demonstrated yet.
Fusarium fungi are common to the soil and produce a range of different toxins, including
trichothecenes such as deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV) and T-2 and HT-2 toxins, as
well as zearalenone (ZEN) and fumonisins. The formation of the moulds and toxins occur on
a variety of different cereal crops. Different fusarium toxins are associated with certain types
of cereal. For example, both DON and ZEN are often associated with wheat, T-2 and HT-2
toxins with oats, and fumonisins with maize (corn). Trichothecenes can be acutely toxic to
humans, causing rapid irritation to the skin or intestinal mucosa and lead to diarrhoea.
Reported chronic effects in animals include suppression of the immune system. ZEN has
been shown to have hormonal, estrogenic effects and can cause infertility at high intake
levels, particularly in pigs. Fumonisins have been related to oesophageal cancer in humans,
and to liver and kidney toxicity in animals.
Solanines and chaconine
All solanacea plants, which include tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants, contain natural
toxins called solanines and chaconine (which are glycoalkaloids). While levels are generally
low, higher concentrations are found in potato sprouts and bitter-tasting peel and green
parts, as well as in green tomatoes. The plants produce the toxins in response to stresses
like bruising, UV light, microorganisms and attacks from insect pests and herbivores. To
reduce the production of solanines and chaconine it is important to store potatoes in a dark,
cool and dry place, and not to eat green or sprouting parts.
Poisonous mushrooms
Wild mushrooms may contain several toxins, such as muscimol and muscarine, which can
cause vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, visual disturbances, salivation, and hallucinations.
Onset of symptoms occurs 6–24 hours or more after ingestion of mushrooms. Fatal
poisoning is usually associated with delayed onset of symptoms which are very severe, with
toxic effect on the liver, kidney and nervous systems. Cooking or peeling does not inactivate
the toxins. It is recommended to avoid any wild mushrooms, unless definitively identified as
non-poisonous.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PAs) are toxins produced by an estimated 600 plant species. The
main plant sources are the families Boraginaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae. Many of these
are weeds that can grow in fields and contaminate food crops. PAs can cause a variety of
adverse health effects; they can be acutely toxic and of main concern is the DNA-damaging
potential of certain PAs, potentially leading to cancer.
PAs are stable during processing, and have been detected in herbal teas, honey, herbs and
spices and other food products, such as cereals and cereal products. Human exposure is
estimated to be low, however. Due to the complexity of the subject and the large number of
related compounds, the overall health risk has not been fully evaluated yet. Guidance is
under development by the FAO/WHO Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food on
management strategies to prevent PA-containing plants from entering the food chain.

How can I minimize the health risk from natural toxins?
When it comes to natural toxins it is important to note that they can be present in a variety of
different crops and foodstuff. In a usual balanced, healthy diet, the levels of natural toxins
are well below the threshold for acute and chronic toxicity.
To minimize the health risk from natural toxins in food, people are advised to:
 not assume that if something is 'natural' it is automatically safe;
 throw away bruised, damaged or discoloured food, and in particular mouldy foods;
 throw away any food that does not smell or taste fresh, or has an unusual taste; and
 only eat mushrooms or other wild plants that have definitively been identified as
nonpoisonous.

PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN FOOD
The term pesticide covers a broad variety of compounds including insecticides, fungicides,
herbicides, rodenticides, molluscicides, nematicides, plant growth regulators and others.
Depending on the chemical structure pesticides can be classified as organochlorines
(endosulfan, hexachlorobenzene), organophosphates (diazinon, omethoate, glyphosate),
carbamic and thiocarbamic derivatives, carboxylic acids and their derivatives, urea
derivatives, heterocyclic compounds (benzimidazole and triazole derivatives), phenol and
nitro phenol derivatives, hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes and their derivatives, fluorine
containing compounds, copper-containing compounds, metal organic and inorganic
compounds, and natural and synthetic pyrethroids. Ever since the origin of civilization, it has
been the major task of man to engage in a continuous endeavor to improve his living
conditions. One of the main tasks in which human beings have been engaged is securing
relief from hunger. Secondly, the control of insects, weeds, fungi and other pests of
economic or public health is of utmost importance to our government. Pesticides have
consistently revealed their worth through increased agriculture productivity, reduced insect-
borne, endemic diseases and protection as well as restoration of plantations, forests,
harvested wood products, homes and fiber.
Currently, pesticides are very valuable in developing nations, particularly those in tropical are
as looking for an entry in the global economy by providing off-season fresh vegetables and
fruits to nations in more temperate weathers. However, these goals cannot be achieved
without the increased use of pesticides, mainly insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Ideal
pesticides must act selectively against certain pest organisms without adverse effects to
non-target organisms. However, it is difficult to achieve absolute selectivity and most
pesticides are also toxic to humans and other non-target organisms.
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental worries, including human and animal health
hazards. Food products contaminated with toxic pesticides are associated with severe
effects on the human health. More than 95% of sprayed insecticides and herbicides reach a
destination other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil.
Pesticide contamination of both surface and ground waters can affect aquatic animals and
plants, as well as human health when water is used for public consumption.
The increased use of chemical pesticides has resulted in contamination of the environment
and also caused many associated long-term effects on human health. Pesticides have been
associated with a wide spectrum of human health hazards, ranging from short-term impacts
such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer, reproductive harm and
endocrine disruption. Pesticide residues in food and crops are a direct result of the
application of pesticides to crops growing in the field, and to a lesser extent from pesticide
residues remaining in the soil. The present work has been planned to review various aspects
of pesticide residues including accumulation of pesticide residues in food grains and various
hazards to human health due to pesticide residues as well as preventive measures for the
minimization of the impact of pesticide residues on human health.
Pesticide residues in food grains, vegetables, and fruits

Pesticide residue refers to the pesticides or metabolic products of the pesticides that may
remain in food grains, vegetables and fruits after they are applied to crops. Many of these
chemical residues, especially derivatives of chlorinated pesticides, exhibit bioaccumulation
which could build up to harmful levels in the body as well as in the environment. Persistent
chemicals can be magnified through the food chain and have been detected in products
ranging from meat, poultry, and fish, to vegetable oils, nuts, and various fruits and
vegetables. Insects and pests can cause a loss in the quality and quantity of grains and their
products. The application of pesticide is widely used for grains before harvest and after
harvest to protect the grains from damage or loss. Cultivation and storage of grains often
require an intensive use of pesticides, which may then be found in grains and in foods
prepared from them. Cereal grains are treated with degradable pesticides, including

organophosphates, carbamate, synthetic pyrethroids and insect growth regulators, both in
storages and prior to shipment in order to prevent insect infestation.
The most consumed pesticides for vegetables, fruits and food grains in India include sulphur,
endosulfan, mancozeb, phorate, methyl parathion, monocrotophos, cypermethrin, is
oproturon, chlorpyrifos, malathion, carbendazim, butachlor, quinalphos, copper oxychloride,
and dichlorvos. Maximum residue level is the highest level of a pesticide residue that is
legally tolerated in or on food or feed when pesticides are applied correctly. International
parties such as the European Union, Codex Alimentarius Commission, and North American
Free Trade Agreement have attempted to harmonize pesticide legislation by providing
maximum residue limits, but globally these limits remain variable. In India, Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India sets the maximum residue limits for pesticides in crops, foods,
vegetables and fruits. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization
have recommended residue limits for bioresmethrin, bromophos, Carbaryl, chlorpyrifos-
methyl, deltamethrin, dichlorvos, etrimfos, fenitrothion, fenvalerate, malathion, methacrifos,
permethrin, phenothrin, pirimiphosmethyl and pyrethins used for the protection of grains.
The study in Poland revealed that out of 380 samples of the cereal grains, 34% were found
to contain pesticide residues. According to their investigation out of the analyzed cereals, the
smallest amount of plant protection products residues was in mixed cereal grains (below
10%) and Avena grains (below 15%) whereasHordeum and Triticum grains contained the
highest content of pesticide residues (over 50%). A study in Nigeria on organochlorine
pesticide residues in cereal grains showed the presence of aldrin, dichloran, dieldrin, endrin,
endosulfan, heptachlor epoxide, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane lindane, methoxychlor, and
mirex. A study in Pakistan on pesticide residue of cereals showed that wheat contained the
highest concentration of tested pesticides than maize and rice and maize contained a much
higher concentration of pesticides than rice. The accumulation of pesticide residues depends
on the physiochemical properties of the pesticide molecules as well as food.
The use of pesticides during production often leads to the presence of pesticide residues in
fruits and vegetables after harvest. Most farmers and commercial producer streat vegetables
and fruit with pesticides on several occasions during growing because pesticides decrease
toxins produced by food infecting organisms, increase productivity and are less labor
intensive. According to a study, the cucumber was the crop with the highest number of
pesticide residues with the predominant presence of methomyl, metalaxyl, and imidacloprid.
Methomyl is a carbamate insecticide with restricted use because of its high toxicity to
humans. The other pesticide residues found in cucumber samples were boscalid,
chlorpyrifos, cyprodinil, fenhexamid, imidacloprid, metalaxyl and tebuconazole. Many
commodities contained more than one residue per product, up to 9 residues in grapes and
tea were determined, up to 5 - 9 residues in citrus fruits like orange, mandarins, lemons,
peaches, pears and up 3 - 5 residues in pomegranates, plums, cucumbers, tomatoes,
strawberries. The most frequently detected pesticide residues were imazalil, thiabendazole,
chlorpyrifos, maneb group, procymidone, methidathion, lambda-cyhalothrin, carbendazim,
iprodione, orthophenylphenol, vinclozolin, endosulfan, pyrimethanil, fenhexamid, prochloraz,
cyprodinil, boscalid. Apples, papayas, sweet peppers and strawberries were among products
with the highest percentage of samples with residues above the maximum residue limit
found in the Brazilian pesticide residues monitoring program. High level of pesticide residues
in pears, grapes, citrus fruit, peppers, cucumbers, tomatoes, carrots were obtained in
Lithuania.
A study in Belgium revealed that pesticide residues were detected in 72% of the samples
and standards were exceeded for 6% of the samples. High level of pesticide residues was
determined in imported blackberries, strawberries and other berries as well as mangoes,
papaya, pepinos, bitter melon, peas, beans, eggplant, spinach and other vegetables. The
commodities with the highest level of pesticide residues found in China were cabbage,
legumes and leaf mustard.

The insecticide residues reported in market samples of grapes were acephate,
methamidophos, chlorpyriphos, monocrotophos and quinalphos. The residues of lambda-
cyhalothrin in acid lime were persisted for 20 days and in juice samples maximum residues
were observed for 10 days. A study on analysis of pesticide residue concentration in
vegetables revealed that the risk to consumers varies with the season and it was reported
that the winter season has the highest pesticide concentration in vegetables. A study on the
levels of pesticides in soft drinks available in the market indicates pesticide residues 24
times higher than Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) norms.
The levels of pesticide residue lindane exceeded the BIS standards by 140 times in some
samples. Heptachlor, which banned in India, was found in 71 per cent of the samples, at
levels four times higher than BIS standards. Chlorpyrifos was found 200 times more than the
BIS standard in a sample manufactured in Thane. The average amount of pesticide residues
found in all the samples was 24 times higher than the BIS standards for total pesticides in
soft drinks. Organochlorine pesticides, mainly isomers of hexachlorohexane, dichloro-
diphenyl-trichloroethane, endosulphan, endrin, aldrin, dieldrin, and heptachlore, were
identified from potable water samples collected from all over India.
Toxic effects of pesticide residues on human health

Many pesticides achieve their intended use of killing pests by disrupting the nervous system.
Due to similarities in brain biochemistry among many different organisms, there is much
assumption that these chemicals can have a negative impact on humans as well. There are
epidemiological studies that show positive correlations between exposures to pesticides
through occupational hazard, which tends to be significantly higher than that ingested by the
general population through food, and the occurrence of certain cancers. Although most of
the general population may not expose to a large portion of pesticides, many of the pesticide
residues that are attached tend to be lipophilic and can bio-accumulate in the body. Toxic
effects of pesticides depend upon their toxicological properties, the level of residues and
degree of exposure of human beings to residues.
The presence of pesticide residues in grains does not necessarily mean that it is hazardous.
To be toxic, the residues have to be present in quantities large enough to be considered
unsafe. The organophosphate, organochlorine and related pesticides act by binding to the
enzyme acetylcholinesterase, disrupting nerve function, resulting in paralysis and may cause
death. They may produce acute effects manifesting as meiosis, urination, diarrhea,
diaphoresis, lacrimation, excitation of central nervous system and salivation. The chronic
exposure in volvesneurotic and behavioral effects. Specific effects of pesticides can include
damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, cancer, allergies and
hypersensitivities, reproductive disorders and disruption of the immune system.
Neuronal damage due to cholinergic neuronal excitotoxicity and dysfunction

Following exposure to organophosphates, accumulation of acetylcholine at synapses results
in rapid and profound excitotoxicity and dysfunction of cholinergic neurons in the brain.
Overstimulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors may also disrupt the balance of
excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms to cause neuronal excitotoxic lesions leading to
seizures and respiratory depression. Seizures may result from over release of glutamate
from glutamatergic neurons, triggering excessive calcium release in post-synaptic neuronal
cells. Seizures caused by cholinergic neuronal excitotoxic lesion in the brain may play a
synergistic role in development of irreversible brain damage and long-term neurological and
behavioural disorders. Therapeutic intervention to control the convulsions is unable to halt
progressive neural injury and neuronal cell death caused by organophosphate poisoning.
Secondary neuronal damage is an indirect consequence of the initial lesion and a major
contributor to the ultimate neuronal cell death and neural loss in the injured brain leading to
serious neuropsychiatric impairments, including memory loss, inability to concentrate,
speech problems, motor and sensory deficits, and behavioural problems. In the first few
hours after organophosphate poisoning, as the result of the cholinergic neuronal
excitotoxicity, extensive intracellular edema, cerebral hemorrhages, intracellular calcium

overload, oxidative stress and increased neuro inflammatory responses were generally
observed in the affected brain regions.
The altered calcium influx activates lipases, proteases, kinases, phosphatases, and
endonucleases in potentially harmful metabolic cascades, thus arresting protein synthesis
and depriving cells of enzymes or trophic factors essential to their survival. Many studies
have demonstrated that obvious neuronal cell death, neural loss, and axonal degeneration
were observed in different species of animals exposed to organophosphates.
Long-term neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders

Exposure to organophosphates involve damage to cholinergic neurons of basal forebrain
and the limbic system, which may cause memory, cognitive, mental, emotional, motor and
sensory deficits by disrupting this putative sensory-limbic gating mechanism. In 1991, US
soldiers were exposed to sarin and cyclosarin when two large chemical ammunition caches
were destroyed at Khamisiyah, Iraq during the Gulf War.
The Gulf War-deployed veterans exposed to sarin and cyclosarin were reported to be
suffering from neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. In 1995, a Japanese cult and
terrorist organization carried out the sarin gas attack at multiple locations in the Tokyo
subway. Of the 5500 victims who sought emergency medical care, approximately 1000 were
moderately poisoned, 50 were severely poisoned, 47 were certified as disabled, and 12 died
due to respiratory failure. Many victims could recover from acute cholinergic symptoms of
sarin poisoning within a couple of weeks, but mental sequelae lasted for years. These
chronic neuropsychiatric consequences are serious public health problems caused by
accidental and suicidal organophosphate poisonings and chemical terrorist attacks, which
result in the losses of many years of productive life and incur large healthcare costs.
Persistent memory and cognitive deficits

Memory and cognitive deficits are one of the most common and persistent behavioral
sequelae in victims exposed to organophosphates. Exposure to organophosphatessarin and
cyclosarin at Khamisiyah resulted in long-term cognitive and memory impairments in the Gulf
War-deployed veterans in 1991. Chronic memory and cognitive impairments were also
observed in the victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack. 7 years after the Tokyo subway
sarin attack, a chronic decline of memory function still existed in 23 subway workers
exposed to sarin. The exposed subway workers performed less well in the memory function
tests, and their digit number of the backward digit span test was significantly smaller. Loss of
cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain with aging results in a decline in cognitive
capacity.
Psychomotor performance deficits and somatic complaints:

Clinical study has demonstrated that the Gulf War-deployed veterans exposed to sarin and
cyclosarin at Khamisiyah suffered impaired fine psychomotor dexterity, reduced visuospatial
abilities and deficits in motor function and coordination. After the Tokyo subway sarin attack,
a chronic decline of psychomotor function existed in 23 subway workers exposed to sarin for
7 years. The high-exposure subway workers had a significantly slower performance of the
finger tapping tests of both the dominant and non-dominant hands than control group. In
another clinical study, most of the victims of the Tokyo subway sarin attack were found to
have long-lasting somatic complaints (such as gastrointestinal problems, constipation,
heartburn, nausea, vomiting, colitis, migraines, headaches, backaches, and skin disorders)
at 5 - 6 years after poisoning. The long lasting somatic complaints and decreased
psychomotor function of the victims exposed to organophosphates may be associated with
neuronal damage in the cortex and thalamus.
Oxidative stress
In sub chronic or chronic organophosphate exposition induction of oxidative stress has been
reported as the main mechanism of organophosphate toxicity. Oxidative stress is induced in
both acute and chronic intoxication with organophosphate compounds in humans and

experimental animals. Hyperglycaemia is one of the mechanism of oxidative stress in
organophosphate intoxication. Studies on chronic exposure to carbamate insecticides and
case reports of long-term exposure give equivocal results. An extensive survey of the
toxicology of the common insecticide, carbaryl, reports a variety of reversible
neurobehavioral and neurotoxic effects in vertebrates, all associated with acute poisoning
symptoms. The carbamate, carbofuran, has been observed to accentuate oxidative stress in
rat brain by inducing lipid peroxidation and diminishing the antioxidant defense.
Development of cancer
The studies on cancer analyze the risks associated with the consumption of specific
products which have some pesticide residues. These consumption products include fish,
water, seafood, and milk or other dairy products. In general, these studies find a small but
statistically significant association between cancer risks and some specific pesticide
residues, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.
Specifically polychlorinated biphenyls present a higher risk for consumers. Organochlorine
pesticide residue levels were reported significantly higher in the cancer patients.
Reproductive disorders
Results indicated that increase of insecticides in blood level in vertebrates causes
reproductive dysfunction and suggested that for human beings food like fish, chick and goat
containing beyond permissible limit of insecticides must be avoided. Consumption of high
pesticide residue fruits and vegetables was associated with lower total sperm count,
ejaculate volume and percentage of morphologically normal sperm among men attending a
fertility clinic. Pesticides exposure may lead to reduced fertility, early and late pregnancy
loss, prolonged time-to-pregnancy, spontaneous abortion, and premature birth in female and
genetic alterations in sperm, rereduced sperm count, damage to germinal epithelium and
altered hormone function in male.
Preventive measures to reduce pesticide residues in food grains, vegetables, and

fruits:
Different types of pesticides are used in different countries for different types of crops to
prevent pests, insects, and weeds. Because of the expansion of worldwide trade, more
foods which are treated by pesticide are being imported into different countries. These
worldwide trades increase the expansion of pesticide residues in different areas of the world
and it‘s the issue of public health concern. There are a number of strategies which can be
used to minimize pest and disease problems and reduce pesticide residues in food grains,
vegetables and fruits.
Organic farming
One of the methods used to reduce the effect of pesticide residue in food is to eat organic
foods than non-organic ones. According to standard meta-analyses the frequency of
occurrence of detectable pesticide residues was four times higher in non-organic crops than
organic crops. There is evidence that indicated organic food consumption can reduce
exposure to pesticide residues in food. Organic crops, on average, have higher
concentrations of antioxidants and a lower incidence of pesticide residues than the non-
organic foods across regions and production seasons. It is advisable to consume foods rich
in antioxidant to reduce effects of the chronic disease by suppressing oxidative activity. An
increased dietary intake of antioxidant rich foods protect against chronic diseases, including
cardio vascular diseases, certain cancers (e.g. prostate cancer) and neurodegenerative
diseases.
Washing food products

The second methods reported to reduce pesticide residue in food is washing. Washing may
reduce pesticide residue in food commodities. Washing with water and various chemical
solutions for domestic and commercial applications is necessary to decrease the pesticide
residues. The efficiency of the washing treatments on pesticide removal depends on the
washing solution, the chemical properties of the pesticide, the surface area, the nature of the

food, the length of time the pesticide is in contact with the food, and the formulation and
application method of the pesticide. Usually, the pesticide is lodged in the outer wax-like
layers and then moves to the inside, making washing and removal of the pesticides less
effective.
Processing food products

An important factor leading to a reduction of any residues left on crops at harvest are
processing treatments such as washing, peeling, canning or cooking that the majority of
foods receive prior to consumption. Pesticide residue levels in fruit and vegetables may
change due to processing, such as peeling, boiling, frying, fermentation, grinding. Cooking
also reduces pesticide residues in food; boiling may remove 35 - 60% of organophosphate
residues and 20 - 25% of organo chlorines. Husking and immersing of fruit and vegetables
are reported to reduce pesticide residues especially organophosphates.
Rational use of pesticides

Rational use of pesticides involves selection of correct pesticides, dosage rates, dilutions,
timing, and frequency of application, treatment intervals, and method of application,
precautions, and limitations. Rational use of pesticides can be useful to reduce pesticide
residues in food products. In many cases, there may not be any need of a pesticide,
particularly where cultural or biological methods are effective.
Use of natural pesticides and biopesticides

Bio-pesticides are biodegradable so no harmful residues are produced and are eco-friendly.
Bio-pesticides encompasses a broad array of microbial pesticides, biochemical‘s derived
from micro-organisms and other natural sources that confer protection against pest damage.
Some insect repellents can also be used for the prevention of pesticide residues
accumulation in the food grains, vegetables and fruits. Natural pesticides such as extracts
and compounds from neem tree are also very useful for the prevention of pesticide residues
accumulation in the food products.
Implementation and amendment of pesticide-related laws:

In India, the agriculture ministry regulates the manufacture, sale, transport, distribution,
export, import and use of pesticides under the Insecticides Act, 1968. Still awaiting
Parliamentary approval is the Pesticide Management Bill of 2008, which is meant to replace
the Insecticides Act, 1968. The pesticide-related laws should be implemented strictly and
amended so as to reduce the cases of pesticide residues in food grains.

PESTICIDE CONTAMINANTS
Food contamination refers to foods that are spoiled or tainted because they either contain
microorganisms, such as bacteria or parasites, or toxic substances that make them unfit for
consumption. Contamination may occur through environmental pollution, as in the case of
toxic metals, PCBs and dioxins, or through the intentional use of chemicals, such as
pesticides, animal drugs and other agrochemicals. Food additives and contaminants
resulting from food manufacturing and processing can also adversely affect health.
Mycotoxins produced by filamentous microfungi that can cause many diseases in vertebrate
animals via ingestion, absorbtion (through the skin) and inhalation routes. Mycotoxins have
been found in a variety of food commodities due to the mycotoxin producer fungus are able
to grow on a vast range of foods. The most pronounced contamination has been initiated
from the agricultural fields during several harvesting stages including preharvest, harvest,
and postharvest. Mycotoxin contaminations finally continue to the consumer table. Poor
management in all stages not only can lead to rapid deterioration in nutritional value but also
provides proper condition for fungal growth and also mycotoxin production. The most
efficient way to control food contaminants is the implementation of Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMPs) and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) that will help
prevent hazards in life. New approaches are based on identification of critical control point in
production/processing of food that obtain optimum condition for mycotoxin production. To
minimize and control mycotoxins in food chain all environmental and climate factors must be
assessed.
1. Biological contamination:
Biological contamination generally realizes as contamination of food or environment with
microorganisms and their derivatives such as toxins. In this regard, bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and parasites are potential contaminants. They are found in food, walls, water, air, clothes,
etc. The biological contamination also can occur via macroscopic organisms including
rodents and insects. The biological contaminants cause human diseases via three
mechanisms including infection, intoxication and immunologic responses.
Bacteria
Bacteria are small microorganisms that can grow in an ideal condition. They split and
multiply so quickly. Harmful bacteria, called pathogen, are recognized as hazards in safety of
food. Therefore the spread and incidence of them must be controlled in food. The common
sources for bacterial growth and further distribution are the air, human body, dust, pets and
pests, row food (meat, milk, vegetable, etc.), soil, kitchen/factory instruments, food handlers
and cloths/hands. The extrinsic factors that provide optimum conditions for bacteria to
survive include food (especially protein), water (water activity), oxygen, temperature, and pH
level. The control of these factors can result in well preservation of food.
Major bacteria Risk contamination
Clostridium botulinum Intoxication, even death
Listeria monocytogenes Infection

Salmonella spp. (typhimurium, enteriditis) Infection
Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli Infection
Campylobacter jejuni Infection

Yersinia enterocolitica Infection
Listeria monocytogenes Infection
Bacillus anthracis Infection
Bacillus cereus Intoxication
Staphylococcus aureus Intoxication
Clostridium perfringens Infection
Vibrio spp. (vulnificus, parahaemolyticus) Infection
Brucella abortus, B. suis Infection
Shigella spp. (dysenteriae) Infection
Viruses
Viruses are very tiny organisms that can grow and survive only in a host cell. They are able
to enter food and water due to poor hygienic conditions. Viruses can also be found in people
who disrespect hygienic practices. Viruses can only multiply and grow inside a living cell.
They are very resistant to heat, drying, freezing, radiation, etc., and are also able to survive
for a long time in food or environment. Viruses can enter food during processing,
transportation through person to person contact. The awareness about the importance of
viruses as food contaminants would result in good hygiene practices done by consumers to
minimize the transmission of viral illnesses.
Major viruses Risk contamination
Hepatitis A Fever, abdominal discomfort

virus
Norwalk virus Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain (gastroenteritis), headache,

low-grade fever
Rotavirus Vomiting, watery diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain
Parasites
Parasite including worms and protozoa can enter food or water. They can also infect people
through these ways. They need ambient environment and proper hosts to survive.
Contamination of food occurs by fecal due to poor personal hygiene of food handler,
improper disposal of human feces, improper sewage treatment and utilization of untreated
sewage for crop culturing.
Major parasites Risk contamination
Giardia lamblia Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fatigue, nausea, flatulence (intestinal

gas), weightloss
Entamoeba Dysentery (severe, bloody diarrhea)
histolytica
Ascaris lumbricoides Intestinal, lung infection
Diphyllobothrium Attaches to intestinal wall
latum
Cryptosporidia Respiratory, gastrointestinal illness
Trichinella spiralis Intestinal wall, enter the blood (to feed on it) and lymphatic system
Toxoplasma gondii Neurological disorders, particularly schizophrenia, bipolar disorder
Taenia solium Attaches to intestinal wall

Anisakis spp. Anisakiasis
2. Chemical contamination:
Chemical contaminations of food are another human concern that involves numerous
substances such as: agrochemicals, veterinary medicines residues, pesticides residues,
environmental contaminants, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and natural toxins;
which happen in food during chemical reactions at processing such as acrylamide, furan,
and heterocyclic amines. Other processes leading to the formation of contaminants include
fermentation (e.g., ethyl carbamate, 3-monochloropropanediol) and disinfection (e.g.,
trihalomethanes). On the other hand, food contact materials are also kinds of chemical
sources (e.g., formaldehyde, melamine, phthalates, and primary aromatic amines) that are
able to leach into food. Some chemicals are naturally present in the environment, which
includes ubiquitous pollutants such as dioxins and heavy metals may be increased by
anthropogenic activity.
Some common sources of chemical contamination are: cleaning agents; unwashed fruits
and vegetables; food containers made from non-safe polymers; pest control products; and
chemicals used in equipment maintenance.
3. Physical contamination:
Physical contamination refers to food that is contaminated by a foreign object during
production process stages. Physical contaminants in food could come from external sources,
(such as metal fragments), or internal sources (such as bone particles and pits). They can
enter food accidentally during pre- and postharvesting due to poor agricultural practices and
also in manufacturing, storage, transportation, or retail. Some physical contaminants are
considered as food safety concerns such as glass. Sometimes a physical contaminated food
can also be biologically contaminated such as the presence of a fingernail.
Sources Contaminants
Field Rocks/stones/sand, asphalt, metals/bullets, concrete particles, bones,

wood fragments and thorns
Processing Glass, ceramic/chards, metal fragments, staples, blades, clips, needles,
keys, screws, magnet fragments, washers, bolts, screening, plastics,
grease/lubricants, rubber, insulation/seal materials, nail polish, jewelry,
coins, pieces of gloves, finger cots, bandages, cigarette butts, gum, bones,
pits, fruit stones, nut and animal shells, medications/tablets/capsules,
wood, pens, and pencils, rodents and insects
Storage and Metal, plastic, and wood fragments, insects and rodents
distribution
4. Cross contamination:
Cross-contamination occurs in food due to the contact of a contaminated substance coming
from another food via many different ways and various sources including: Dirty clothes,
Utensils, Coughing, sneezing or even touching the face and hair with food, Pests, Flies,
cockroaches, mice and rats, Contacting Raw food, Garbage and waste materials.

5. Mycotoxin contamination problem:
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are produced by molds. Mycotoxins belong to
biological contamination category. The majority of fungi can produce mycotoxins yet this
potential is species specification. Several adverse effects on humans, animals, and crops
originate from mycotoxins.
The contamination of food with mycotoxins is a worldwide concern. Incidence of mycotoxins

depends on temperature and humidity of a region that is prone to the fungal growth. The
exposure to mycotoxins could take place by ingestion and or dermal and inhalation ways
without involving the producer fungi. In fact these fungal toxins are a kind of abiotic hazard
originated from biotic ones. The disease caused by mycotoxins is mycotoxicoses also
resulted in different acute and chronic effects. Generally, the contaminants could enter the
food unintentionally by agricultural production, environment, storage, transportation, sale and
processing. Mycotoxins are natural contaminants contribute the food chain.
The mycotoxin may contaminate the food during several stages of food chain from the soil to
the plate. As a matter of fact mycotoxin contamination can occur in food by infection of crops
not only when directly consumed by human but also consumed as feed. However ingested
mycotoxin could result in its accumulation in body organs that enter food/feed through
agricultural products, meat, milk or eggs. Various foods such as cereals, nuts, spices, fruits
and also their products have a potent to be contaminated with mycotoxins at high content.
Mycotoxin name Producer microorganism
Aflatoxins A. flavus, A. parasiticus, Aspergillus bombycis, Aspergillus

ochraceoroseus, Aspergillus nomius, and Aspergillus pseudotamari
Ochratoxins Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus
(ochratoxin A) melleus, Aspergillus sclerotiorum, Aspergillus sulphureus, Pichia
verrucossum
Trichothecenes Fusarium spp.
Zearalenone Fusarium, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides
Fumonisins Fusarium proliferatum, Fusarium verticillioides
Tremorgenic toxins Penicillium
Ergot alkaloids Claviceps
Moniliformin Fusarium species (mainly F. proliferatum)
The foods could contaminate with fungal toxins from farm at post- and preharvest stages.
The implementation of Good Agriculture Practice and Good Manufacturing Practice are
efficient strategies in preventing of mycotoxin contamination. However, every negligence in
this field could provide proper condition for fungal growth and proliferation as well as
Aspergillus growth and aflatoxin production in nuts. Therefore, the condition of production,
processing, drying, handling, storage, transportation, and marketing must be controlled.
It should be considered that further mycotoxin increase is difficult if the food products are
preserved or stored under preventive conditions for fungal growth and mycotoxin production
especially regarding water activity and temperature. The awareness of all people either
producer or consumer about the ways of mycotoxin entering the food, the main stages of
food chain involving in mycotoxin contamination, the optimum condition for increase of
mycotoxin contamination risk and critical control tips in this field are necessary to the
prevention of mycotoxin contamination.

6. Metallic Contaminants:
Metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury can find their way into foods. At high levels,
these metals can be toxic, but eliminating them entirely from our food supply is not always
possible because they are found in the air, water and soil and are then absorbed by plants
as they grow.
There is a global health concern about metal contamination because of their toxicity even at
low concentrations. Heavy metals can contaminate food produced as a result of
anthropogenic activities such as mining, smelting, use of phosphate fertilizers, industry or
car exhausts, all of these result in their diffusion and accumulation in the food. The main
threat to human health from heavy metals is associated with exposure to lead, cadmium,
mercury and arsenic.
Metal contaminants of concern in human diet

Concerns regarding toxicity of metals exist primarily due to their bioaccumulation in the
tissues of the body as they are absorbed and stored faster than they are excreted. Secondly,
their presence in the body disrupts normal cellular processes, leading to toxicity in a number
of organs. Four heavy metals, namely lead, arsenic, cadmium and mercury, are of particular
concern in food. Ingestion of such metals from food and water is a major route of exposure
for the general population. In order to protect human health, it is necessary to control the
levels of these toxic metals in foodstuffs.
Exposure pathways of heavy metals

Human exposure to metals occurs through consumption of contaminated food stuffs, sea
foods, and drinking water, through inhalation of polluted air as dust fumes, or through
occupational exposure at the workplace. These metals can be absorbed through several
routes. The chain of contamination usually follows from industry, to the atmosphere, soil,
water, foods and then humans. Some heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury,
arsenic can enter the body through the gastrointestinal route that is, through the oral
ingestion after consuming food including fruits, vegetables, drinking water or other
beverages. Some metals can enter the body by inhalation while others such as lead can be
absorbed even through the skin.
Lead
Lead is a ubiquitous heavy metal with no physiological function. Exposure to lead occurs
mainly at occupational sites, where there is production of lead-acid batteries or pipes, metal
recycling industries and foundries. Therefore, it may get into soil or flow into water bodies
from where it is absorbed by plants, and so human exposure occurs either from food or
drinking water. The water supplies can also get contaminated because of lead pipes, and
where lead is used as a construction or welding material. Contamination of food can also
occur from food containers that are made of lead e.g. lead-soldered cans, ceramic vessels
with lead glazes and leaded crystal glasses.
Lead can get accumulated in fish and shellfish in addition to offal (liver and kidney) of
animals. It can settle on soil or be absorbed by plants grown for fruits or vegetables. The
amount of lead in a food product should not be so high that it raises a person‘s blood lead
level to a point of concern. To control this, the regulatory agencies like FDA have established
a maximum daily intake for lead, called the Interim Reference Level (IRL) at 3 µg per day for
children and 12.5 µg per day for adults.

Toxicity of Lead
Lead poisoning occurs mainly by ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead. Lead
affects almost every organ in the body. The nervous system is the most affected target in
lead toxicity, both in children and adults. Infants and young children may undergo
behavioural problems, learning deficits and lowered intellectual quotient. Long-time exposure
to lead has been reported to cause anaemia, damage to kidneys, reproductive and immune
systems. Severe damage to the brain and kidneys, both in adults and children, were found to
be linked to exposure to high lead levels even resulting in death.
Mercury
Mercury is a toxic heavy metal present in the environment both in organic and inorganic
form. It is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature. Inhaled elemental mercury is
retained in lungs and gets distributed in the plasma and erythrocytes to almost equal degree.
It can pass the blood brain barrier and the placenta. Oxidation to mercuric form, the
toxicological relevant form is fast. Methylmercury is the most toxic form and is found at
significant levels in fish and seafood.
The industrial release of inorganic mercury into marine environments results in its uptake by
marine microorganisms which then convert the inorganic mercury, which is less toxic, into
the more toxic methyl mercury. It is accumulated in food chain due to its low rate of
breakdown, reaching potentially toxic levels in species at the top of the food chain which
forms part of the human diet. The major potential dietary sources of exposure to
methylmercury are fish and shellfish.
Toxicity of Mercury
Excessive exposure to mercury is associated with a wide spectrum of adverse health effects
including damage to the central nervous system and the kidneys. Organic forms of mercury
can cross the placental barrier between the mother and the unborn baby, and
epidemiological studies in exposed populations of humans and toxicological studies in
animals have shown that this can result in a range of neurological disturbances from
impaired learning to clear brain damage.
Cadmium
Cadmium has a high Phyto-accumulation index because of its low adsorption coefficient and
high soil-plant mobility and thereby may enter the food chain. Its uptake by plants depends
on soil factors such as pH, Cadmium: Zinc ratio etc. Zinc limits the cadmium uptake and thus
protects the food chain. However, rice has an unusual capacity to exclude zinc which helps
transfer of high level of cadmium from soil to plant in bioavailable form. Highest levels of
cadmium are found in the offal (kidney and liver) of mammals and in mussels, oysters and
scallops. Certain wild mushrooms may also contain high levels. These foodstuffs are
however minor contributors to overall intake of cadmium.
Toxicity of Cadmium
The principal toxic effect of cadmium is on kidneys. It is also involved in lung damage and
skeletal changes in occupationally exposed populations. Cadmium is relatively poorly
absorbed in the body, but once absorbed it is slowly excreted, like other metals, and
accumulates in the kidney causing renal damage. Its uptake in the intestine occurs in two
phases i.e. lumen to mucosa and mucosa to blood. It is also evident that these are
influenced by interaction with other metals and proteins. Iron deficiency increases cadmium
absorption.

Arsenic
People are exposed to elevated levels of inorganic arsenic through various sources. The
greatest threat to public health from arsenic originates from contaminated groundwater. Rice
plants take up more arsenic, approx. 10 folds, as compared to other cereal crops. Arsenic-
contaminated water used for irrigation and food preparation is the source of the high arsenic
content detected in cultivated grains and vegetables and in cooked food. Terrestrial foods
typically contain low levels of arsenic but arsenic in rice is elevated when grown on arsenic-
rich groundwater and soil, arsenical pesticides, phosphate fertilizer, processing industries,
and through pollution from mining activities.
Toxicity of Arsenic
People affected with arsenicosis generally show symptoms of skin lesions like pigmentation,
keratosis or melanosis which could range anywhere between moderate to severe.
Symptoms of early acute toxicity include muscular pain, nausea, vomiting and watery stool
or diarrhoea. Severe toxicity is known to cause kidney failure, seizures and finally death due
to shock.
Regulatory status
 Regulations have been established in many countries for metal contaminants in foods.
Internationally, Codex Alimentarius Commission has set limits for metal contaminants in
foods under the ―General standard for contaminants and toxins in food and feed (CXS
193-1995)‖ which serves as the reference standard for international trade in food.
 Provisions under Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006- The maximum limits for metal
contaminants are prescribed under Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins
and Residues) Regulations, 2011 (FSSR). These Regulations are available on FSSAI
website (www.fssai.gov.in). The regulations establish maximum levels (MLs) for various
metal contaminants in a range of foodstuffs. Maximum limits of some of the major food
categories covered above are reproduced below
Name of Metal Article of foods Parts per million by weight

Contaminant
Lead Brassica vegetable excluding 0.3
Kale, Leafy vegetables
(excluding spinach)
Bulb vegetables, Fruiting 0.1
vegetables, Cucurbits and
Root & tuber vegetables
Foods not specified 2.5
Arsenic Foods not specified 1.1
Cadmium Polished Rice 0.4
Brassica, Bulb and fruiting 0.05
vegetables cucurbits
Leafy Vegetables 0.2
Other foods 1.5
Mercury Fish 0.5
Predatory Fish (Tuna, Marlin, 1.0
Sword Fish, Elasmobranch)
Non predatory fish, 0.5
Cephalopods, crustaceans,

molluscs
Other Foods 1.0
7. Pesticide Residue Contaminants:

 glyphosate, which is an herbicide that people use to kill weeds and grasses
 atrazine, which is an herbicide that people use to kill grassy and broadleaf weeds
 metolachlor-S, which is an herbicide effective against grasses
 dichloropropene, which treats the soil before planting to kill roundworms
 2,4-D, which is an herbicide that people use to kill broadleaf weeds
Each country adopts their own agricultural policies and Maximum Residue Limits (MRL) and
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). The level of food additive usage varies by country because
forms of agriculture are different in regions according to their geographical or climatical
factors. Pre-harvest intervals are also set to require a crop or livestock product not be
harvested before a certain period after application in order to allow the pesticide residue to
decrease below maximum residue limits or other tolerance levels. Likewise, restricted entry
intervals are the amount of time to allow residue concentrations to decrease before a worker
can re enter an area where pesticides have been applied without protective equipment.
Some countries use the International Maximum Residue Limits -Codex Alimentarius to
define the residue limits; this was established by Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO) in 1963 to develop
international food standards, guidelines codes of practices, and recommendation for food
safety. Currently the CODEX has 185 Member Countries and 1 member organization (EU).
The following is the list of maximum residue limits (MRLs) for spices adopted by the
commission.
Pesticide Group or sub-group of spices MRL (mg/kg)
Acephate Entire Group 028 0.2
Azinphos-methyl Entire Group 028 0.5
Chlorpyrifos Seeds 5
Fruits or berries 1
Roots or rhizomes 1
Chlorpyrifos-methyl Seeds 1
Fruits or berries 0.3
Roots or rhizomes 5
Cypermethrin Fruits or berries 0.1

Roots or rhizomes 0.2

Diazinon Seeds 5
Fruits 0.1
Dichlorvos Entire Group 028 0.1
Dicofol Seeds 0.05

Dimethoate Seeds 5
Disulfoton Entire Group 028 0.05
Endosulfan Seeds 1
Fruits or berries 5
Ethion Seeds 3
Fruits or berries 5
Fenitrothion Seeds 7
Fruits or berries 1
Iprodione Seeds 7
Fruits or berries 1
Malathion Seeds 2
Fruits or berries 1
Metalaxyl Seeds 5
Methamidophos Entire Group 028 0.1

Parathion Seeds 0.1

Parathion-methyl Seeds 5
Fruits or berries 5
Permethrin Entire Group 028 0.05
Phenthoate Seeds 7
Phorate Seeds 0.5

Phosalone Seeds 2
Fruits or berries 2
Roots or rhizomes 3
Pirimicarb Seeds 5
Pirimiphos-methyl Seeds sub group 3

Fruits sub group 0.5
Quintozene Seeds sub group 0.1

Roots or rhizomes 2
Vinclozolin Entire spice group 0.05
8. Mycotoxins In Food:
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain moulds (fungi) and can
be found in food. The moulds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including
cereals, nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid
conditions.
Mycotoxin Fungal Species Food Commodity US FDA EU (EC

(µg/kg) 2006)
(µg/kg)

Aflatoxins B1, Aspergillus Maize, wheat, rice, 20 for 2–12 for B1

B2, G1, G2 flavus peanut, sorghum, total 4–15 for total
Aspergillus pistachio, almond, ground
parasiticus nuts, tree nuts, figs,
cottonseed, spices
Aflatoxin M1 Metabolite of Milk, milk 0.5 0.05 in milk

aflatoxin B1 Products 0.025 in
infant
formulae and
infant milk
Ochratoxin A Aspergillus Cereals, dried vine fruit, Not set 2–10

ochraceus wine, grapes, coffee,
Penicillium cocoa, cheese
verrucosum
Aspergillus
carbonarius
Fumonisins B1, Fusarium Maize, maize, products, 2000– 200–1000

B2, B3 verticillioides sorghum, asparagus 4000
Fusarium
proliferatum
Zearalenone Fusarium Cereals, cereal products, Not set 20–100

graminearum maize, wheat, barley
Fusarium
culmorum
Deoxynivalenol Fusarium Cereals, cereal products 1000 200–50

graminearum
Fusarium
culmorum
Patulin Penicillium Apples, apple juice, and 50 10–50

expansum concentrate
9. Allergens In Food:
A food allergy happens when the body's immune system, which normally fights infections,
sees the food as an invader. This leads to an allergic reaction.

Even if previous reactions have been mild, someone with a food allergy is always at risk for
the next reaction being life-threatening. So anyone with a food allergy must avoid the
problem food(s) entirely and always carry emergency injectable epinephrine.
A child could be allergic to any food, but these common allergens cause 90% of all reactions
in kids: milk, eggs, peanuts, soy, wheat ,tree nuts (such as walnuts and cashews), fish
shellfish (such as shrimp), sesame.
Food allergy is an immune system reaction that occurs soon after eating a certain food.
Even a tiny amount of the allergy-causing food can trigger signs and symptoms such as
digestive problems, hives or swollen airways. In some people, a food allergy can cause
severe symptoms or even a life-threatening reaction known as anaphylaxis.
Food allergy affects an estimated 8% of children under age 5 and up to 4% of adults. While
there's no cure, some children outgrow their food allergies as they get older.
For some people, an allergic reaction to a particular food may be uncomfortable but not
severe. For other people, an allergic food reaction can be frightening and even life-
threatening. Food allergy symptoms usually develop within a few minutes to 2 hours after
eating the offending food. Rarely, symptoms may be delayed for several hours.
The most common food allergy signs and symptoms include:

 Tingling or itching in the mouth
 Hives, itching or eczema
 Swelling of the lips, face, tongue and throat or other parts of the body
 Wheezing, nasal congestion or trouble breathing
 Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea or vomiting
 Dizziness, light-headedness or fainting
In some people, a food allergy can trigger a severe allergic reaction called anaphylaxis. This
can cause life-threatening signs and symptoms, including:
 Constriction and tightening of the airways
 A swollen throat or the sensation of a lump in your throat that makes it difficult to breathe
 Shock with a severe drop in blood pressure
 Rapid pulse
 Dizziness, lightheadedness or loss of consciousness
Emergency treatment is critical for anaphylaxis. Untreated, anaphylaxis can cause a coma or
even death.
10. Natural toxins in food:

 Some natural toxins can be formed in food as defense mechanisms of plants, through
their infestation with toxin-producing mould, or through ingestion by animals of toxin-
producing microorganisms.
 Natural toxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health
threat to both humans and livestock. Some of these toxins are extremely potent.
 Adverse health effects can be acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions to severe
stomachache and diarrhoea, and even death.
 Long-term health consequences include effects on the immune, reproductive or nervous
systems, and also cancer.
responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins in food.
 International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to natural toxins from
assessments.
 Natural toxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by living organisms.
These toxins are not harmful to the organisms themselves but they may be toxic to other
creatures, including humans, when eaten. These chemical compounds have diverse
structures and differ in biological function and toxicity.
 Some toxins are produced by plants as a natural defense mechanism against predators,
insects or microorganisms, or as consequence of infestation with microorganisms, such
as mould, in response to climate stress (such as drought or extreme humidity).
 Other sources of natural toxins are microscopic algae and plankton in oceans or
sometimes in lakes that produce chemical compounds that are toxic to humans but not
to fish or shellfish that eat these toxin-producing organisms. When people eat fish or
shellfish that contain these toxins, illness can rapidly follow.
 Some of the most commonly found natural toxins that can pose a risk to our health are
described below.
Aquatic biotoxins:
 Toxins formed by algae in the ocean and fresh water are called algal toxins. Algal toxins
are generated during blooms of particular naturally occurring algal species. Shellfish
such as mussels, scallops and oysters are more likely to contain these toxins than fish.
Algal toxins can cause diarrhea, vomiting, tingling, paralysis and other effects in humans,
other mammals or fish. The algal toxins can be retained in shellfish and fish or
contaminate drinking water. They have no taste or smell, and are not eliminated by
cooking or freezing.
 Another example is ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) which is caused by consuming fish
contaminated with dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins. Some fish known to harbour
ciguatoxins include barracuda, black grouper, dog snapper, and king mackerel.
Symptoms of ciguatera poisoning include nausea, vomiting, and neurologic symptoms,
such as tingling sensation on fingers and toes. There is currently no specific treatment
for ciguatera poisoning.
Cyanogenic glycosides:
 Cyanogenic glycosides are phytotoxins (toxic chemicals produced by plants) which occur
in at least 2000 plant species, of which a number of species are used as food in some
areas of the world. Cassava, sorghum, stone fruits, bamboo roots and almonds are
especially important foods containing cyanogenic glycosides. The potential toxicity of a
cyanogenic plant depends primarily on the potential that its consumption will produce a
concentration of cyanide that is toxic to exposed humans. In humans, the clinical signs
of acute cyanide intoxication can include: rapid respiration, drop in blood pressure,
dizziness, headache, stomach pains, vomiting, diarrhoea, mental confusion, cyanosis
with twitching and convulsions followed by terminal coma. Death due to cyanide
poisoning can occur when the cyanide level exceeds the limit an individual is able to
detoxify.

Furocoumarins:
 These toxins are present in many plants such as parsnips (closely related to carrots and
parsley), celery roots, citrus plants (lemon, lime, grapefruit, bergamot) and some
medicinal plants. Furocoumarins are stress toxins and are released in response to
stress, such as physical damage to the plant. Some of these toxins can cause
gastrointestinal problems in susceptible people. Furocoumarins are phototoxic, they can
cause severe skin reactions under sunlight (UVA exposure). While mainly occurring after
dermal exposure, such reactions have also been reported after consumption of large
quantities of certain vegetables containing high levels of furocoumarins.
Lectins:
 Many types of beans contain toxins called lectins, and kidney beans have the highest
concentrations – especially red kidney beans. As few as 4 or 5 raw beans can cause
severe stomachache, vomiting and diarrhoea. Lectins are destroyed when the dried
beans are soaked for at least 12 hours and then boiled vigorously for at least 10 minutes
in water. Tinned kidney beans have already had this process applied and so can be used
without further treatment.
Mycotoxins
 Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by certain types of
moulds. Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as
cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Mould growth can occur before harvest or after
harvest, during storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid
conditions.
 Most mycotoxins are chemically stable and survive food processing. The effects of food-
borne mycotoxins can be acute with symptoms of severe illness and even death
appearing quickly after consumption of highly contaminated food products. Long term
effects on health of chronic mycotoxin exposure include the induction of cancers and
immune deficiency.
Solanines and chaconine

All solanacea plants, which include tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants, contain natural
toxins called solanines and chaconine (which are glycoalkaloids). While levels are generally
low, higher concentrations are found in potato sprouts and bitter-tasting peel and green
parts, as well as in green tomatoes. The plants produce the toxins in response to stresses
like bruising, UV light, microorganisms and attacks from insect pests and herbivores. To
reduce the production of solanines and chaconine it is important to store potatoes in a dark,
cool and dry place, and not to eat green or sprouting parts.
Poisonous mushrooms
Wild mushrooms may contain several toxins, such as muscimol and muscarine, which can
cause vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, visual disturbances, salivation, and hallucinations.
Onset of symptoms occurs 6–24 hours or more after ingestion of mushrooms. Fatal
poisoning is usually associated with delayed onset of symptoms which are very severe, with
toxic effect on the liver, kidney and nervous systems. Cooking or peeling does not inactivate
the toxins. It is recommended to avoid any wild mushrooms, unless definitively identified as
non-poisonous.

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PAs) are toxins produced by an estimated 600 plant species. The
main plant sources are the families Boraginaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae. Many of these
are weeds that can grow in fields and contaminate food crops. PAs can cause a variety of
adverse health effects; they can be acutely toxic and of main concern is the DNA-damaging
potential of certain PAs, potentially leading to cancer.
PAs are stable during processing, and have been detected in herbal teas, honey, herbs and
spices and other food products, such as cereals and cereal products. Human exposure is
estimated to be low, however. Due to the complexity of the subject and the large number of
related compounds, the overall health risk has not been fully evaluated yet. Guidance is
under development by the FAO/WHO Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food on
management strategies to prevent PA-containing plants from entering the food chain.

SOURCE & DETECTION OF INSECT INFESTATION IN STORED
GRAINS.
Detection of storage grain insect methods
(a) Grain probes and insect traps:

 Insect populations in stored grain are often monitored using traps.
 Pitfall and probe traps are commercially available traps that are used for detecting adult
insects in stored grain.
 Probe traps are cylindrical tubes with perforations in the upper section through which
insects drop into the trap and are unable to escape because of the shape of the
receptacle.
 These traps have a pointed tip for easy insertion into the grain. Traps must be removed
from the grain bin and inspected periodically to determine the number and type of insects
that have been captured.
 Probe traps detect insects when no insects are detected by standard grain sampling
methods such as Grain trier method (Barak & Harein, 1982) because they remain in the
grain for long periods.
(b) Pheromones
 The most common use of aggregation or sex pheromones is in traps to monitor insect
populations.
 For monitoring, chemical attractants usually are impregnated or encased in a rubber or
plastic lure that slowly releases the active components over a period of several days or
weeks.
 Stored-product insects can be detected with a variety of traps, some using food
attractants or synthetic insect pheromones.
 Three stored-product insects that commonly occur together, and for which pheromones
are available, are the lesser grain borer, Rhizopertha dominica and the red flour beetle
Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)which use an aggregation pheromone, and the warehouse
beetle, Trogoderma variable (Ballion), which uses a sex pheromone.
(c) Visual lures:

 Visual lures used in insect management fall into the following categories: lights
(incandescent, fluorescent, and ultraviolet) that attract insects from dark or dimly lit
surroundings; colored objects that are attractive because of their specific reflectance and
shapes or silhouettes that stand out against a contrasting background.
 Insect electrocutors can be effective in certain indoor situations, especially in food
warehouses and processing plants.
 Electrocutors are placed in dimly lit areas where their light is not visible from outdoors. In
such locations the trap does not lure insects into the building, yet it does attract and kill
certain flies, moths, and beetles that are pests of stored products or nuisances in food
production areas (Gilbert, 1984).
(d) Acoustical methods:

 Insects hidden inside kernels of grain can be detected acoustically by amplification and
monitoring of their movement and feeding sounds.
 Hagstrumet al. (1988) demonstrated that, sounds of R. dominica larvae can be used to
estimate larval population densities without removing grain samples.
 Hagstrumet al. (1996) detected the presence of one infested kernel in a 650 g of grain.
The effective use of an acoustic method to detect insects in grain requires a quantitative

understanding of several physical and biological factors that avert sound production,
insect distribution, and detection.
 One of the disadvantages of acoustic methods is that they cannot detect dead insects in
grain and infestation by early larval stages of insects.
(e) Electrical conductance:

 A single kernel characterization system is commonly used to measure grain kernel
weight, moisture content, diameter, and hardness.
 This system works on the principle of electrical conductance and compression force.
 The kernel acts as one resistor in a two resistor and voltage-divider circuit of the single
kernel characterization system.
 Conductance is monitored by measuring the voltage across the kernel. A low voltage
measurement corresponds to low kernel resistance, which is typical of high moisture
content kernels. If a live insect is present inside a kernel, there is likely to be a large
downward slope in the conductance signal.
 Pearson et al. (2003) detected hidden internal insect infestations in wheat kernels using
electrical conductance. Their studies showed that the identification accuracies for all
wheat samples were 88% for large sized larvae, and 87% for pupae, and there was no
sound kernel misclassified as infested.
(f) Berlese funnel method:

 A Berlese funnel works on the principle that insects move away from heat. The Berlese
funnels are 49-79% efficient in recovering free-living adults of Cryptolestes ferrugineus
(Stephens) in wheat samples.
 This method is often slow and inaccurate in detecting infestations. It takes 5-6 hr to
determine the presence of insects in 1 kg grain samples and during this time, the grain
would have been loaded into bins or ships.
 The performance of a Berlese funnel depends on insect stage, size of grain sample, and
moisture content of grain (Smith, 1977). Furthermore, this method cannot be used for the
hidden infestation in grain kernels.
(g) Near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy:

 The NIR spectroscopy has evolved as a fast, reliable, accurate and economical
technique available for compositional analysis of grains (Kimet al., 2003).
 This technique can be used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis.
 The NIR technique provides information based on the reflectance properties of different
substances present in a product. The NIR is based on the absorption of electromagnetic
wavelengths in the range 780–2500 nm.
 The concentrations of constituents such as water, protein, fat and carbohydrate can be
determined using classical absorption spectroscopy.
 Elizabethet al. (2002) determined that a NIR system is the best method to detect single
kernels of wheat that contained live or dead internal rice weevils at various life stages.
(h) Machine vision:

 In this system individual grain kernels are compared with the photographic print of the
representative sample.
 Computerized image analysis has been shown to have great potential for detecting and
identifying various nongrain particles and insects in wheat.
 A machine vision system for detecting insects in grains consists of a highspeed
integrated machine vision software package used with a monochrome CCD (charge
coupled device) camera and a personal computer.

 Zayas and Flinn (1998) detected R. dominica adults in wheat bulks with higher than 90%
accuracy using structural and colour information.
 Ridgway et al. (2002) developed a rapid machine vision method for the detection of adult
beetles and determined that detection rates were 89% for commercial samples
containing several insect species.
 The disadvantage with this technique is that this method is subjective, time consuming
and internal infestations cannot be identified.
(i) X-ray imaging:

 Soft X-ray is the only non-destructive, direct method that can detect insect infestations in
grain kernels.
 Karunakaranet al. (2003) correctly identified wheat kernels infested by Sitophilus oryzae
larvae and pupaeadults with more than 97% accuracy from the soft X-ray images. They
also identified sound kernels with 99% accuracy and also indicated that in the future an
automated line-scan X-ray system could inspect 1 kg grain in about 15 min compared to
5-6 hr using a Berlese funnel.
 Of all the available methods to detect insects in grains, soft X-ray imaging is the only
non-destructive and timesaving technique.

PRINCIPLE OF SCIENTIFIC GODOWN CONSTRUCTION
The Karnataka State Warehousing Corporation (KSWC) was established in the year 1957
under the agricultural produce (Development and Warehousing) Corporations Act 1956. This
Act was later repealed by the Warehousing Corporations Act 1962. The Corporation which
started functioning in 1957 with just three Warehouses at Mysore, Hubli and Raichur has
traversed a long way towards the path to progress. Now the Corporation has a network of
147 Warehouses with a total storage capacity of about 13.65 lakh MTs.
As a Part of these construction activities the corporation took up the construction of 11

godowns of Total 53,500 MT Capacity with RKVY Grants. Agriculturally dominated district
like Davanagere had lot of demand for storage of Agricultural produces, due to non-
availability of State Warehouse storage infrastructure the corporation was restrained from
fulfilling the post-harvest management of the district. This handicapped ness has been over-
come to maximum extent with the help of RKVY. This really helps the farmers of the district
for the post-harvest management in a proper manner.
Engineering Specification of the Godown
Standard Specifications For 5,000 Mt Capacity Conventional Type Godowns
1. Godown Centre to Centre 125.55m x 21.80m (412' x 71'-6")

2. Out side to Out side = 126.01m x 22.26m (413'-6" x 73')
3. Excluding both Varandah: 126.01m x 22.26m (413'-6" x 73')
4. Including both Varandah: 126.01m x 27.76m (413'-6" x 91' )
5. Rail side Varandah Width: 3.05m (10')
6. Road side Varandah Width: 2.45 m (8')
7. Plinth level: 0.80m2'-8"
8. 5.000 MT godowns = 3 Compartments. (Carpet Area of each Compartment :135'-9" x
70' = 9502.20 Sq.Ft. (41.23m x 21.34m) = 879.85 Sq.m.)
9. One Compartment C/C length 41.85m (137'-3")
10. One Compartment = 1670 M.T. Capacity
11. No. of Stacks in each Compartment 12 Nos.
12. Size of Stacks = 6.10m x 9.15m (20' x 30' )
13. Godown height on each side in respect of road-fed =5.60m & Rail-fed =6.35m
14. Varandah Truss height on road side=3.35m Varandah Truss height on Rail fed side
3.95m
15. No. of Rolling shutters = 12 Nos. (Six on each side)
16. No. of collapsible gates 12 Nos. (Six on each side)
17. Size of rolling shutters (Clear opening) =(1.83m x 2.44m (6' x 8')
18. Size of collapsible gates 2.44m x 2.44m (8'x 8')
19. Bottom Ventilators size 0.62m x 0.62 m (2' x 2') =42 Nos. (Both long walls)
20. Top Ventilators size 1.54m x 0.62 m (5' x 2' )= 54 Nos. (Both long walls)
21. V8 Ventilators = 0.38m x 0.62m (1'-3" x 2'-8‖) = 42 Nos.
22. Tubular Trusses: As per the wind zone classified in the relevant latest BIS code in the
normal wind zone: 200 Kg/Sq.m and 150 Kg/Sq.m. or as per actual.
23. ANCILLARIES REQUIRED Office Block, Watchman Quarters, Weigh Bridge, Compound
wall with Electrification, Water supply.

Note:
(a) Road fed godowns continuous platforms of 2.45 meter (8 ft) wide shall be provided on
both sides of the godowns.
(b) Rail fed godowns 3.05 meters (10 ft) wide continuous platform on rail side and 2.45
meters (8 ft) wide platform shall be provided.
Any specifications not mentioned above will be as per the FCI existing specifications for
conventional godowns. In case FCI does not have any specifications, CWC specifications for
godowns will be followed. In case specifications not covered by FCI and CWC then relevant
IS code 607 of 1971 for construction of godowns will be followed.
Land Requirement for conventional type storage godowns:

a) First 5,000 M.T Capacity = 2.98 Acres.(approx)
b) 10,000 M.T Capacity = 4.70 Acres.
c) 15,000 M.T Capacity = 7.00 Acres
d) 20,000 M.T Capacity = 8.60 Acres.
e) 25,000 MT railway siding godown = 15 Acres.
f) 50,000 MT railway siding godown = 25 Acres

METALLIC & NON–METALLIC STORAGE STRUCTURES
Grain is generally stored either in bags or in bulk. A combined system of bag-cum-bulk
storage is also practiced in some parts of the country. In villages the bulk storage system is
more common than the storage in bags which is considered to be a practicable method· of
storing grain in the government godowns as well as in trade. There main following three
types of storage structures for storage of grains.
 Traditional storage structures
 Improved storage structures
 Modern storage structures
 Farm Silos
Types of Traditional storage structures i.e., Bhukhari, Morai, Kothar
Morai type storage structure
 Morai type of structure is used for the storage of paddy, maize and sorghum (jowar) in
the rural areas of eastern and southern regions of India. Its capacity varies from 3·5 to
18 tonnes. These structures are very similar to the shape of an inverted cone. They are
placed on a raised platform supported on wooden or masonry pillars.
 The improved type of structure consists of a circular wooden plank floor supported on
pillars by means of timber joints. The planks are joined together with lap joints. All
around the wooden floor a 22 gauge corrugated metal cylinder of 90 cm height is nailed
to it.
 The edge of the cylinder is flushed with the bottom end of the floor. Inside the cylinder,
7·5 cm diameter ropes made of paddy straw or similar material are placed, beginning
from the floor level upto a height of 90 cm. Then bamboo splits are placed vertically
along the inner surface without leaving any gap between them.
 The height of the bamboo splits is equal to the total height of the structure. Keeping the
bamboo splits in position, the grain is poured in up to the height of the metal cylinder. By
then the bamboo splits are held erect in position. Now the winding of the rope as well as
the pouring in of grain are done simultaneously.
 This process continues tiIl the required height is attained. The top most ring of the rope is
secured in position by tying to the lower four rings.
 To provide a smooth surface, about 1 cm thick layer of mud plaster is applied over the
rope. A conical roof is placed on the top of the structure having an ample overhang all
around.

Morai type grain storage structure~vertical section
Bukhari type storage structure

 Bukhari type storage structures are cylindrical in shape and are used for storage of
sorghum, wheat, paddy)" Bengalgram, maize etc. Bukhari structures generally have
capacities between 3.5 to 18 tonnes, however, smaller capacity structures also exist.
This may be made by mud alone or by mud and bamboo. The cylindrical storage
structures are raised above the ground by wooden or masonry platform. The floor of the
bin is made either by timber planks or by bamboo splits, plastered over with mud rilixed
with dung and paddy straw. The walls of the structure are made of timber or bamboo
frame work and bamboo matting. Over the walls, mud-straw plaster is applied on both
sides. An overhanging cone type roof is provided on the cylindrical structure. The roof is
generally made of bamboo framework and straw.
 In improved bukhari type structure, the basic shape remains the same but the material
and method of construction have been improved to make the structure more safe and
durable. The circular floor of structure is either made of wooden planks joined by lap

joints or by a double layer of bamboo splits closely set at right angles to each other. Over
the floor, about 5 cm thick mud plastering is provided. The walls of structure are made of
two sets of strong bamboo framework. The inter-space is filled with mud. The walls on
both sides are plastered with mud. The roof is conical and made of bamboo frame-work
and covered with paddy straw or similar other thatching material. The top of the conical
roof is covered with 4 to 5 cm thick mud layer to provide additional protection from rains.
The structure is raised on timber or masonry pillars to a height of about 1.5 m from
ground level. Rat proofing cones are placed on all the four pillars to avoid rats entering
the storage structure.
Bukhari type Grain Storage Structure - Vertical Section
Kothar type storage structure

 These are used to store paddy, maize, sorghum, wheat etc. Their capacity varies
between 9 to 35 tonnes. The storage structure is box like made of wood and raised on
pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks whereas the thatched or tiled
roof is placed over it to protect the grains from the sun or rain. The improved Kothar
structure is generally made of 5 cm thick wooden planks and beams. The walls and floor
are made in such a way that no gap exists between the planks. The gabled roof on the
top may be made of planks or corrugated metal sheets and should be sufficiently
overhang on all sides. The storage structure is raised on timber post to a height of about

1.5 m above the ground. Rat proofing cones are provided on all posts to avoid entry of
rats in the structure.
Kothar type Grain Storage Structure - Vertical Section
Mud Kothi (Mud bin)

 These storage structures are quite common in rural areas for storage of grains and other
seeds. The capacity of such storage structures varies from 1 to 50 tonnes. These are
made from mud mixed with dung and straw. These Kothies are generally rectangular in
shape but cylindrical Kothi is also common in some region. There are many sizes and
dimensions of Kothi made for storing grains.
Muda type of storage Structure
 These are in use for storing grains in the rural areas of Bihar. The capacity of muda
varies between 1 to 3 tonnes. It is being made of "Narai" ropes. The shape of muda is
cylindrical and being made in various sizes.

Kanaj type of Storage Structure
 These storage structures are very common in the rural areas of Karnataka and
Maharashtra for storage of grains. The capacity of Kanaj varies between 1 to 20 tonnes.
It is being made by bamboo splits. The shape of storage structure is cylindrical. The
walls of storage structure are sealed with mud plaster on both sides. The roof of the
structure is conical and thatched. The roof overhang on all sides.
Kuthla
 These storage structures are very much common in rural areas of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh. These structures are kept inside and made of burnt mud.
Bag Storage Structure
 These structures are generally used for the storage of 25 to 500 tonnes of grain. The
length of the structure is about twice the width or greater than that. A typical floor plan of
such a structure large enough to store about 6000 bags (500 tonnes) of grain. Bags of
different capacities (35, 50, 75 and 100 kg) with or without inside plastic lining are used.
The standard size of a 100 kg bag is 100 cm x 60 cm x 30 cm i.e. length of bag is 100
cm, width of bag is 60 cm and height of filled bag is 30 cm. This bag can store 93 Kg of
Wheat and 75 Kg of Paddy.
Different size of Bags for storage
Metal Bin
 Bins made of steel, Aluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains inside and outside
the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and
produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 50 kg to 10 tonnes.
Types of improved storage structures
Pusa bin
Pusa bin is just like other traditional storage structure and is made of mud. To make this
storage structure moisture proof, a plastic film is used on inner side of the bin. A platform of
mud bricks is made, first. On this platform, a sheet of 700 gauge plastic is spread in such a
way that it overlaps the platform on all sides by atleast 6 cm. On the plastic sheet, a layer of
7 cm thick kachcha bricks is then laid. Walls are made of kachcha bricks and these are
sealed with mud plaster. Now the walls are raised to proper height and a wooden frame is
placed on it. The upper roof of the structure is made of burnt bricks. For unloading of grains,
an inclined wooden or steel pipe is fixed in such a way that grains may come out of structure
by gravity. The mouth of pipe is closed by a cover. The inside of all the four walls and roof
are covered with a plastic sheet. On the top, an open space of about 50 cm x 50 cm is left
for loading of grains. Leaving this open space, the roof is sealed by mud. After the bin is
filled with grains, the top open space is well covered by a plastic sheet so that air may not
enter the bin. A typical Pusa bin is shown in fig. below.

Brick and cement bin

These storage structures are very strong and therefore, the effect of season on them is
negligible. The bin is made on a platform raised at 60 cm above the ground. A ladder is
provided on one side of the bin for loading of the grains. A hole of about 60 cm diameter is
provided on the roof for the purpose of loading the material i.e. grains. The walls of bin are
about 23 cm thick with cement plastered on both the sides. Roof is made of R.C.C. The
base of bin is made inclined and an outlet is provided for unloading of grains. The capacity of
such bin is usually between 1.5 to 60 tonnes. For cleaning of bin and complete unloading, a
provision of iron rings steps is provided inside the bin for person can enter and exit the bin.
Bunker Storage
Bunker storage structure is used for long term storage of a larger volume of grains. The
structure is successful as a means of storing grains safely, securely and economically. By
controlling insects and the moisture, the losses in stored grains can be reduced upto 0.5%.
In this type of storage structure, the grain is stored on a plastic sheet which is spread over
ground and top covered with plastic sheet as is shown in fig. A drain is also provided for
drainage of rain water.

'CAP' Storage structures

The 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth storage. The word plinth is means plinth from the
bottom and cover means cover from the top. This type of open storage is considered as
intermediate storage and serves the purpose of storage of food grains in bags for short
period. This type of storage facility is cheaper as compared to conventional bag storage
godowns. The cover is rectangular in shape having five sides and made from polyethylene
film of 1000 gauge, leaving the bottom side open. The cover is used for protecting stack of
bags. Normally the stack is built over a space of 9.11 x 6.1 m with a height of 18 bags which
gives the storage capacity of around 150 tonnes. The cover having a dimension of 9.4 m x
6.4 m x 5.5 m normally weighs around 52 kg. Sometimes smaller covers are used for
covering the stacks in covered varandah of conventional godowns. Such covers are called
"Varandah covers". For storage of food grains under varandah covers, the stacks are built to
a height up to 7 bags having an average capacity of 24 tonnes.
The following steps are normally followed in the construction of a 'CAP' storage
1) Select a high elevated ground and make it level.
2) Wooden sleepers are spread with one or two layers of bamboo mat cover on the top as
dunnage.
3) The Gutters are provided all around the area to drain off rain water easily.
4) The stacking is done to the height upto 18 bags on the dunnage and is covered with
polyethylene.
5) The stacks arc covered with polyethylene covers and tied with ropes to prevent from
blowing with high velocity wind.
Types of Modern Storage structures i.e. Silo and Shed (Warehouses)

In India, for larger volume of food grains is to be stored in bulk is 'silo' and conventional
godowns (shed) designed for bagged storage. Side walls of a go-down are made of brick or
stone masonry and sloped roofing in asbestos or Corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) sheets
over steel trusses. Mostly, silos are constructed either from steel or reinforced concrete.
There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any modern large / capacity processing plant. The
modern permanent storage system should be selected for the safe keeping of stored grains
and other products. The modern storage structures should be selected on the basis of first
on quality and then on cost considerations. There are following types of modern storage
structures.
Silo type of storage structures

The modern facilities for storing grains in bulk are 'silo'. Silos are constructed from steel or
reinforced concrete. There are a cluster of adjoining silos in any modern large capacity
processing plant. These silos are generally circular with conical bottom. Bulk storage bins for
storing grains can be made from reinforced concrete, plain or corrugated galvanised sheet,

mild steel black sheet, aluminium sheet, fibre glass, brick, ferro cement, asbestos sheet
etc. But in India mild steel bins and R.C.C. bins are quite common. The advantages of
modem storage bins are, (1) less expensive and easier handling and quality control, (2)
lesser space requirement, (3) savings of cost of bags, (4) provision of automation and
mechanization for quicker handling and maintaining quality of stored product, (5) protection
from losses due to birds and rodents.
Silos/bins are classified into two groups depending upon the relative dimensions of the
container. To what extent of relative dimensions of depth and diameter or width, the
structure behaves as a deep or shallow bin is decided from the concept of the plane of
rupture.
The following terminology is useful for design of storage structures
 Plane of rupture
The plane of rupture is that surface down which a wedge of material bounded by one wall
face, the free surface, and the plane of rupture would start sliding if bounding wall were to
move.
 Angle of repose
When a granular product is dumped through a circular opening on a level horizontal surface,
the product takes a shape of inverted cone. The angle between the horizontal and inclination
of heap is called the natural angle of repose. The angle of repose is an indicator of the
product's ability to flow.
Angle of repose

 Angle of rupture
If Φ is the angle of repose of material, then the angle of rupture may be taken as with the
horizontal.
The silo are classified as, (1) shallow bins and (2) deep bins.
Shallow bins
 A bin whose relative dimensions are such that the plane of rupture meets the grain
surface before it strikes the opposite side as shown in Figure is called 'shallow bin' and is
shown in Fig.
 L and h be the breadth and depth of the storage structure, then the structure can be
taken to be shallow if: ( )
Plane of rupture
Shallow bin
 A grain bin referred to as a shallow bin when the depth of grain is less or equal to the
equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter is taken as four times the hydraulic radius
of the bin. Hd < 4R , Where Hd is depth of grain.
R = hydraulic radius =
As per the scientists Issacson and Boyd shallow bin is defined as ( ) ( )
Where, D = diameter of clrcular bin
= coefficient of friction
= pressure ratio ( )
= angle of internal friction

 A Squat silos are the example of shallow bin. A squat silo has a wall height to diameter
ratio 0.5 or even less that is shown in figure. Squat silo can compete with sheds for low-
cost quality storage. Squat silos are structurally efficient, thus can be built from lighter
materials and costs are generally lower for a given storage volume. The . structural
efficiency is achievable by the walls carrying their loads principally in tension and by the
conical roof carrying its load in tension, compression and shear. Squat silos as large as
having 48 metres diameter, 10.5 metres high walls and 25 metres high at roof apex are
being built.
Squat silo
Deep bins
 A bin in which plane of rupture meets the opposite side before it emerges from the grain
as shown in Figure is called 'deep bin' and is shown in Fig.
 L and h be the breadth and depth of the storage structure, then the structure can be
taken to be deep if: ( )
Plane of rupture
Deep bin

 A grain bin referred to as a deep bin when the depth of grain is greater than the
equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter is taken as four times the hydraulic radius
of the bin. Hd >= 4R , Where Hd is depth of grain.
R = hydraulic radius =
As per the scientists Issacson and Boyd shallow bin is defined as ( ) ( )
Where, D = diameter of clrcular bin
= coefficient of friction
= pressure ratio ( )
= angle of internal friction
 A vertical silos is example of deep bin. Vertical silos can be

circular, hexagonal, or rectangular. They tend to be more
expensive than sheds. In case of space limitation vertical silos
can be used because it requires lesser space. There are two
types of vertical silos used i.e. Flat bottom and Hopper bottom
vertical silos. Hopper bottom silo is quite common for storing
grains. Prefabricated galvanized metal silos are available in
many sizes. Flat bottom vertical silos are also common. These
may be fabricated by metal sheets, galvanized metal or
reinforced. In hopper bottom concrete. The hopper bottom is
more expensive than flat bottom bin. Hopper slope angles of
60° - 70° are necessary to achieve reliable mass flow.
Hopper bottom vertical silo
Shed (Warehouses)
A horizontal sheds have been used to provide low- cost, large volume storage. Very large
volume sheds have also been constructed by Food Corporation of India (FCI) for storing
grains and other products. Sheds are usually made of steel or corrugated sheet construction
with flat concrete floors.
 Grain loads on the walls have to be supported by girts and heavy vertical butteresses
designed to resist their loads in bending.
 Roofs have to be supported on a network of purlins and rafters.
 A typical bulk warehouse would be 15 m Wide, 60 m long and 6 m high at the edges. A
building of this size would have a storage capacity of 2,840 tonnes. The same size
building for bag storage has only 1440 tonnes storage capacity.
 A 5000 tonnes conventional godown will go up about 5750 tonnes capacity by storing
grains in bag and bulk combine. there is increase 17% over rated capacity. (1500 tonnes
in form of bag and 4250 tonnes in bulk)
 Belt conveyors are often used in bulk sheds for loading and unloading grains.
 For larger sheds having 50,000-60,000 tonnes capacity a suspended drag-chain
conveyor is used.

1) Sealed doors
2) Floor
3) Rat proof slab
4) Airproof roof
Modern Godowns (Shed)

PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS, THEIR PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL &
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, METHOD OF HANDLING,
APPLICATION & THEIR EFFICACY INSECTICIDE
 The Chemical or poison used to kill the insect is known as Insecticide.
 This Insecticide Act was enacted on 2nd September 1968 by Govt. of India to regulate the
use, production, sale, import, transportation and distribution of insecticides.
HISTORY OF INSECTICIDE DEVELOPMENT
 DDT synthesized by Zeidler: 1874

 Bordeaux mixture in France: 1883
 Dinitro compounds (First synthetic organic insecticide): 1925
 DDT insecticidal property discovered by Paul Muller of Switzerland. Paul Muller
awarded Nobel Prize in 1948 for discovering insecticidal property of DDT: 1939
 BHC in France and UK (in 1942) (BHC is presently called as HCH): 1941
 Parathion (Organo phosphate) discovered by Gerhard Schrader in Germany: 1944
 Chlordane (Cyclodian compound) in Germany: 1945
 Carbamate insecticides in Switzerland: 1947
 Rachel Carson‘s Silent appears (US) (This is not a chemical. The book ‗Silent Spring‘
created awareness about ill effects of pesticides): 1962
 First JH mimic (Juvenile Hormone mimic) used in US (Insect growth regulator): 1967
 Development of synthetic pyrethroids (UK) (Fast degradation) (Effective at very low
doses): 1970
 Discovery of avermectins (derived from bacteria). Effective at low dose. Fast
degradation: 1980
 Discovery of newer groups like (1) Neonicotinoids (Imidacloprid), similar to natural
nicotin, (2) Spinosyns (e.g. Spinosad) derived from actinomycetes.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES
1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MODE OF ENTRY

a) SYSTEMIC POISON:
 Such type of chemical or poisons are absorbed into plants and translocated to whole
plant system internally.
 Such poisons are translocated and concentrated more in the aerial part of plant.
 Insect Pest starts dying when it such the affected plant juice.
 This poison affect the metabolism of sucking insect pests.
 It means systemic insecticides are used to control sucking pests, e.g. Dicrotophos,
Rogor, Dimethoate, Metasystox and Systox (Methyl demeton and demeton),
Monocrotophos (Nuvacron), Phosphomidon (Dimecron), Aldicarb (Temik), Carbofuran
(Furadan), Thimet (Phorate), Thionazin (Zinophos) etc.
b) CONTACT POISON:
 The poison brings about death of the insect pest by means of contact, is called contact
poison.
 When such chemical comes in contact with the pest, it penetrates into the body throught
the vulnerable sites, viz. sutures, trachea, e.g. Malathion, Monocrotohos, Diazinon,
Thiodan, carboryl, Baygon etc.

c) STOMACH POISON:
 Such chemical causes the death of insect only when the insect feeds on the treated
plant.
 This poison acts on the digestive system of insect when ingested.
 Stomach poison is used mainly to control chewing type insect, e.g. Heptachlor,
Endosulfan (Thiodan), Chlordane, DDT, Aldrin, Quinolphos etc.
d) FUMIGANT:
 Such chemical enters in gaseous form through respiratory system (trachea) and kills the
pest.
 It is used to control all types of insects irrespective of its feeding habits, e.g. Aluminium
phosphide.
2. TYPES OF INSECTICIDES BASED ON GENERATIONS:

a) First-generation: Inorganics and Botanicals
b) Second generation: Recent chemicals for reproductive control, IGRs like MH & JH
mimics.
c) Fourth generation: Synthetic pyrethroids.
d) Fifth-generation: Alfamethrin,Fenpropathrin ,Bifenthrin ,Fluvalinate,Ethofenpron , and
Neonecotinoids.
3. TYPES OF INSECTICIDES BASED ON DIFFERENT MODES OF ACTION
a) Physical poisons: They kill insects by causing physical harm to them. For example,
heavy oils, tar oils, and other substances that induce death through asphyxiation.
b) Protoplasmic poisons: Protoplasmic poisons are toxicants that cause protein
precipitation, particularly the destruction of cellular protoplasm in the midgut epithelium.
Arsenical compounds, for example.
c) Nerve poisons: Chemicals that impede cellular respiration, such as hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), carbon monoxide, and others, are known as respiratory poisons. Chemicals that
impede Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and affect the nervous system are known as nerve
poisons. Organophosphorous and carbamates, for example.
d) Chitin inhibitors: Chitin inhibitors impair normal moulting and development by
interfering with the chitin manufacturing process. Novaluron, Diflubenzuran, Lufenuron,
and Buprofezin are some examples.
e) General Poisons: These are compounds that cause neurotoxic symptoms after a length
of time. And do not fit into any of the other categories. Chlordane, toxaphene, and aldrin,
for example.
Classification Medium lethal Medium lethal Colour of Symbols and

of the dose by the dose by the identification word in upper
Insecticides oral route dermal route band on the triangle
acute toxicity dermal toxicity label in lower
LD 50 mg/kg. LD 50 mg/kg. triangle
body weight of Body weight of
test animals test animals
Extremely toxic 1 – 50 1 – 200 Bright red POISON in red
skull and cross-
bones
Highly toxic 51 – 500 201 – 2000 Bright yellow POISON in red

Moderately 501 – 5000 2001 – 20000 Bright blue DANGER
toxic
Slightly toxic More than 5000 More than Bright green CAUTION
20000
INSECTICIDES AND THEIR TRADE NAMES
Insecticides Trade Name

Organochlorines:
Dicofol 18.5 EC (miticide) Kelthane
Endosulfan 35EC Thiodan
Organophosphates:
Acephate 75% SP Asataf, Orthene and Starthene
Chlorpyrifos 20EC Dursban
Demethoate 30EC Rogor
Dichlorvos 76EC Nuvan, Vapona
Ethion 50EC Fosmite
Fenitrothion 50EC Sumithion
Monocrotophos 36SL Nuvacron
Malathion 50EC Cythion, Hilthion
Methyl parathion 50EC Metacid
Oxydemeton-methyl25EC Metasystox
Phorate 10 G Thimel
Phosphamidon 40SL Dimecron
Phosalone 35EC Zolone
Profenophos 50EC Curacron
Triazophos 40EC and 20EC Hostathion
Quinalphos 25EC Ekalux
Carbamates:
Aldicarb 10CG Temik
Carbufuran 3G Furadan
Carbaryl 75WP Sevin
Methomyl 40SP Lannate
Propoxur 1% Aerosol Baygon
Thiodicarb 75WP Larvin
Synthetic pyrethroids:
Betacyfluthrin 2.45 SC Bulldock
Bifenthrin 10EC Tal star
Cypermethrin 10EC & 25EC Cymbush, Bilcyp
Deltamethrin Etofenprox 10EC Decis 2.8EC, K-Obiol 2.5 WP
Fenpropathrin 10EC Meothrin
Fenvaleratre 20EC and 0.4% DP Parafen
Alphamethrin 10EC Alphaguard
Fumigant:
Aluminium phosphide Celphos
New insecticides group:
Neonicotinoids:
Imidacloprid Confidor 17.8 SL

Thiamethoxam Cruiser, Actara
Acetmiprid 20SP Pride
Pyyrole insecticides:
Fipronil 5SC Regent
Avermectins:
Emamectin benzoate Proclaim
Spinosyns:
Spinosad 45% SC and 2.5% SC Tracer, Naturalyte
Chitin synthesis inhibitors:
Diflubenzuron 25WP Dimilin
Biopesticides:
Bacillus thuringiensis (Liquid and WP) Dipel, Delfin, Halt, Spciturin, Biolep
Verticillium lecanii Vertilec
Beauveria bassiana Larvovel, Boverin
Hirsutella thompsoni Mycar
Metarrhizium anisopliae Blomax
Miscellaneous
Cartap hydrochloride 4% Padan, Caldan
BIO-PESTICIDES
 H.S. Smith (1919) first used term “biological control”.

 Paul de Bach (1964) further refined the term and distinguished “natural control” from
“biological control”.
 The top biotech regulator in India in Genetic Engineering appraisal Committee
(GEAC) Earlier Known as Genetic Engineering Approval Committee.
 GEAC fuctions as a statutory body under the Environment Protection Act 1986 of the
Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF).
 Microbial insecticides: Single cell organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, Protozoa and
viruses have been mass produced & formulated for use in a manner similar to
insecticides.
 Product containing these organisms are regulated by the Environmental protection
agency (EPA) & use in governed by the Federal insecticide, fungicide & Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA).
Bacterial Pesticide:
 Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Control lepidopteran pest.
 The Bt is a stomach poison first isolated in 1902 from diseased larve of silk worm,
Bombyx mori in Japan by Ishiwata.
 Bt was first used as an insecticide against European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis in
1930.
 Bt Kurstaki was isolated in 1962 effective against Lepidopterans.
 Bt is a motile, rod shaped, gram positive spore crystal producing facultative bacterium.
 It takes 3-4 days to kill the insect.
 The toxin produced by Bt are α-exotoxin, β- exotoxin, Ϩ- endotoxin.
 Bt toxins are effective at alkaline midgut Ph (6-7).

Bt Strains Registered Under Insecticide Act In India:
Bt subspecies Strain/serotype Formulation
Strain A-97, serotype H-3a 35WP
Strain DOR-Bt-1, serotype-(3a, 0.5%WP
3b, 3c)
Bt kurstaki Strain HD-1, serotype-3a, 3b, 3c 0.5% ES
serotype-3a, 3b, Strain Z-52
Bt galleriae Strain R 1593m, serotype-3a, 1.3% FC
Strain 164, serotype H-14 WP
Strain VCRC B-17, serotype H-14, Slow release
Strain VCRC B-17, serotype H-14, Granules WP
serotype H-14, 12 AS
Strain VCRC B-17, serotype H-14, 5 AS
Bt israelensis serotype H-14, 5% WP
Bt Strain Product Target Insect

Bacillus thuriengiensis var. Vectobac. AS Skeetal Mosquito and blackfly larvae
israelensis Teknar
Bacillus thuriengiensis var. Dipel Bactospeine Thuricide Lepidopteran larvae
kurstaki Javelin
Bacillus thuriengiensis M-One Colorado potato beetle larva
var.san dieo
B.Popilliae & Commercial products of Used to control coleopteran
B.lentimorbus these species are DOOM pest
and Milky spores
Used to control crown gall
disease caused by A.
tumefaciens
Agrobacterium A. radiobacter produces
radiobacter antimetabolite Agrocin
which is toxic to A.
tumefaciens
Commercial Bacillus thuriengiensis Formulations Available Worldwide:
Product name Bt strain used Target pests

Dipel WP Bacillus thuriengiensis Spruce budworm; gypsy
moth; bagworm and fall
cankerworms and cabbage
looper
Bagworm; elm spanworm;
fall spanworm; gypsy
Thuricide 48LV Bacillus thuriengiensis Moth; string and fall
cankerworm; spruce
budworm
Vectobac-200G Berliner ssp. Kurstaki
Larvicide (Granules) Mosquitoes
Tekner Granules
Larvicide

Vectobac 200G Bacillus thuriengiensis Fungus gnats
Vectobac 600G israelensis
Tekner HP-D Mosquitoes & Black flies
Larvicide
Novodor Flowable Bacillus thuriengiensis ssp. Colorado potato and elm leaf
tenebrionis beetle
Foray 48B
Foray 48B A Low Spruce budworm (Eastern &
volume Western); gypsy moth;
Foray 76B jackpine budworm; eastern
hemlock looper; whitemarked
tussock moth and forest tent
caterpillar
Foray 96B
Spruce budworm; gypsy
moth; bagworm; spring and
fall cankerworm; fall
Dipel 2X DF Bacillus thuriengiensis webworms; elm spanworm;
Berliner ssp. Kurstaki tent caterpillar; cabbage
loper; leafroller and
diamondback moth
Aquabac II XT Mosquitoes
Aquabac 200G Bacillus thuriengiensis
Aquabac 200G Israelensi (Bacillus
AquabacXT thuriengiensis serotype H-
14)
Dipel 176 EC Forest tent caterpillars;
gypsy moth spruce
budworms
BTK Bacillus thuriengiensis Gypsy moth; tent caterpillar
Berliner ssp. Kurstaki and cabbage looper
Bioprotec Gypsy moth; eastern spruce
budworm
Virus Pestcide:
AGENT FORMULATION NAME TARGER PEST

NPV (Ha NPV) Helicoverpa armigera
SI–NPV Spodoptera litura
Aa–NPV Amsacta albistriga
VIRUS (NPV) VPN–80 Autographa carlifornica
Spodopterin Spodoptera littoralis
SPOD–X Spodoptera exigua
Elcar Helicoverpa zeae
Virin, Gypchek Lymantra dispar
CYD–X, MADEX Cydia pomonella
GRANULOSIS VIRUS (GV) Agrovir Agrotis segetum
PTM baculovirus Phtorimaea opercullela

Fungus Pestcide:
Fungus Brand Name Targer Pest

Mycotrol Whiteflies/Aphids/Thrips
Naturalis Sucking insects
Beauveria bassiana Conidia Coffee berry borer
(white muscardine fungus) Ostrinol Corn borer
Biowonder Rice pests
Biosoft Helocoverpa & sucking pests
Myco-Jaal Diamond backback moth
Batel Scarab beetle larvae
B brongniartii Engerlingspilz Scarab beetle larvae
Melocont Scarab beetle larvae
BIO 1020 Black Vine weevil
Metarhizium anisopliae Bio-Blast TM Termites
(Green muscardine fungus) Bio Magic Brown plant hopper
Multiplex Root grubs
Metarhizium Sucking pests
M. Flavoviride Green Muscle Locusts, Grasshoppers
Bio Green Red-headed cockchafer
Verticillum lecanii Vretalec Aphids, Whiteflies
Mycotal Thrips
Inovert Aphid, Scales, Mealybugs
Biocatch Whiteflies
Verticare Mealybugs & Scales
Paecelomyces PFR-97TM Whiteflies/Thrips
fumosoroseus Prioroty Mites

PESTICIDE FORMULATION
 After an insecticide is manufactured in a relatively pure form (technical grade), it must be

formulated before it can be applied.
 Farmulation is the final physical condition in which the insecticide is sold commercially.
A pesticide ―formulation‖ is simply the form of a specific product that you purchase and
use.
1. Dusts (D/DP):
 Dusts consists of active ingredient + inert carrier/diluent + anti caking agent.
 The toxicant in a dust formulation ranges from 0.65 to 25 per cent.
 The dust formulations have a particle size less than 100 microns.
 Decrease in the particle size normally increases the toxicity of the dust formulation.
 Example: Carbaryl 5% DP, Carbaryl 10% DP.
2. Granules (G) :
 Granulated formulations consist of small pellets (20-80mesh) containing 2-10% of the
active ingredient.
 Granules consists of active ingredient + inert carrier/diluent + solvent.
 Example: carbaryl 4% G, carbofuran 3% CG.
COMMON FORMULATIONS FOR SPRAY APPLICATION:

3. Wettable Powders (WP) or Water Dispersable Powders (WDP):
 A substance that does not dissolve in water but remains suspended in it. Usually refers
to pesticides that are applied as sprays.
 Wettable Powders contains active ingredient + inert diluent/carrier + wetting
agent/surfactant + anti + cadking agent.
 The active ingredient in a wettable powder formulation ranges from 15 to 95 per cent.
 Example: Bacillus thuringiensis in WP Beauveria bassiana in 1.15% WP.
4. Water Soluble Powders (SP):

 Water-soluble powders contain a finely ground water soluble solid which dissolves
readily upon the addition of water.
 A water soluble powder contains active ingredient + inert carrier/diluet + wetting
agent/surfactant + anti-caking agent (spreading/stinking agents added before spray)
 Example: Carbaryl 85% SP, cartap hydrochloride 50% SP, methomyl 40% SP.
5. Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC):

 Most of the synthetic organic insecticides are water insoluble, but soluble in organic
solvents such as amyl acetate, carbon tetrachloride, ethylene dichloride, kerosene,
xylene, petroleum naphtha, pine oil etc.
 EC contains active ingredient + solvent + emulsifier + wetting agent/surfactant
(spreading/sticking agent added before spray)
 Alphamethrin 10% EC.
6. Solution oncentrates (SC) or Water Solyble Concentrates (WSC) or Water-Miscible

Liquids or Soluble Liquids (SL) or Water Soluble Luquid (WSL):
 The technical-grade material is miscible with water or alcohol.

 The formulation consists of active ingredient + water immiscible solvent +
surfactant.
 These resemble emulsifiable concentrates in viscosity and color, but they do not form
milky syspensions when diluted with water.
 Example: alphamethrin 10% SC, beta-cyfluthrin 2.45% SC.
7. Suspension Concentrate or Flowable (F):

 Some insecticides are soluble in neither oil nor water.
 In this case the technical material is wet-milled with a solid carrier diluent (like inert clay)
and water with a suspending agent.
 Example: Sevin XLR plus containing carbaryl as an active ingredient is a flowable
formulation.
8. Water dispersable Granules (WDF):

 Water Dispersable Granules are intended for application after disintegration and
dispersion in water by conventional spraying equipment.
 WDG contains active ingredient + inert carrier/diluent
COMMON FORMULATIONS FOR DIRECT APPLICATIONS:

9. Aerosols:
 The toxicant is suspended as minute particles (0.1 to 50 microns) in air as a fog or mist.
 To produce an aerosol, the active ingredients must be soluble in volatile petroleum oil
under pressure. The pressure is provided by a propellant gas.
 Example: Propoxur 0.1% (Baygon), permethrin 0.2% and resmethrin 0.1% allethrin
0.1%
10. Fumigants:
 Chemical fumigants are gases or volatile liquids of low molecular weight which
readily penetrate the material to be protected.
 Fumigants are used for the control of insects in stored products but are also important for
soil sterilization as a means or killing soil insects, nematodes, weed seeds, and fungi.
11. Ultra-Low Volume Concentrates (ULV) or Concertrated Insecticide Liquids:

 These usually contain a technical product dissolved in a minimum amount of solvent.
 They are applied without further dilution by aerial or ground equipment in volumes of 0.6
L to a maximum of 4.7 L/ha in very small spray droplets of 1-15/u.
12. Fogging Concentrates:

 These are used in the control of adult flies and mosquitoes and sold for public health use
to pest control operators.
 Fogging machines generate droplets of 1-10/u.
13. Poison Baits:

 Formulated baits contain low levels of toxicants incorporated into materials such as
foodstuffs, sugar, molasses, etc. that are attractive to the target pest.
 The poison baits contsist of a base or carrier material attractive to the pest species + a
plant-based or chemical toxicant in relatively small quantities.
 The poison baits are used for the control of fruit flies, chewing insects, wireworms and
white grubs in the soil, household pests (especially rodents) slugs etc.

14. Slow-Release Insecticides:
 These Formulations are relatively new and only a few are available commercially.
 Example: Shell-No-Pest Strip, which incorporated dichlorvos (DDVP) into strips of
polychlorovinyl resin.

PESTICIDE APPLICATION METHODS
 The methods of application depends on nature of pesticide, formulation, pests to be

managed, site of application, availability of water etc.
1. Dusting:
 Dusting is carried out in the morning hours and during very light airstream.
 It can be done manually or by using dusters.
 Sometimes dust can be applied in soil for the control of soil insects.
 Dusting is cheaper and suited for dry-land crop pest control.
2. Spraying:
 Spraying is normally carried out by mixing EC (or) WP formulations in water.
 There are three type of spraying.
Types of Spray fluid (litre Droplet size Area covered Equipment

Spraying acre-1) day-1 used
High volume 200-400 150 2.5 ac Knapsack,
Spraying rocker sprayers
Low volume 40-60 70-150 5.6 ac Power sprayer,
Spraying mist blower
Ultra low volume 2-4 lit. 20-70 20 ac ULV sprayer,
Spraying Electrodyn
sprayer
3. Granular application:
 Highly toxic pesticides are handled safely in the form of granules.
 Granules can be applied directly on the soil or in the plant parts.
THE METHODS OF GRANULAR APPLICATION

a). Broadcasting: Granules are mixed with equal quantity of sand and broadcasted directly
on the soil or in thin film of standing water.
Example: Carbofuran 3G applied @ 1.45 kg/9 cent rice mursery In a thin film of water and
impound water for 3 days.
b. Infurrow application: Granules are applied at the time of sowing in furrows in beds and
covered with soil before irrigation.
Example: Carbofuran 3G applied @ 3 g per meter row for the control of sorghum shoot fly.
c). Side dressing: After the establishment of the plants, the granules are applied a little
away from the plant (10-15cm) in a furrow.
d). Spot application: Granules are applied @ 5 cm away and 5 cm deep on the sides of
plant. This reduces the quantity of insecticide required.
e). Ring application: Granules are applied in a ring form around the trees.

f). Root zone application: Granules are encapsulated and placed in the root zone of the
plant.
Example: Carbofuran in rice.
4. Seed pelleting/seed dressing:

 The Carbofuran 50 SP is directly used as dry seed dressing insecticide against sorghum
shoot fly.
1. Sett treatment:
 Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% Imidacliprid 70 WS @ g/ha o 7 g/1 dipped for 15
minutes to protect them from termites.
2. Baiting:
 The tocxicant is mixed with a bait material so as to attract the insects towards the
tocxicant.
3. Fumigation:
 Fumigation are available in solid and liquid forms.
 They can be applied in the following way –
a) Soil: To control the necatode in soil, the liquid Fumigants are injected by using injecting
gun.
b) Storage: Liquid Fumigants like Ethylene dibromide (EDB), Methyl bromide (MB), carbon
tetrachloride etc. and solid fumigant like Aluminium phosphide are recommended in
godowns to control stored product pest.
c) Trunk: Aluminium phosphide tablet is inserted into the affected portion of coconut tree
and plugged with cement of mud for the control of red palm weevil.

ROLE OF MOISTURE IN GODOWNS, ITS MEASUREMENT IN FOOD
GRAINS
Storage of Grains – Affecting Factors

During storage, grains and seeds are subjected to spoilage and wastage by various means.
This loss has been estimated to be 9.3 percent annually. During storage damage of grains
can take place by following two main types of factors:
Biotic factors such as insects, rodents (e.g., striped squirrel, house rat, house mouse,
lesser bandicoot, etc.), birds (e.g., parakeet, sparrow, bulbul, blue rock pigeon, crow, etc.),
mites and bacteria.
Some Common Insect Pests of Stored Grain

 Gram dhora or pulse beetle (Catlosobruchus maculatus) – Its grub damage stored gram.
 Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryza) – Both grub and beetle (adult) damage rice.
 Khapra or wheat weevil (Trogoderma granarium) – Infests stored wheat.
 Grain and flour moth (Sitotroga cerealella) – Its caterpillars bore into grains of rice,
wheat, barley, maize, and jowar.
 Rust red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) – Both larvae and adult damage flour and
flour products.
 Rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica) – Larvae damage to rice and maize.
 Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica) – Both grub and adult (beetle) damage the
grains, reducing them to perforated shells.
Abiotic factors such as moisture contents and temperature.
(a) Effect of temperature:

The growth of insects and microorganisms in the stored food materials depends upon the
fluctuation of temperature. As the maximum growth rate of the insects is at a higher
temperature of 30°C to 32°C, the microorganisms and enzymes are most active at 30°C to
40°C. Therefore, the food grains/materials should be stored at a lower temperature, i.e.,
below 30°C, then the insects and microorganisms, and enzymes will become less active and
the damage to the material is minimised.
(b) Effect of moisture:

For safe storage, the moisture content of the food grains should be 14 percent by weight or
less. The greater amount of moisture present in food grains increases the rate of decay of
food materials caused by microorganisms and enzymes and the population of insects
increases rapidly. When these insects respire they release a lot of heat, so the temperature
of stored food grain rises.
The rise in temperature of stored food grains due to the heat released by the respiration of a
large number of insects, and microorganisms (fungi such as molds, yeast, etc.) is called dry
heating of food grains. Another disadvantage of the presence of greater moisture is that it
increases the size of the food grains, due to which these grains require more space.

MOISTURE
If grain moisture content is too high, even the best aeration equipment and monitoring
management will not keep the grain from spoiling. All stored product insect pests, micro-
organisms, including molds, require moisture to survive and multiply. If the moisture content
in a product going in to store is too low, insects and micro-organisms will be unable to grow
provided that the moisture in the store is also kept low.
This moisture content is referred to as the safe moisture content Due to excessive humidity,
multiplication of fungi particularly Aspergillus spp., which produce dangerous toxins
(Aflatoxins), will make grain unfit for human consumption. Wet heating: increase in the grain
temperature due to the activity of fungus in presence of high moisture.Dry heating: increase
in the temperature due to the activity of insects and their respiration.Equilibrium moisture
content: it is the point at which the grain not loose nor gain the moisture from surrounding
air. Safe moisture content levels for cereals and pulses stored below 270c
Product Safe moisture content (%) Cereals: maize flour 11.5 Maize shelled 13.5 Millet
16.0 Rice (milled) 13.0 Rice 15.0 Sorghum 13.5 Wheat 13.5 Wheat flour 12.0 Pulses: broad
bean, cow pea 15.0 Lentil, pea 14.0
Moisture content in foodgrains storage:

Produce contains moisture which is present in grain in two main forms, water of composition
and absorbed water or free water. However, the quantity of free water held by the grain
product is a critical factor which place a vital role in safe storage of food grains. It has been
defined by IS as loss in weight brought about by heating for two hours at 130 to 133 0c. In
another definition, It has been defined as amount of water that can be removed without
changing the chemical structure of grain.
The amount of water in dry foodgrains varies from about 0.05kg/kg to 0.30kg/kg. The
activities of biotic factors are also governed by the moisture content of stored products.
Besides the rate at which chemical and physical changes take place, increase very rapidly
with increase in the moisture content of the grain. The more important factor is that at low
moisture content, the grain and their products can be stored for longer period safely.
(c) Effect of humidity:

The moisture content present in the air is known as humidity. It promotes the growth of
moulds (e.g., Mucor, Penicillium) on the stored food materials. High humidity content also
initiates the germination process of stored seeds which also releases heat. Therefore, as the
moisture content of the grains increases from 14 to 18 percent, the temperature may shoot
up to 66°C. The rise in temperature of stored food grains due to the growth of moulds and
fungi and germination of stored food grains under high humidity conditions of air is called wet
heating or damp grain heating. Thus, dry heating and wet heating both lowers the quality of
stored food grains and badly affect the germination of grains.
A combination of biotic and abiotic factors causes infestation of insects, degradation in

quality, loss in weight, poor germinability, discoloration of produce, poor marketability, and
economic loss. Therefore, stored grains must be protected from all types of losses and
damages.

Preventive and Control Measures
Biotic and abiotic factors which cause the destruction of grains during storage can be
prevented and controlled by using the following methods.
1. Drying:
The proper time of harvesting a crop is very important because the time of harvesting crop
determines the yield of the crop production as well as the storing qualities of the crop
products.
At the time of harvesting of the crop, moisture content in grains varies, from 15-35 percent.
But, for safe storage, the seeds and grains should have a moisture content below 14%. So
the step of drying grains is a vital preventive measure.
The harvested food grains should be dried by spreading them over plastic sheets or on the
cemented floor (This is done because if the grains are spread directly on the ground, they
will absorb more moisture from the ground). All the sun-dried food grains are allowed to cool
to room temperature before storing them. On commercial bases, a mechanical drier with hot
air is used.
2. Cleaning:
The grains and other agricultural produce should be properly cleaned before their storage.
They should be filled in new gunny bags before keeping in godowns, warehouses, or stores.
3. Safe and Proper Storage:

Godown, warehouses, and stores should be properly cleaned, dried, and repaired. Pathways
(alleys) should be provided between the stacks of grain-filled bags, for periodic inspection,
spraying, or fumigation.
For the large-scale storage of grains, grain silos are used. The silos are big and tall
cylindrical structures. They store different stocks of food items at different levels. Silos are
provided with outlets (chutes) at different levels to withdraw the desired stock of grains. They
have built-in arrangements for aeration, temperature control, protection from insects, rats,
birds, and mammals, for fumigation and inspection of their grain stocks.
4. Chemical Control:
The pesticide solution is sprayed over the gunny bags containing food grains by using a
manual sprayer or a mechanical sprayer. The spraying of pesticides is more suitable for
disinfecting the whole godown before the arrival of the fresh stock of grains. The following
pesticides can be sprayed BHC (benzene hexachloride), malathion, and pyrethrum.
Pesticides can be mixed with the grains only when they are to be used as seeds for sowing.
5. Fumigation:
Those pesticides which can destroy insects by forming toxic fumes are called fumigants and
the process of their use is called fumigation. Fumigants may be solid, liquid, or gaseous.
Ultimately they volatilise or react with the moisture of the air, forming poisonous fumes.

Examples:
 Aluminium phosphate (solid fumigant) tablets commonly known as black poison (3g
each) can be used at 2 tablets per tonne grain or 160 tablets per 100 cubic meter volume
of grain.
 Ethylene dichloride plus carbon tetrachloride or EDCT (liquid fumigant). Ethyl dibromide
(EDB) is another liquid fumigant.
 Methyl bromide (gaseous fumigant).
Esimation of Moisture Content
Moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a food material. Moisture content is
used in a wide range of scientific and technical areas, and is expressed as a ratio, which can
range from 0 (completely dry) to the value of the materials' porosity at saturation. It can be
given on a volumetric or mass (gravimetric) basis. Moisture content is expressed as a
percentage of moisture based on total weight (wet basis) or dry matter (dry basis). Wet basis
moisture content is generally used. Dry basis is used primarily in research. The moisture
content is expressed by following formulae.
( )
( )
where, M is moisture content on a percent basis, w is total weight (also called as wet weight)
and d is dry weight.
Based on the different forms of moisture present in the food the method used for
measurement of moisture may estimate more or less moisture content. Therefore, for
different food products Official Methods of moisture measurement have been given by
agencies like AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists), AACC (American
Association of Cereal Chemists) and BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards).

GODOWN MANAGEMENT & CODE OF STORAGE PRACTICES
In order to prevent wastage of foodgrains during supply chain, there is an elaborate
mechanism to ensure procurement of good quality foodgrains, its safe storage,
transportation and distribution. Foodgrains for central pool are procured conforming to the
uniform specifications formulated by the Government. Procured foodgrains are to be stored
in scientific storage system. During storage, prescribed code of practices are to be followed
to avoid any damage/wastage. There is a regular monitoring mechanism under which
inspections at all levels are carried out to ensure safe preservations of foodgrains in Food
Corporation of India (FCI). To prevent wastage of foodgrain while in transit by rail/road, FCI
takes necessary measures like loading of foodgrain in fit/cleaned railway wagons, usages of
tarpaulins while road movement to avoid any kind of pilferage and contamination of
foodgrain. Only covered rail wagons are to be used for movement of foodgrains. This
information was given by the Minister of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution,
Prof. K.V. Thomas in a written reply in Rajya Sabha today.
He said that a number of steps are mandated to be followed by F.C.I. and State Government
agencies for proper upkeep and quality to check damages to central pool stocks of
foodgrains which include followiongs
 All godowns are to be constructed as per specifications.

 Foodgrains are to be stored by adopting proper scientific code of storage practices.
 Adequate dunnage materials such as wooden crates, bamboo mats, polythene sheets
are to be used to check migration of moisture from the floor to the foodgrains.
 Fumigation covers, nylon ropes, nets and insecticides for control of stored grain insect
pests are to be provided in all the godowns.
 Prophylactic (spraying of insecticides) and curative treatments (fumigation) are to be
carried out regularly and timely in godowns for the control of stored grain insect pests.
 Effective rat control measures, both in covered godowns as well as in CAP storage are
to be used.
 Foodgrains in ‗Cover and Plinth‘ (CAP) storage are to be stored on elevated plinths and
wooden crates are to be used as dunnage material. Stacks are to be properly covered
with specifically fabricated low-density black polythene water -proof covers and tied with
nylon ropes/nets.
 Regular periodic inspections of the stocks/godowns are to be undertaken by qualified
and trained staff and all senior officers.
 The principle of ―First in First Out‖ (FIFO) is to be followed to the extent possible so as to
avoid longer storage of foodgrains in godowns.
 Only covered rail wagons are to be used for movement of foodgrains so as to avoid
damage during transit.
Shri Thomas further said that the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of
Agriculture provides assistance under Horticulture Mission for North-East and Himalayan
States (HMNEH) and National Horticulture Mission (NHM) schemes for development of
infrastructure for post harvest management. This include establishment of cold storage and
setting up of terminal markets, wholesale markets and rural primary markets/apni mandies to
ensure adequate supply of fruits and vegetables to the consumers at reasonable prices and
also to provide remunerative returns to the farmers. In addition, National Horticulture Board
(NHB) provides assistance for establishment of cold storages for horticultural commodities.

PRINCIPLE OF GODOWN SANITATION & HYGIENE
Food hygiene are the conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety of food from
production to consumption (Food Chain Sequence). Handling, preparing and storing food or
drink in a way that best reduces the risk of consumers becoming sick from the food-borne
disease.
Food hygiene falls under the umbrella term ‗food safety‘. Food hygiene itself does not
include all the other key areas of food safety.
Food safety refers to an entire system of managing risks. Meanwhile, food hygiene refers to
an individual set of practices for controlling only one aspect.
Under the umbrella of ―The Future of Food Safety‖. WHO, in collaboration with the Food and
Agriculture Organization(FAO) of the United Nations In 2018, the United Nations General
Assembly declared June 7 as the World Food Safety Day. June 7, 2019, marks the first
anniversary of World Food Safety Day and the theme for World Food Safety Day 2020 was
'Food Safety, everyone's business‖.
The United Nations (UN) has assigned 5 two of its agencies, the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) to lead efforts in promoting
food safety around the world.
The World Food Safety Day is celebrated every year on June 7 to draw global attention to
the health consequences of contaminated food and water.
World Food Day is an international day celebrated every year around the world on 16
October in honor of the date of the founding of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations in 1945.
People from around the world come together to declare their commitment to eradicate
worldwide hunger from our lifetime.
Personal Hygiene
In catering, hygiene and sanitation play a vital role in promoting and protecting the health
and wellbeing of hundreds of people. The foods, materials, and equipment are subject to
constant handling by people at every stage of food production and service. Thus it is the
duty of every caterer to ensure that personal hygiene becomes a habit of all food handlers.
All food handlers reporting for duty must be fresh, well-groomed and clean.
Few points for personal hygiene that food handlers must follow:
1. Bathing: Workers must bathe daily (even twice) as body odor is offensive and skin is the
main breeding ground for bacteria. Head bath again twice a week.
2. Hair: Wearing clean headgear to be encouraged to prevent hair from falling in food,
prevent from touching their scalp and also prevent long hair from getting entangled in
machinery.
3. Teeth and Mouth: Teeth to be brushed thoroughly twice a day with a moderately hard
brush – first thing in the morning and after dinner.
4. Hands: Hands are in direct contact with food, so can transfer bacteria and cause illness.
To prevent this, hands should be washed:
 Before beginning work and after a break.
After eating or smoking.

After using the toilet.
After touching infected or unsanitary areas of the body or combing hair or using
mobile phones.
After using a handkerchief, sneezing or coughing into the hands.
After handling raw foods, especially meat, fish and poultry.
After handling waste food or refuse.
Whenever they are dirty.
 Hands should be washed thoroughly with plenty of soap and water – preferably
rinsed in running water or water stored in clean covered containers with a tap fixed
on them. If soap cakes are used, they should be kept dry. Liquid soap is more
hygienic and economical to use. Hands must be thoroughly dried by using a roller
towel, disposable paper, towels or a hot air dryer. Exposed wounds, cuts, burns can
harbor bacteria. They need to be covered with a waterproof dressing. Pus formation,
inflammation indicates infection. Such people should not be allowed to handle food
for some time.
5. Finger Nails: Nails should be trimmed as they harbor germs and can also chip and fall in
the food and kept clean. Nail polish used should not be allowed.
6. Feet and Footwear: Feet should be washed and kept clean. Always wear socks with
shoes to keep away dirt and perspiration. Shoes should form a part of the uniform,
sturdy, well-fitting, and well-polished, with a low heel.
7. Jewelry: Food handlers should not wear any jewelry as they tend to harbor bacteria and
small parts may sometimes drop food into food.
8. Reporting Illness: If the food handler feels unwell he/she should report it to his or her
supervisor. Such food handlers should be excluded from work until medical clearance is
taken.
Habits to be avoided
 Washing hands in sinks used for food preparation. In case there is no separate
 All catering staff should need to be periodically put through a medical check-up to ensure
that they are not suffering from worms, T.B, skin or other infections. People with colds,
sore throat, boils, and diarrhea should not handle food.
Food Safety in Kitchens
Food hygiene may be defined as the sanitary science which aims to produce food which is
safe for the consumer and is of good keeping quality.
1. Procurement of raw material: Freshness, quality, quality of packaged food products
(e.g. Appearance, temperature, packaging and pack seals are intact).
2. Storage of Raw Materials: Storage areas (temperatures, products should be completely
covered, FIFO ( first in first out) & FEFO (first expired first Out), 6‖ above the ground, veg
& non-veg to be kept separate, all products with the label of expiry date, delivery
date,cold storage at 5°C or below for chillers and -18°C for freezers.
3. Preparation of raw material:
 General – Use of only potable water from safe source, clean work area, equipment,
product cover after preparation / cooking.
 Sieving/sorting or cleaning – use potable water, uncooked, ready to eat – fruits

and vegetables are disinfected with 50ppm chlorinated water before cutting, peeling
or serving. Do not reuse this chlorinated water for other purposes.
4. Cooking/Processing: Temp. of cooked food should reach 70°C, cooking in hygienic

area, was basin in the kitchen (e.g. In a dhaba or kiosk), then put a small tap outside and

segregate it. Tasting food with fingers or with the same spoon: is the most unhygienic
thing to do. Leaving cooked food uncovered for a long time. Blowing air from the mouth
over the hot food. separate equipments and utensils for vegetarian and non-vegetarian
product, potable water, frying oil/fat should be changed immediately when there is colour
change, foiling, syrupiness scum formation, ice should be prepared from potable water.
5. Storage of cooked food: Cooked food should be stored covered and at appropriate
temperature, cold foods at 5°C or below hot foods at 60°C or above. Veg & non- veg
products should be stored separately and properly labeled with day and date of
preparation, salads, garnishes or ready to eat foods are immediately stored in clean
covered containers and refrigerated.
6. Preparation of cooked food before serving: Cold foods are served cold, hot foods hot
(up to 70°C), and cooked food is not left at room temp. For more than 2 hours, surplus
food is discarded and not mixed up with freshly prepared food; transported cooked food
is consumed/used within 4 hours of its arrival.
7. Serving of Cooked Food: Use clean & intact utensils/ one time use disposables, clean
and non-toxic material is used for packing food. Printed paper is not used for wrapping.
All tables and food serving counters are to be kept clean, use spatula/spoon/hand gloves
etc. for serving and not with bare hands.
8. Storage of surplus food: surplus food is consumed before expiry/use by date, surplus
foods are stored in the refrigerator, surplus food is discarded, perishable products are
consumed immediately. Canned products once opened should be transferred in the
suitable covered containers and kept refrigerated.
9. Quality of water & ice: Municipal water supply should be used as it is safely treated in
the water plant, ice should be handled hygienically with clean scoops.
10. Utensils & Equipment: Equipment cleaning and hygiene of establishment, surrounding/
environment, good lighting facility, pest control, insect electrocuting device (IED) on the
entrance of Kitchens, Air screens, maintenance & cleaning. Last but not the
least personal hygiene.
Safety in Storage of Food

Foods should be stored in the right way so that they do not become hazardous to health and
their quality does not deteriorate. There are two kinds of storages:
1. Dry Storage Rooms (For Dry Ingredients)

Meant for non-perishable foods like cereals, pulses, legumes, sugars, spices, fats and oils,
packaged and canned foods; and for semi – perishables like under ripe fruits and
vegetables, potatoes and onions, bread and eggs. Temperature conditions – 20-25°C (room
temperature). If the outside temperatures are too high, then the store temperatures have to
be brought down by air cooling the store. The storage should be dry cool well ventilated and
free from infestation to maintain quality of food. Good ventilation will counteract the effort of
humidity and high temperature.
 While most non-perishables can be stored together in a storeroom, some semi –
perishables require separate ventilated storage facilities, slightly cooler than the rest of
the store.
 Foods which need to be held only for 2-3 days require a temperature of 10- 15.5°C. Like
breads, bakery products.
 If space allows, fats and oils should be stored away from the rest of the food.
 As far as possible, the non-perishables should be stored in air tight covered bins,
cartons, polythene packs and cans.
 Transparent glass jars may be used for pulses and spices.

 Eggs may be kept in cardboard trays and cartons and consumed in 2-3 days.
 Cleaning supplies which include detergents, brushes, mops, and antiseptic solutions
should be stored in separate section.
 Trash is always stored away from the store.
In a small food joint, like coffee shops or kiosks, the dry store may have to provide space for
storing all types of commodities. In such a case, care should be taken to ensure that food,
equipment and detergents are placed in separate cabinets or
shelves (detergent may be added instead of salt)
2. Low Temperature Storage

The principle is to maintain temperatures at levels which will inhibit the growth of micro-
organisms, and thus preserving food. Perishable foods have a high content of moisture,
providing suitable humidity for microbes to thrive and for spoilage to occur.
They are two types:
 Refrigerated Storage
Temperatures between 0 – 10 deg. Celsius. This is necessary for perishables like milk and
milk products, leftovers of cooked food,
fermented batters, dough‘s, green vegetables and fruits. All foods must be kept covered.
 Freezer Storage
Freezer storage may be in the form of a free standing cabinet or a separate cabinet in the
refrigerator where the temperature is maintained from -20 to 0 deg. Celsius. All
meat/fish/poultry, frozen veggies, ice-creams etc. require frozen conditions. For successful
freezing, it is necessary to blanch foods, cool quickly to freezing temperatures and pack in
air tight containers and packets. A food removed from the freezer, thawed for use, must
never be put back in the freezer as this increases the microbes manifold and make the food
unsafe.
Sanitation and Safety of Stores

 Dry food stores should be fly proofed. Wire meshing of doors and windows to be done.
Use of insect electrocuting device at the entry.
 Walls to be treated with insecticide sprays which leave insecticidal films on walls –
remain effective for 2 – 3 months.
 While whitewashing D.D.T or Lindane may be mixed with the white was to make the
surface insect repellent.
 All stores to be guarded against pests like rodents, cockroaches, flies to safeguard both
staff and consumers against infested and contaminated food. The store supervisor
should:
 Maintain cleanliness.
 Use poisoned baits or traps for rats (Zinc Phosphide, Warfarin, are effective rat
poisons)
 All openings to be sealed – open drains, gaps in doors, around water pipes.
 Cockroaches hide in dark nooks and corners. All cracks and crevices to be sealed.
 Personal Hygiene should be maintained by the staff.

FUMIGATION OF FOOD GRAINS BY DIFFERENT FUMIGANTS &
USE OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT
FUMIGANTS
Properly conducted fumigation will stop insect infestation and grain degradation from getting
progressively worse. When fumigation is effectively conducted in late fall, pest populations
can be drastically reduced.
Fumigation is recommended if:

 Grain samples reveal the presence of insect damaged-kernals (IDK).
 Samples or traps capture harmful insects (lesser grain borer, granary weevil).
 Trapping or sampling indicates that a population of secondary pests like the rusty grain
beetle is expanding rapidly
Fumigants registered for use are phosphine, either released from aluminum or magnesium
phosphide or directly as a gas, methyl bromide, and chloropicrin (used for empty bin
treatment only). Tablets or pellets of aluminum or magnesium phosphide are sold under
Weevilcide®, Fumitoxin®, and Phostoxin® trade names. Phosphine gas mixed with carbon
dioxide is sold in gas cylinders as ECO2- Fume®. Methyl bromide is expensive, difficult to
use properly on raw grain, kills the germ, and is not recommended for stored grain,
especially seed wheat. In addition, methyl bromide use is being phased out due to its status
as an ozone depleter under the Montreal protocol.
The phosphide pellets or tablets release phosphine gas as they are exposed to moisture in
the air. In a large storage facility, phosphide pellets or tablets are often added to infested
grain as it is moved from one silo to another silo, bin, railcar, or truck.
NOTE: The treatment of mobile units must be in isolation as per label standards and the
units can not be moved until the fumigation is over and the residue has been properly
aerated!
For fixed facilities with a significant infestation, pellets or tablets are probed deeply into the
mass and also similarly distributed near the top surface. The released gas is more effectively
distributed through the mass using an air-circulation system known as closed-loop
fumigation (CLF). For an effective fumigation, the facility must be well sealed to prevent gas
leakage to maintain a high enough dosage for sufficient time to kill all life stages of the
infesting insects. This requirement to prevent leaks is now a label requirement for the use of
phosphine products.
Phosphine is used because it has good cost-benefit factors, is safe for workers when used
properly, is environmentally safe, has no residue, is highly effective, and is remedial when
large insect populations are found. Phosphine can be corrosive to copper and precious
metals, such as those found in electronic equipment (computers, aeration fan motors, etc.),
which limits its use in buildings.
Fumigation is more effective when sanitation, grain leveling, removal of fines, and thorough
bin sealing has been done in advance. It is essential that the level of phosphine remain
adequate (greater than 200 ppm) for as long as possible, with a minimum of 100 hours
recommended to kill all life stages of the pest insects at optimal temperatures.

Many of the regulations stressed in this manual were recently established. The label and
applicators manual are considered part of the revised label, and the label requirements are
far more stringent than for the previous label and includes:
 a stricter restricted use statement requiring the physical presence of a certified applicator
when the product is used,
 a requirement that two trained applicators be present whenever fumigation or gas
monitoring requires work or reentry within confined spaces which reinforces the common
sense approach that fumigators should always work in pairs,
 language that fumigant use must be in strict accordance with the label.
In addition, certified applicators must:

 ensure that the fumigated facility is secure and placarded before leaving.,
 be physically present and responsible for all workers when the fumigation exposure is
complete,
 ensure that the structure is opened for aeration
The certified applicator is also responsible for the monitoring of exposure levels during the
application, fumigation, and aeration process. For this reason, the new label has strict
sealing guidelines to prevent exposure to phosphine gas escaping from leaky storage
structures. The new label also sets on maximum dosage levels and gives recommended
dosage ranges for specific applications, whereas the preceding label only set minimum and
maximum dosage levels.
Also, the entire label must be physically present when the product is used, and if an incident
with adverse effects on human health or the environment occurs, the product registrant must
be informed.
There are also requirements for weatherproof placarding, with name of the applicator and
the product EPA registration number affixed.
There are requirements for the reporting of product theft to local police, and for DOT
transportation labels when the product is transported.
FUMIGATION MANAGEMENT PLAN

In order to develop an effective Fumigation Management Plan, the following procedures
need to be followed:
 The certified applicator must inspect the structure and surroundings to determine
suitability for fumigation. If sealing is required, review records to determine if structural
changes may have resulted in new potential leaks.
 Seal all leaks and test the seal, plus monitor phosphine levels in adjacent occupied
buildings to ensure safety.
 Review existing Fumigation Management Plans, Material Data Safety Sheets, the
label/applicator‘s manual, and safety procedures before fumigating.
 Develop procedures and safety measures for other workers that will be in and around the
fumigation area during application and aeration.
 Develop a monitoring plan that confirms that workers and bystanders are not exposed to
levels above the allowed limits during application, fumigation, and aeration. This
monitoring plan must also demonstrate that nearby residents are not exposed to
unacceptable levels, as well. The levels for exposure are an 8 hour time-weighted
average of 0.3 ppm or a 15 minute time-weighted short term exposure limit of 1.0 ppm.
 Develop a procedure with local authorities to notify nearby residents in the event of an
emergency.

 Confirm the placement of placards to secure all entrances to any structure under
fumigation.
 Ensure that the required safety and monitoring equipment and adequate manpower is
available to conduct a safe fumigation. More recent respiratory protection guidelines for
workers and certified applicators, require the use of monitoring equipment to establish
airborne concentrations. Between 0 and 0.3 ppm, no respiratory protection is required. At
concentrations from 0.3-15 ppm, a NIOSH/MSHA approved full – face canister respirator
is required. If the phosphine concentration is above 15 ppm or if it is not known, a self-
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is required.
 Application of fumigant material and post fumigation aerations must be by two persons,
with at least one person being a certified applicator. The second individual may be a
worker under the direct supervision of the certified applicator, and the certified applicator
is responsible for the safety of this worker.
Treatment of grain by fumigation

Fumigation is a treatment that rids stored grain of insects by means of a poisonous gas
called a fumigant. This substance, produced and concentrated as a gas, is lethal for specific
living species. Unlike contact powders, the fumigant penetrates to the interior of the grain
mass and reaches the largely invisible incipient forms (eggs, larvae) developing there.
Fumigants spread throughout the area where released, therefore, used in totally sealed
enclosure. Thus, when grain stored in bulk is fumigated, the bins must be perfectly airtight.
For grain stored in bags, the usual method is to cover the bags with a tarpaulin whose edges
are sealed to the ground or the walls. The effectiveness of fumigation depends, on the one
hand, on the actual concentration of the gas and, on the other, on the length of time during
which the grain is fumigated.
Which fumigants to use?

Generally two types of fumigants are available for fumigation purposes in grain storage
programme.
1. Methyl bromide: It has a quick action and the grains can be aerated after 12-24 hours of
its application. However, it is highly toxic, colourless and odourless, has residual effect in
the grain and accumulates in the human body. For this reason, methyl bromide should
not be used as a fumigant in grain storage programme.
2. Magnesium or Aluminium phosphide : Gas released from this chemical is known as
Phosphine. This fumigant has a small molecular weight (34.04) and thereby has
excellent penetration capacity. The weight of phosphine gas is similar to that of air, so it
easily gets mixed with air and spreads all along the stored grains. This eliminates the
need to have re-circulating fans to circulate the air. This is very effective against most
pests but does affect taste or smell of the fumigated grain. At the same time, it leaves no
residues on the grain, so it can safely be used for food grains.
Moreover it does not affect the germinability of seeds and therefore, can safely be used for
storage of seeds also. However, it is inflammable at normal temperature, so proper care
should be taken at the time of its application. This has a delayed release and, therefore,
requires longer period of fumigation than other fumigants.
Depending on weather methyl bromide or phosphine is used, the duration of fumigation

should be 24–48 hours for methyl bromide, or a minimum of five days for phosphine. The
latter product is more commonly used, since its application, in the form of pellets spread
throughout the grain mass, is simpler. It is essential to recognize, however, that fumigants

are very poisonous to people and therefore the staff that is to use them must be carefully
trained in their application. For all these treatments, it is important to scrupulously observe
the recommended protective and safety measures (masks, gloves, hand-washing, hermetic
sealing of phosphine containers, etc.).
Conditions for application of phostoxin

Remember that these treatments are curative, and have no persistence overtime, therefore,
a combination of the techniques of contact insecticide and fumigation is recommended.
Location: Any space that can be enclosed and made air-tight can be used for fumigation of
grains.
Temperature: The duration of fumigation treatment is highly dependent on ambient

temperature condition. Higher is the temperature, more effective is the treatment. Some
important guidelines are as follows:
IPM strategies against pulse beetle
Temperature range, 0C Fumigation period

20 and above 4 – 5 days of exposure
16 – 20 6 days of exposure
Below 5 Do not fumigate
Relative Humidity : Humidity of the ambient air influences the rate of release of phosphine
gas. Higher the RH, higher is the rate of release of gas. There is no release of gas below
30% RH. Under this condition, water containers should be placed below the fumigation
sheet.
Right concentration : It is essential to maintain the required concentration of fumigant in

the sealed space and for sufficient time in order to have effective control of all stages of the
pest. The fumigation sheet, therefore, should be air-tight and properly sealed with the floor
with the help of paper tape. The floor should preferably be of concrete.
Proper hygiene: Fumigants are not persistent and therefore, the possibility of re-infestation
should be avoided. This can be done with carrying out surface treatment of the storage area
with Malathion. This has a volatile action and is effective against flying insects.
Some do‟s and don‟ts

After fumigation, the grain storage should be aerated and thoroughly cleaned. The collected
trash should be removed away from the storage area to prevent further breeding of insects
and re-infesting the grains.
Before carrying out fumigation operation, it is important to know how to detect and measure
the concentration of released gas in the air and the precautions to be taken to avoid
hazards.

Do‟s
 Fumigants should be kept safely and outside the reach of ordinary persons. Only trained
persons should carry out the fumigation work.
 Use a gas mask with the correct filter.
 Wash and preferably take bath after fumigation.
 Use a display board indicating the fumigant being used, date of application and person in
charge.
 Do keep gas monitoring device to determine the gas concentration during fumigation.
 Aerate after uncovering.
 Fumigation should be carried out away from office/residential areas.
 Collect the residues after fumigation and throw in water. Bury the used containers.
 Keep first aid treatment box handy to deal with accidental exposures to the fumigants.
Don‟ts :
 Never work alone.
 Do not eat, drink or smoke during or immediately after fumigation.
Limiting values of fumigants

Gas concentration in the air which is safe for human being is known as threshold limit value
of the fumigant. Threshold limit values of the two commonly used fumigants are:
Propertics Phosphine Methyl bromide

Threshold limit value 0.3 ppm 5 ppm
Odour threshold value 1 ppm 0 ppm
Skin absorption Negligible Slight
Chronic effects Not known Affects nervours system

HANDLING & TRANSPORTATION OF FOOD GRAINS
Main elements of the post-harvest system
Harvesting. The time of harvesting is determined by the degree of maturity. With cereals
and pulses, a distinction should be made between maturity of stalks (straw), ears or
seedpods and seeds, for all that affects successive operations, particularly storage and
preservation.
Pre-harvest drying, mainly for cereals and pulses. Extended pre-harvest field drying
ensures good preservation but also heightens the risk of loss due to attack (birds, rodents,
insects) and moulds encouraged by weather conditions, not to mention theft. On the other
hand, harvesting before maturity entails the risk of loss through moulds and the decay of
some of the seeds.
Transport. Much care is needed in transporting a really mature harvest, in order to prevent
detached grain from falling on the road before reaching the storage or threshing place.
Collection and initial transport of the harvest thus depend on the place and conditions where
it is to be stored, especially with a view to threshing.
Post-harvest drying. The length of time needed for full drying of ears and grains depends
considerably on weather and atmospheric conditions. In structures for lengthy drying such as
cribs, or even unroofed threshing floors or terraces, the harvest is exposed to wandering
livestock and the depredations of birds, rodents or small ruminants. Apart from the actual
wastage, the droppings left by these marauders often result in higher losses than what they
actually eat. On the other hand, if grain is not dry enough, it is vulnerable to mould and can
rot during storage.
Moreover, if grain is too dry it becomes brittle and can crack after threshing, during hulling or
milling. This applies especially to rice if milling takes place a long time (two to three months)
after the grain has matured, when it can cause heavy losses. During winnowing, broken
grain can be removed with the husks and is also more susceptible to certain insects (e.g.
flour beetles and weevils). Lastly, if grain is too dry, this means a loss of weight and hence a
loss of money at the time of sale.
Threshing. If a harvest is threshed before it is dry enough, this operation will most probably
be incomplete. Furthermore, if grain is threshed when it is too damp and then immediately
heaped up or stored (in a granary or bags), it will be much more susceptible to attack from
micro-organisms, thus limiting its preservation.
Storage. Facilities, hygiene and monitoring must all be adequate for effective, long-term
storage. In closed structures (granaries, warehouses, hermetic bins), control of cleanliness,
temperature and humidity is particularly important. Damage caused by pests (insects,
rodents) and moulds can lead to deterioration of facilities (e.g. mites in wooden posts) and
result in losses in quality and food value as well as quantity.
Processing. Excessive hulling or threshing can also result in grain losses, particularly in the
case of rice (hulling) which can suffer cracks and lesions. The grain is then not only worth
less, but also becomes vulnerable to insects such as the rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica).

Marketing. Marketing is the final and decisive element in the post-harvest system, although
it can occur at various points in the agro-food chain, particularly at some stage in processing.
Moreover, it cannot be separated from transport, which is an essential link in the system.
Rural Transportation
After harvesting of crops, the next unit operation in the chain is the transportation of crops
from the field to the threshing yard, from threshing yard to the fan house. The various
animals used for field operations or transportation purposes are bullocks, horses, mules,
camels and buffaloes. You may be aware that in India, about 50% of farm power is provided
by bullocks. According to various expert estimates, about 10 million kilometre freight is
carried by carts all over the country and nearly 70% of the arrivals of agricultural products at
mandis or markets, are carried by bullock carts. As a result, there is a heavy investment in
animal drawn transportation system, which is estimated to be around Rs. 3000 crores. The
bullock cart transportation system is an extremely important part of India's rural
transportation. The clumsy looking, slow moving bullock carts, the traditional- lifeline of the
rural community in India, can not only help ease the fuel. crisis but also save the
environment from pollution.
Transportation of grains
Transportation of food grains is an important activity for two reasons. Firstly, it presents
logistic problems to the fanners to ensure that the grain is taken out immediately after
bagging to minimize losses due to deterioration in grain quality. It may happen especially
during the off-season harvest. Secondly. transportation costs are important components of
the total grain production cost. 40 Grain after harvesting and threshing are bagged. They
may be transported to the procurement centers, directly to the milling complexes or to any
licensed or private buyers. Transportation of grains are mainly carried by bullock or animal
carts, trucks, tractor with trailers, etc. At the procurement centers, selling and buying of
grains are concluded. After buying, it becomes the reasonability of the buyers to store grains
and finally transport to the milling, complexes.
These days, you will, experience an increased demand for transportation services in
shipping of agricultural products from the production sites. This has been mainly contributed
by inter-regional agricultural products, growth in population and increase in demand for food.
Packing
There was a time when families were pretty much self sufficient and not part of a complex
and interdependent society. They grew most of their own food. And, how well they ate
depended on the climate where they live, the soil and what season of the year it happened
to be. But there was a time when we were basically a farm oriented society, As we became
more urbanized and great sprawling cities· developed, the way we could obtain our basic
necessities changed. Packaging has played a vital role in food handling chain. Due to
packaging technology distribution of all types of products in abundance is now possible from
one area to the other areas. Packaging performs a number of functions in bringing products
into consumers' hands. Packaging reduces food costs by reducing processing cost. Food
products can be processed where they are, grown. With this, waste stays at the processing
point; shipping and transportation costs are reduced'. Packing protects the food product
during distribution' and storage against moisture, dirt, micro-organisms o which can cause
severe spoilage. This is one of the most important issue you should remember in agricultural
products safe handling. Packaging protects against loss of ingredients, loss of
fragrance/aroma, and hence food retains its nutritional value. Another important function of

packing is its ability to communicate with the. consumer (buyer) .The package should
communicate identity of content, brand, ingredients, instructions, cautions. and warranties in
a self-service situation.
The basic packaging materials were cloth bags and jute bags. Generally, these were used
for transporting bulk quantities of grains. As mentioned, jute bags and cloth bags were the
major bulk containers for grains packaging. Polymer based packages have been in greater
use and demand for packing of secondary processed food commodities of cereals, pulses
and oilseeds.
Storage
Storage is an interim arrangement during transit of agricultural products from the producer to
the processor and its products from processor to consumer. In the farmers' context,
agricultural products need to be stored from one harvest to next harvest. This is necessary
to safeguard against the following crop failures or poor -quality, speculation in prices and
market demand or against shortage and famines: The objective of proper grain storage
management is to maintain the characteristics of grain throughout the storage period: You
must note here that storage cannot improve the quality of the grain. Grain improperly
harvested and dried remains at low quality regardless of how well it is stored. The viability
should be preserved for the seed grain, milling and baking qualities for food grain, and the
nutritive properties of the feed grain. The principal sources of loss in quality and quantity in
cereal grains during storage are the molds, insects, mites and rodents. The secret of
keeping stored grains in good condition is to maintain the grain mass at uniformly cool and
dry conditions and in an air tight condition. Also, the objective of grain storage structures is
to protect the stored grain from weather, birds, rodents and insects. Many R & D institutions
in the country have developed many scientific storage structures for the cereals. Grain is
stored in metal bins, reinforced cement concrete structures, and structures constructed using
brick and cement mortar. These can be built both indoor and outdoor for different quantities
in a typical farmers' situations. Some of the storage structures are given below for your
knowledge base.
Corrugated GI Sheet Bin

It has been developed at the Indian Grain Storage Institute, Hapur. It is a flat bottom storage
structure of 76 cu-m capacity. It is fabricated from corrugated and plain galvanized steel
sheets and mild steel (MS) sections. The structure is erected' on a brick masonry and
cement concrete base, 675 mm above the ground le-yel. The sheets are rolled in sheet
rolling machine to provide a curvature of 2770 mm radius. MS ring is provided at the bottom
of the structure with anchoring bolts embedded ' in the cement concrete to provide adequate
strength as well as to secure structure firmly. Similar ring is provided at the top of the
structure. The roof panels and stiffeners are fabricated from 24 and 18 gauge galvanized
plain sheets, respectively. An inlet of 500 mm diameter is provided at the top for loading and
an inclined outlet of 200 mm diameter at the bottom for unloading purposes. Steps are
provided to the roof for loading of the bin. Besides, a manhole is provided in the wall section
to facilitate further unloading of grain from structure. This bin is suitable for storage of wheat
and other cereals.
RCC Ring Bin

This bin was also developed by the Indian Grain Storage Institute, Hapur (UP). You will
appreciate here that the storage structure is made out of RCC rings. Mild steel reinforcement
is provided both in horizontal and vertical direction for casting RCC rings. The edges of the

ring are made such that the bottom edge of one ring will sit-tightly over the top edge of the
ring below. The shape of the joint is such hat water can not get into the bins as the slope is
outward. The joints are sealed with cement motor of 1:2 proportions. Floor is of plain cement
concrete of 1:2:4 proportions and itis 75 mm thick. The roof is of RCC with a cement inlet at
the top. Roof projects beyond the walls by about 75 mm with a gentle slope from the centre.
To cover the inlet, an RCC lid is provided. Grain is taken out from square opening provided
at the bottom at ground level covered with a metal sheet. This bin is good for storage of
wheat and other cereals.
CIAE Out door metal bin

This is developed from Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal. It is made of
aluminum sheets. The sheets are revitted, Proper sealing of joints is done by 3 mm thick
bitumen sheet. The sheets are rolled over a mild steel angle and flat , iron frame put for
inforcement. The structure rests on a cement concrete platform sloping in two directions
from centre. 'Top of the bin is inclined to allow quick drainage of rain water and dew. Well
dried, clean and cool grain is filled in the bin 'from the opening provided on the roof. The
opening is then sealed properly. Two outlets are provided at the lowest point of slopping
which could be locked. Bin of 2.5, 10,20 and 35 tonne storage capacity are also available
with similar design. Wheat and other food grains and oil seeds could be safely stored in this
bin.
Transportation
For short distance bulk transportation of grains, tractors and small and heavy trucks are
being used by the farmers, wholesale traders and retailers. For long distance transportation,
heavy trucks and rail transport are also used. The grains are packed in proper size jute bags
before loading to the transporting vehicle.

INSPECTION OF FOOD GRAINS TERMINOLOGY, NECESSITY &
UTILITY
TERMINOLOGY
TAILINGS (OR OVERS) - Material which does not pass through the first sieve screen of a
sifter.
MIDDS (OR MIDDLINGS) - The relatively fine pieces of wheat endosperm which will be
reduced to flour by the reduction rolls.
PREBREAK OR BREAK ROLL - Rolls used to break wheat kernels, beginning the flour
milling process. They consist of a pair of grooved, steel rolls rotating in opposite directions.
One roll turns about 2 1/2 times faster than the other.
REDUCTION ROLLS - Smooth, steel rolls used to reduce the size of the endosperm
particles or middlings(midds).
STREAMS - The various product flows in a flour milling operation, based on various factors
such as particle size, ash content, component of the wheat kernel, i.e. endosperm (for flour),
bran and germ as by-products, etc.
STRAIGHT FLOUR - Flour from a given wheat intended for human consumption.
PATENT FLOUR - A composite of the lowest ash content streams of a straight flour.
CLEAR (OR FIRST CLEAR) AND SECOND CLEAR FLOURS - Flour from the streams of
higher ash content flour. Second clear is the highest ash content.
TREATED GRAIN - Treated grain usually refers to seed grain which has been treated with a
mold inhibitor or fungicide which contains a dye imparting color to the grain, i.e. pink wheat.
PURIFIERS - Recripocating sieves using air currents to separate bran and classify particles.
"THROUGH" FLOUR - Flour that has gone through the entire system, including sifters, and
is being added to the dry mixing machine.
EQUIPMENT
There is a variety of specialized equipment used in grain product manufacturing inspections,

and specialized terminology and equipment used in the grain product industry. Specialized
equipment includes:
BOOT TRIER - a long, rectangular, shallow scoop that is used to sample grain from the
inspection port of the boot of a bucket elevator. Note: never use the trier in an elevator
that is operating. Material from a boot trier is examined by slicking or sieving.
DOCKAGE SIEVES - a set of #10 mesh, #20 mesh, #30 mesh sieves, and a bottom pan,
used to sift grain or flour for insect contamination.

FLOUR SLICK - a wide stainless steel spatula used by passing the flat side of the tool
through the material being examined. This spreads and compresses the material, and
insects or other foreign objects in will pop to the surface of the "slicked" material.
GRAIN BOMB - a weighted cylinder on a line with a v-shaped bottom used to collect
samples from bins where the grain surface cannot be reached with a grain probe. Note: any
bomb used in a grain elevator must be constructed of a material that will not cause
sparking.
GRAIN CLOTH - a cloth on which grain from a compartmented probe is poured for
examination.
GRAIN PROBE - a long, slotted cylinder used to sample and examine cores of bulk grain
from storage bins, rail cars, etc.
CONVEYING SYSTEM EQUIPMENT - devices used in elevators, mills and manufacturing

plants to move materials from one site or point to another. Common pieces of equipment
include:
Conveyor Belts (wide, open rubber or composition belts moving at relatively high speeds.)
They are used primarily in elevators to convey whole grain from one bin to another, in
unloading trucks and railcars, or loading ships.
Boots (bottoms of bucket conveyors) - The drop-bottom type of boot cannot be examined
internally while the mill is in operation. Some boots are mounted slightly above the floor,
making the area underneath hard to clean. Examine stock under the boot which may serve
as a source of contamination for the whole conveying system. Open slightly and note if the
stock is loosely or tightly packed. If tightly packed, the boot has not been disturbed for some
time.
Remove and sieve approximately one pint of static stock. Always examine the boots which
handle the first and second tailings and the sixth or seventh middlings (midds). The 1st and
2nd tailings are the tailings off the shifters just after the 1st and 2nd break rolls. This is the
start of the flour milling operation with the cleaned wheat being broken or ground. The 6th or
7th midds occur late in the milling process and are the fine pieces of endosperm entering the
6th or 7th reduction rolls.
Heads (tops of bucket conveyors) - Examine static stock which has collected on ledges
within the heads. If the heads themselves cannot be entered, examine static stock in spouts
as near to the heads as possible.
Spouts - Inspect spouts through inspection ports and examine static stock on the
undersides of the port covers, felting if used, and debris under metal lining in spouts.
Screw conveyors - Where there are many conveyors, concentrate on the longer ones.
Examine static stock in screw conveyors not covered under specific mill equipment listed
elsewhere. Special attention should be directed to conveyors which have been sealed
against entry, dead stock at the ends, and to conveyor(s) moving flour from bulk storage.

Elevator (legs) - Examine through port openings. Check port lids for presence of insects,
larva and webbing.
Millerator - A separator used as an initial cleaning step to remove coarse and fine materials
from the grain stream.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES & GRADING OF FOOD GRAINS
INTRODUCTION
To control food quality and acceptance within satisfactory limits, it is important to monitor the
vital characteristics of raw materials, ingredients, and processed foods. This could be done
by evaluating all foods or ingredients from a particular lot, which is feasible if the analytical
technique is rapid and non-destructive. However, it is usually more practical to select a
portion of the total product volume and assume the quality of the selected portion is typical of
the whole lot.
Obtaining a portion, or sample, that is representative of the whole is referred to as sampling,

and the total quantity from which a sample is obtained is called the population. Adequate
sampling technique helps to ensure that sample quality measurements are an accurate and
precise estimate of the quantity of the population. By sampling only a fraction of the
population, a quality estimate can be obtained more quickly and with less expense and
personnel time than if the total population were measured. The sample is only an estimate of
the value of the population, but with proper sampling technique, it can be a very accurate
estimate.
SAMPLE COLLECTION
It is important to clearly define the population that is to be sampled. The population may vary
in size from a production lot, a day's production, to the contents of a warehouse.
Extrapolating information obtained from a sample of a production lot to the population of the
lot can be done accurately, but conclusions cannot be drawn from data describing larger
populations, such as the whole warehouse.
Populations may be finite, such as the size of a lot, or infinite, such as in the number of
temperature observations made of a lot over time. For finite populations, sampling provides
an estimate of lot quality. In contrast, sampling from infinite populations provides information
about a process. Regardless of the population type, that is, finite or infinite, the data
obtained from sampling are compared to a range of acceptable values to ensure the
population sampled is within specifications.
Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous Populations

The ideal population would be uniform throughout and identical at all locations. Such a
population would be homogeneous. Sampling from such a population is simple, as a sample
can be taken from any location and the analytical data obtained will be representative of the
whole. However, this occurs rarely, as even in an apparently uniform product, such as sugar
syrup, suspended particles and sediments in a few places may render the population
heterogeneous. In fact, most populations that are sampled are heterogeneous. Therefore,
the location within a population where a sample is taken will affect the subsequent data
obtained. However, sampling plans and sample preparation can make the sample
representative of the population or take heterogeneity into account in some other way.
Manual Versus Continuous Sampling
To obtain a manual sample the person taking the sample must attempt to take a "random
sample" to avoid human bias in the sampling method. Thus, the sample must be taken from
a number of locations within the population to ensure it is representative of the whole
population. For liquids in small containers, this can be done by shaking prior to sampling.
When sampling from a large volume of liquid, such as that stored in silos, aeration ensures a

homogeneous unit. Liquids may be sampled by pipetting, pumping, or dipping. However,
when sampling grain from a rail car, mixing is impossible and samples are obtained by
probing from several points at random within the rail car. Such manual sampling of granular
or powdered material is usually achieved with triers or probes that are inserted into the
population at several locations. Errors may occur in sampling, as rounded particles may flow
into the sampling compartments more easily than angular ones. Similarly, hygroscopic
materials flow more readily into the sampling devices than does non hygroscopic material.
Horizontal core samples have been found to contain a larger proportion of smaller-sized
particles than vertical ones. Continuous sampling is performed mechanically.
Qualitative Characteristics
(e.g. commodity defects)
Inspection of isolated lots. Inspection of a continuous series of lots.
E.g., inspection of the aspects of a piece of E.g., inspection of the aspects of a piece of
fruit, or of a can in isolated lots. fruit, or of a can in continuous lots.
To be sampled by attribute sampling plan To be sampled by attribute sampling plans
for isolated lots. for continuous lots.
Quanttative characteristics
(e.g., compositional characteristics)
Inspection of isolated lots Inspection of continuous series of lots
Bulk: Bulk:
e.g. fat content of milk in a tank e.g. fat content of milk in a tank.
To be sample by variable sampling plans for To be sampled by variable sampling plans
isolated lots for continuous series of lots.
Item: Item:
e.g. sodium content of a dietary cheese. e.g. sodium content of a dietary cheese.
Sampling by attributes. To be sampled by attribute sampling plans
for continuous series of lots.
Importance of Sample Collection

The reliability of analytical data thus obtained depends on several factors, sampling being
the major factor. Current analytical methods require only few grams of food sample to
analyze. Thus, it is necessary that a sample be as representative of the population as
possible.
There are three basic activities involved in analysis of food products:

 Collection of representative sample.
 Sample preparation.
 Analysis using appropriate methods and instruments.
These activities, although independent in nature, yet can have decisive influence on each
other. Furthermore, each of these activities have their own potential sources of variations
that contribute to the uncertainty level associated with any analytical result. Thus, care must
be taken to identify the sources of variation and minimize or avoid them while accomplishing
any activity. On the part of the laboratories, it is therefore necessary to develop a plan for the
proper performance of each activity, and then establish quality standards and written
procedures in compliance with the standards. Many times, the activity of sampling falls
outside the purview of a laboratory‘s mandate or control. This is especially true in
commercial testing laboratories where the ―first contact‖ is the arrival of samples. To improve
the overall quality of the analytical process, a laboratory must do all it can to receive
appropriate, applicable, defensible samples. The development of appropriate plans will

depend upon an understanding of the problems involved in each activity, and then the
application of reasonable judgements in seeking solutions.
It should be noted that sampling terminology and procedures used may vary between
companies and between specific applications. However, the principles described in this Unit
are intended to provide a basis for understanding, developing, and evaluating sampling
plans and sample handling procedures for specific applications encountered.
A sample should represent a population as adequately as possible. To ensure proper

sampling, the analysts need to be consulted time to time concerning proper sample size,
suitable containers for sampling or the use of appropriate preservatives to prevent any
spoilage or transformation in a sample before analysis. One common cause of lack of
precision or lab-to-lab variation in analytical results for a particular population can be traced
back to erroneous sampling. For example, in case of grapes, a laboratory sample size of
meager 3 kg berries represents the whole population of > 10000 kg in 1 hectare vineyard
area. Thus, if the sample collected is not representative, then there will be sample-to-sample
variation in results. When significant difference in results occurs among laboratories which
have supposedly analyzed the same sample, a serious conflict may arise questioning the
competence and credibility of the laboratories. Many of these situations can be avoided if
samples are collected according to a rational plan that gives some assurance that the
sample delivered to the laboratory represents the composition of the parent lot.
There are at least two ways to measure a given lot of goods: one, that we often assume to
be the ―proper‖ way, is to find its ―true value‖, by which we mean its average value. The other
way, often discovered accidentally as a result of ―poor‖ sampling, is to measure its variability.
So called proper sampling of drug dosage forms, for example, may involve compositing 20
tablets, by which the majority of the tablets could be used to dilute and conceal the fact that
several of them are severely sub- or super- potent. Similarly, two lots of grain may have
been purposely, but ineffectively, mixed in an attempt to reduce the average level of a
contaminant. Sampling that led to the laboratory finding inconsistent results would reveal the
attempt to dilute an illegal product.
Errors in Analytical Results due to Improper Sampling

Few studies have been conducted on the distribution of error among the three activities:
sampling, sample preparation, and analysis. In one such study, which involved analysis of
20 nanogram/gram concentration of aflatoxin in a lot of peanuts, the error contributed by the
sampling step was as high as 67% of the total variance, in comparison to 20% and 13%
errors contributed by the analyst and the analytical procedure, respectively. In a field study
conducted at the National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune, the pesticide residues in
grape samples analyzed in 15 individual grape bunches collected out of 1 acre area showed
above 50% sampling-induced variations. The results of such experimentations are not
unusual and it illustrates the proportion of error that can be attributed to sampling. For
peanuts, the distribution of aflatoxin can vary widely, with a few peanuts accounting for most
of the contamination. Similarly, in case of the field sampling of grapes, the pesticide residues
might have deposited in variable concentrations in different grape bunches and thus when
they were analyzed separately, showed variable results. The important point in these
examples is to show that sampling error can play a very significant part in the overall error in
the analytical system.

Risks Associated with Sampling
There are two types of risks associated with sampling. Both should be considered when
developing a sampling plan. The consumer risk describes the probability of accepting a poor
quality population. This should happen rarely (<5% of the lots) but the actual acceptable
probability of a consumer risk depends on the consequences associated with accepting an
unacceptable lot. These may vary from major health hazards and subsequent fatalities to a
lot being of slightly lower quality than standard lots. Obviously, the former demands a low or
no probability of occurring whereas the latter would be allowed to occur more frequently. The
second risk i.e., vendor risk is the probability of rejecting an acceptable product. As with
consumer risk, the consequences of an error determine the acceptable probability of the risk.
An acceptable probability of vendor risk is usually 5-10%.
SAMPLING STANDARDS
Data obtained from an analytical technique are the result of a stepwise procedure from
sampling, to sample preparation, laboratory analysis, data processing, and data
interpretation. There is a potential for error at each step and the uncertainty, or reliability, of
the final result depends on the cumulative errors at each stage. Variance is an estimate of
the uncertainty. The total variance of the whole testing procedure is equal to the sum of the
variances associated with each step of the sampling procedure and represents the precision
of the process. Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the data. In contrast, accuracy
is a measure of how close the data are to the true value. The most efficient way to improve
accuracy is to improve the reliability of the step with the greatest variance. Frequently, this is
the initial sampling step. The reliability of sampling is dependent more on the sample size
than on the population size. The larger the sample size, the more reliable the sampling.
However, sample size is limited by time, cost, sampling methods, and the logistics of sample
handling, analysis, and data processing.
It should be noted that sampling terminology and procedures used may vary between
companies and between specific applications. Several standards and recommendations
provide the ways and means to sample a particular lot.
ISO specifies various standards and guidelines for drawing samples and data interpretation
for samples. Few such standards related to food are mentioned in Table:
Standards and Guides of Sampling
ID of Standard/Gruide Title of Standard/Guide

ISO 2854 : 1976 Statistical Interpretation of data – techniques of estimation and
tests relating to means and variances.
ISO 2859-0 : 1995 Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes-Part 0;
Introduction to the ISO 2859 Attribute sampling system
ISO 2859-1 : 1999 / IS Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes-Part 1;
2500 (Part I) : 1989 Sampling plans indexed by Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) for lot-
by-lot inspection.
IS 2500 (Part II) : 1965 Sampling inspection procedures.
ISO 2859-2 : 1985 Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes-Part 2;
Sampling plans indexed by Limiting Quality (LQ) for isolated lot
inspection.
ISO 3494 : 1976 Statistical interpretation of data – Power of tests relating to mans
and variances.
ISO 3951: 1989 Sampling procedures and charts for inspection by variables for per
cent non-conforming.

ISO 5725-1 : 1994 Application of statistics: Accuracy (trueness and precision) of
measurement methods and results-Part 1; General principles and
definitions.
ISO 7002 : 1986 Agricultural food products – Layout for a standard method of
sampling a lot.
ISO 8423 : 1991 Sequential sampling plans for insectino by variables for per cent
non-conforming (known standard deviation).
ISO 8422 : 1991 Sequential sampling plans for inspection by attributes.
ISO/ TR 8550 : 1994 Guide for the selection of an acceptance sampling system,
scheme or plan for inspection of discrete items in lots.
ISO 10725 : 2000 Acceptance sampling plans and procedures for the inspection of
bulk material.
ISO / FDIS 11648/1 Statisticla aspects of sampling from bulk materials- Part 1;
General principles.
ISO / DIS 14560 Acceptance sampling procedures by attributes – specified quality
levels in non-conforming items per million.
Other IS specifications Specifications published by BIS pertaining to individual products
contain the details of lot size and corresponding number and
quantity of samples to be drawn and tested for conformance.
Since all standards are subject to revision, parties to agreements based up on these
guidelines should ensure that the most recent editions of the standards are always applied.
An example for flour sampling as per AOAC method is presented here. The AOAC Method
925.08 (6) describes the method for sampling flour from sacks. The number of sacks to be
sampled is determined by the square root of the number of sacks in the lot. The sacks to be
sampled are chosen according to their exposure.
The samples that are more frequently exposed are sampled more often than samples that
are exposed less. Sampling is done by drawing a core from a corner at the top of the sack
diagonally to the center. The sampling instrument is a cylindrical, polished trier with a
pointed end. It is 13 mm in diameter with a slit at least one third of the circumference of the
trier. A second sample is taken from the opposite corner in a similar manner. The cores are
stored for analysis in a clean, dry, airtight container that has been opened near the lot to be
sampled. The container should be sealed immediately after the sample is added. A separate
container is used for each sack. Additional details regarding the container and the procedure
also are described below.
Title 21 CFR specifies the sampling procedures required to ensure that specific foods
conform to the standard of identity. In the case of canned fruits, 21 CFR 145.3 defines a
sample unit as "container, a portion of the contents of the container, or a composite mixture
of product from small containers that is sufficient for the testing of a single unit".
Furthermore, a sampling plan is specified for containers of specific net weights.
The container size is determined by the size of the lot. A specific number of containers must
be filled for sampling of each lot size. The lot is rejected if the number of defective units
exceeds the acceptable limit. For example, out of a lot containing 48,001 to 84,000 units,
each weighing 1 kg or less, 48 samples should be selected. If six or more of these units fail
to conform to the attribute of interest the lot will be rejected. Based on statistical confidence
intervals, this sampling plan will reject 95% of the defective lots examined, that is, 5%
consumer risk.

Minimum Number of Primary Samples to be taken from a Lot
(Ref: CODEX doc. CAC/GL 33)
Name of Commodity Minimum Number of Primary Samples to be taken from a Lot
1. Meat and Poultry
a) Non-suspect lot 1
b) Suspect lot Determined according to Table
2. Other products
a) Products 1
packaged in (A lot may be mixed by grading or manufacturing process)
bulk which can
be assured to
be well mixed or
homogeneous.
b) Products For products comprised of large units, the minimum number of
packged in bulk, primary samples should comply with the minimum number of units
which may not required for the laboratory sample.
be well mixed or
homogeneous.
Either Weight of lot, kg
<50 3
50-500 5
>500 10
Or, Number of cans,
cartons, containers in
the lot
1-125 1
26-100 5
>100 10
Number of randomly selected primary samples required for a given probability of

finding at least one non-compliant in a lot of meat or poultry for a given incidence of
non-compliant resiude in the lot:
(Ref: CODEX doc. CAC/GL33)
Incidence of Non- Minimum number of samples ( ) required to detect a non-
compliant Residues compliant residue with a probability of
in the Lot
% 90% 95% 99%
90 1 - 2
80 - 2 3
70 2 3 4
60 3 4 5
50 4 5 7
40 5 6 9
35 6 7 11
30 7 9 13
25 9 11 17
20 11 14 21
15 15 19 29
10 22 29 44
5 45 59 90
1 231 299 459
0.5 460 598 919
0.1 2302 2995 4603

Notes:
a) The table assume random sampling.

b) Where the number of primary samples indicated in is more than about 10% of units in
the total lot, the number of primary samples taken may be fewer and should be
calculated as follows:
( )
Where, = minimum number of primary samples to be taken
= number of primary samples given in Table
= number of units, capable of yielding a primary sample in the lot.
c) Where a single primary smaple is taken, the probability of detecting a non-compliance is
similar to the incidence of non-compliant residues.
d) For exact or alterative probabilities, or for a different incidence of non-compliance, the
number of samples to be taken may be calculated from:
( )
Where, is the probability and is the incidence of non-compliant residue in the lot (both
expressed as functions, not percentages) and is the number of samples.
Sampling Procedure and Minimum Amount (composite/bulk) to be Sampled from lots

Crop Sampling Procedure Example Minimum Quantity
Root, tuber and bulb Take samples from all Beet (red, sugar, 5 kg
vegetables areasa of the crop. fodder), onions, (and not less than 5
Remove as much parsnips, potatoes, items)
adhering soil as sweet potatoes,
possible from turnips
samples but do not
wash.
(Note: In some cases, Carrots, radish, 2 kg
where leaf parts are spring onions.
used as stock feed,
they may need to be
sampled separately).
Take the sample from Brassica (cabbage, 5 kg
all areas of the crop. cauliflower, broccoli, (and not less than 5
Sample parts of the kohlrabi, curly kale). items)
crop exposed to the
spray and also those
apparently protected
by foliage.
Leafy, stem, fruiting Remove as much soil Asparagus, brussel 2kg
and legume as possible from sprouts, celery,
vegetables crops such as celery, chicory, lettuce,
but do not wash. spinach, turnip tops
Cucumber, melon, 5 kg
squashes, eggplant (and not less than 5
items)
Peppers, tomatoes, 2 kg
gherkins
Beans, peas, etc. 2 kg
(with pods)
All tree and bush Select fruit from all Apples, citrus, 5 kg
fruit, including vines, parts of the tree/bush, peaches, pears
small fruits and high and low, and
berries from both sides of the

row, and select fruits
according to
abundance whether in
each segment or the
whole tree/ bush.
More fruit should
therefore be selected
from the more
densely laden parts of
the crop.
Sample parts of the Cherries, nuts, 2 kg
crop exposed to the olives, plums.
spray and also those
apparently protected
by foliage.
Take large and small Bush fruit (all types), 2 kg
fruits, perfect or grapes, strawberries
slightly blemished, but
not so small or
blemished that they
would not normally be
saleable.
Cereal Cut not less than ten Maize (grain and 2 kg
small areas cobs)
(approximately 0.1
m2) chosen randomly
from all areas of the
crop. Cut stalks about
10 cm above the
ground. Remove
grain from the straw.
Oil Seeds Collect the heads Sesame, canola, 2 kg of seeds
when they have soybeans, sunflower
reached the stage of
maturity at which they
are normally
harvested and if
convenient thresh to
remove the seeds.
Description of Primary samples and min. size of laboratory sample

(Ref: CODEX doc. CAC/GL 33)
S.No. Commodity Examples Nature of Minimum Size
Classification Primary of Lab Sample
Samples to be
taken
1. Primary food commodities of animal origin
1.1 Large mammals Cattle Sheep Whole or part of 0.5 kg
Whole or half carcass Pigs diagphragm,
Usually 10 kg or more supplemented by
cervical muscles,
if Necessary
1.2 Small mammals Rabbits Whole carcass or 0.5 kg, after
Whole carcass hind quarters removal of skin
and bone
1.3 Mammal meat parts, loose Quarters Whole units, or a 0.5 kg, after

fresh/chilled/frozen Chops Steaks portion of a large removal of bone
Packaged or other wise Shoulders unit
1.4 Mammal meat parts, bulk Quarters Either a frozen 0.5 kg, after
frozen Chops cross-section of a removal of bone
container or the
whole (or portions
of individual)
meat parts
2. Poultry fats
2.1 Birds, at slaughter whole Chickens Units abdominal 0.5 kg
or part-carcass Turkeys fat from at least
three birds
2.2 Bird meat parts Legs Either visible fat, 0.5 kg
Breastmuscle trimmed from
units
Whole units or 2 kg
portions where fat
is not trimmable
2.3 Bird fat tissue in bulk Units taken with a 0.5 kg
sampling device
from at least
three portions
2.4 Poultry eggs Whole eggs 12 whole eggs
2.5 Liquid, frozen or dried egg Whole units 0.5 kg
products
3. Processed foods of animal origin
3.1 Mammal or bird Ham sausage / Packaged units 0.5 kg or 2 kg if
comminuted, cooked, Mineed beef / or a fat content <5%
canned, dried, rendered or Chicken paste representative
otherwise processed cross section
products including multi from a container
ingredient products or units (including
juices, if any)
taken with a
sampling device
3.2 Liquid milks, milk powders, Packaged units 0.5 L or 0.5 kg
ice creams etc.
3.3 Cheese Units > 0.3 kg Whole unit 0.5 kg
Units < 0.3 kg Whole unit 0.3 kg
4. Herbs Fresh Whole units 0.5 kg
Dried Whole units 0.1 kg
5. Feed commodities of plant origin
5.1 Legume animal feeds and Whole units 1 kg (at least 10
other forages and fodders units)
5.2 Straw, hay and other dry Units taken with a 0.5 kg (at least
products sampling device 10 units)
6. Processed food of plant origin
6.1 Procuts of high unit value Packages or units 0.1 kg
taken with a
sampling device
6.2 Solid products of low bulk Hops Tea Packages or units 0.2 kg
density taken with a
sampling device
6.3 Other solid products Bread Flour Packages or units 0.5 kg
Dried fruits taken with a
Vegetable sampling device

6.4 Liquid products Oils Juices Packages or units 0.5 L or 0.5 kg
taken with a
sampling device
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES/METHODS
There are several sampling methods/techniques in common use. These are probability
sampling, non-probability sampling, bulk sampling, and acceptance sampling. These are
described in brief below:
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is used when a representative sample is desired, and uses principles of
statistical sampling and probability i.e. elimination of human bias.
It is a random selection approach that tends to give each unit an equal chance of being
selected.
Simple random sampling requires that the number of units in the population be known and
each unit is assigned a number. A specific quantity of random numbers between one and
total number of population units is selected. Sample size is determined by lot size and
potential impact of a consumer or vendor error. Units corresponding to the random numbers
are then analyzed as an estimate of the population.
Systematic sampling is used when a complete list of sample units is not available, but when
samples are distributed evenly over time or space, such as on a production line. The first
sample is selected at random and then every nth unit after that.
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into overlapping subgroups so that each
subgroup is as homogenous as possible. Group means, therefore, differ from each other as
much as possible. Random samples are then taken from each subgroup. The procedure
provides a representative sample because no part of the population is excluded and it is less
expensive than simple random sampling.
Cluster sampling entails dividing the population into clusters or subgroups so that cluster‘s
characteristics are as identical as possible, that is, the means are very similar to each other.
Any heterogeneity occurs within each cluster. Clusters should be small and having a similar
number of units in each cluster. The clusters are sampled randomly and may be either totally
inspected or subsampled for analysis. This sampling method is more efficient and less
expensive than simple random sampling, if populations can be divided into homogenous
groups.
Composite sampling is used to obtain samples from bagged products such as flour, seeds,
and larger items in bulk. Two or more samples are combined to obtain one sample for
analysis that reduces differences between samples. For example, FDA composite 12 and at
least six subsamples, respectively, for the sample to be analyzed for compliance with
nutrition labeling regulations.
Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is used when it is not possible to collect a representative sample,
or a representative sample is not desired. For example, in case of adulteration such as
rodent contamination, the objective of the sampling plan may be to highlight the adulteration
rather than collect a representative sample of the population. The sample collector uses

judgement rather than statistical considerations in the selection of the sample. The unusual
or unexpected characteristics in a population could be selected to be identified. This type of
sampling is done in many ways, but in each case the probability of including any specific
portion of the population is not equal because the investigator selects the samples without
estimating sampling error.
Judgement sampling is solely at the discretion of the sampler and therefore is highly
dependent on the person taking the sample. This method is used when it is the only practical
way of obtaining the sample. This method may present a better estimate of the population
than random sampling if sampling is done by an experienced individual and limitations of
extrapolations from the results are understood.
Convenience sampling is performed when ease of sampling is the key factor. The first pallet
in a lot or the sample that is most accessible is selected. This type of sampling will not be
representative of the population, and therefore is not recommended.
Restricted sampling may be unavoidable when the entire population is not accessible. For
example, if sample is to be taken from a loaded truck, but the sample is not a representative
of the entire population.
Quota sampling is the division of a lot into groups representing various categories, and
samples are then taken from each group. This method is less expensive than random
sampling but also is less reliable.
Types of Sampling
A) Bulk sampling
Bulk sampling involves the selection of a sample from a lot of material that does not consist
of discrete, identifiable or constant units. Sampling may be performed in static or dynamic
situations. Bulk sampling poses special problems requiring certain decisions to be made: the
number of increments to be taken, the size of the increments, from where in the pile or
stream they should be drawn, the sampling device to be used, and how to reduce the
increments taken to a reasonable size of sample for delivery to the laboratory.
B) Acceptance sampling
Acceptance sampling differs from the previous types and involves the application of a
predetermined plan to decide whether a lot of goods meet defined criteria for acceptance.
The risks of accepting ―bad‖ or rejecting ―good‖ lots are stated in conjunction with one or
more parameters, for example, quality indices of the plan. Statistical plans can be designed
to regulate the probabilities of rejecting good lots or accepting bad lots.
There are two broad categories of acceptance sampling: sampling by attributes and
sampling by variables.
Sampling by attributes
In sampling by attributes, the unit of product is classified as defective or nondefective, or the
number of defects in a unit of product is counted with respect to a given requirement. Or, the
sampling is performed to decide on the acceptability of a population based on whether the
sample possesses a certain characteristic, for example, Clostridium botulinum contamination
in canned goods. An example of net weight determination may serve to explain the
differences between the two categories. In attribute sampling, each unit that weighs 1 pound
or more is accepted, and each unit that weighs less than 1 pound is rejected. If the number

of rejects exceeds a predetermined number, the lot is rejected. If the number of rejects is
less than the predetermined number, the lot is accepted.
Sampling by variables
In variable sampling, sampling is performed to estimate quantitatively the amount of a
substance (e.g., salt) or a characteristic (e.g., color) on a continuous scale. The estimate
obtained from the acceptable value (i.e., previously determined) and the deviation
measured. This type of sampling usually produces data that have a normal distribution such
as in the per cent fill of a container and total solids of a food sample. In general, variable
sampling requires smaller sample size than attribute sampling and each characteristic
should be sampled for separately when possible.
Operating Characteristic (OC) Curves

Operating Characteristic (OC) curves are used extensively in acceptance sampling. The OC
curve shows the relationship between the quality and the per cent of lots expected to be
acceptable for the quality characteristic inspected. In other words, the OC curve is a graph of
lot defectives against the probability that the sampling plan will accept the lot. depicts OC
curves for an ideal sampling plan.
The Operating Characteristic (OC) curve shows the probability of acceptance, Pa, for any
level of lot quality. On the horizontal axis is the quality characteristic. This OC curve enables
you to evaluate the probability of acceptance for any true lot quality level-on a what-if basis.
This way, you can design sampling plans that perform the way you want.
We can interpret the curve according to this example:

1) If the lot quality is 0.093 fraction defective, then the probability of acceptance, Pa, is 0.05.
2) If the lot quality is 0.018 fraction defective, then the probability of acceptance, Pa, is 0.95.
Requirements of Good Sampling Methods

Samples are useful for their intended purpose when they are taken in a manner consistent
with generally recognized good sampling techniques and good sampling practices. This
requires the following:
Inspection of the lot before sampling:

 Use of suitable sampling devices for the particular commodity and type of sample
desired.
 Use of suitable containers to hold the sample.
 Maintenance of the integrity of the sample and associated records.
 Use of adequate precautions in preserving, packing and delivery of the sample to the lab
in a timely manner.

 Provision of appropriate storage conditions for the sample both prior to and following
analysis.
All of these factors, along with others such as cost versus benefits analysis, and a review of
program objectives and regularity requirements, are to be assessed and brought together in
a sampling plan that serves as a guide to management, as well as to operating personnel as
a firm plan to achieve quality in sampling.
Cost of Sampling
The attention of users is drawn upon relation between the efficiency and size of sample. For
a given Acceptable Quality Level (AQL), the smaller the sample size, the smaller the cost of
sampling, but the worse the efficiency, that is the risk to wrongly accepting a lot increases
and worsens the damage in trade.
Problems in Sampling
Analytical data never are more reliable than the sampling technique. Sampling bias, due to
non-statistically viable convenience, may compromise reliability. Errors also may be
introduced by not understanding the population distribution and subsequent selection of an
inappropriate sampling plan.
Unreliable data also can be obtained by non-statistical factors such as poor sample storage
resulting in sample degradation. Samples should be stored in a container that protects the
sample from moisture and other environmental factors that may affect the sample (e.g., heat,
light, air). To protect against changes in moisture content, samples should be stored in an
airtight container. Light sensitive samples should be stored in containers made of opaque
glass, or the container wrapped in aluminum foil. Oxygen sensitive samples should be stored
under nitrogen or an inert gas. Refrigeration or freezing may be necessary to protect
chemically unstable samples. However, freezing should be avoided when storing unstable
emulsions. Preservatives (e.g., mercuric chloride, potassium dichromate, and chloroform)
can be used to stabilize certain food substances during storage.
Mislabeling of samples causes mistaken sample identification. Samples should be clearly

identified by markings on the sample container in a manner such that markings will not be
removed or damaged during storage and transport. For example, plastic bags that are to be
stored in ice water should be marked with water-insoluble ink.
If the sample is an official or legal sample the container must be sealed to protect against
tampering and the seal mark easily identified. Official samples also must include the date of
sampling with the name and signature of the sampling agent. The chain of custody of such
samples must be identified clearly.
THREE CLASS SAMPLING PLAN
Another type of sampling used frequently by regulatory agencies to determine acceptance or

rejection of a lot (often defined as the quality of product produced under essentially the same
conditions but representing no more than one day‘s production) is the three-class sampling
plan. This approach is often used when assessing microbiological contamination of foods. In
this case, ―n‖ is the number of samples, usually selected at random from the lot, the
numerical value ―m― represents acceptable concentrations, the numerical value ―M‖
represents un-acceptable concentrations, and ―c‖ is the maximum allowable number of
marginally acceptable sample units such that if this number is exceeded, the lot is

considered as un-acceptable. While ―m‖ separates sample units of acceptable quality from
those of marginally acceptable quality, ―M‖ separates sample units of marginally acceptable
quality from those of defective quality.
For enforcement purposes, the sampling technique used should be the same as the
sampling technique used to set the standard. For example, minimum reportable limits for
particles are based on composite samples and not on individual lots.
PREPARATION OF SAMPLING PLANS
The development of quality sampling plans is a science in itself and has been given
consideration by a number of organizations. One plan format that deserves serious
consideration, developed by the International Organization for Standardization, is shown with
comments in ISO/TC 34, ISO/DIS 7002.2, ―Agricultural food products- Layout for a standard
method of sampling from a lot ―(1988).
It can serve as a starting point or check list for developing a sampling plan for most
commodities. The title and headings from sections in the monograph are as below:
Model Sampling Plan

Agricultural food products- Layout for a standard method of sampling from a lot.
1) Title (short but appropriate for index identification)
2) Introduction (describing the purpose of the plan)
3) Scope (describing the breadth of coverage of the plan)
4) Field of application (products to be covered; where sampling will be done)
5) References (documents, the validity of the plan with reference to other requirements)
6) Definitions (specific terms associate with a particular matrix)
7) Principle (statistical basis of the method of sampling)
8) Administrative arrangements
c) Sampling personnel
d) Representation of parties concerned
e) Health, safety and security precautions
f) Preparation of the sampling report
9) Identification and inspection of the lot prior to sampling (important in survey sampling for
identification, condition of the lot and selection of method of sampling).
10) Sampling equipment and ambient conditions (proper tools such as use of sterile
equipment for aseptic sampling).
11) Sample containers and packing (essential to prevent contamination and damage during
shipment or storage).
12) Sampling procedures (as dictated by the plan objectives).
a) Sampling size (adequate for all analytical testing to be done.
b) Taking the sample.
c) Preparation of bulk samples and reduced samples
d) Selection of samples of pre-packaged products.
13) Packing, sealing and marking of samples and sample containers (identification of units
and to establish chain-of-custody).
e) Filling and sealing sample containers.
f) Labeling or marking (including signature of sampling personnel).
g) Packing samples for storage or transportation.
14) Precautions during storage and transportation of samples.
15) Sampling report

a) Administrative details.
b) Details of unit packs or enclosure containing the lot.
c) Material samples.
d) Marking and sealing of samples.
16) Annexure (supplemental information, if necessary).
SAMPLE PREPARATION FOR ANALYSIS
Every type of material that is to be prepared for analysis presents its own practical
difficulties. The requirements for suitable sample preparation are dictated by the consistency
and the chemical characteristics of the analyte and the matrix, and by the distribution of the
analyte in the sample. Even seemingly homogeneous materials such as liquids may be
subject to sedimentation or stratification. Thus, vigilance and care are the watch words to
ensure homogenity.
Precautions to be followed while Preparing a Sample for Analysis
Mixing: Single phase liquids can generally be mixed, stirred, shaken or blended. Dry
particulate materials can be reduced in the volume by coning and quartering, by rolling and
quartering, or by the use of a splitter, such as a refill. A variety of implements and machines
are available for sample disintegration, such as mills, grinders and cutters. Care in their use
is necessary to prevent loss of dust or change in composition through partial separation of
components. Screening can be used to improve the efficiency of particle size reduction,
followed by mixing to attain homogeneity. Sampling errors can occur even in well mixed
particulate mixtures especially in trace analysis if the particles differ appreciably in size or
physical properties.
Cleanliness of equipment used in process

Every piece of equipment used in the preparation of a sample must be examined critically to
ensure their cleanliness, so that they do not contaminate or decompose or cause any
physical loss of the sample while processing. Grinders were mentioned above as
contributing to the loss of finer particles as dust. They have been known to segregate
materials with in the mix by size as well, with the finer material, collecting beneath the blade
e.g., Metal screens can pass fine particles, but retain powder that adheres to the screen
materials. Glass containers and laboratory apparatus can adsorb certain materials and may
require surface treatment. Plastic containers can retain contaminants, such as animal hairs,
while the rest of the sample is transferred with apparent ease. In the other words, validation
of a method of analysis, includes, most certainly validation of the method of sample
preparation and storage.
Changes in physical characteristics

Loss or gain of moisture during processing can be a problem. Loss can be minimized by
keeping samples covered with plastic or aluminum foil. A cold product can be protected from
gaining moisture by allowing the sample to come to room temperature before preparation
begins. High fat samples such as nuts may be difficult to grind without clogging up the
grinder; one technique that is used is to freeze the samples prior to grinding.
Changes in chemical characteristics
When volatile organic constituents are present in any sample, processing may be difficult
and needs special care, e.g. maintaining chilled condition to prevent any loss of volatile
constituents. Similarly, in case of photo-sensitive chemicals (e.g. natural product pesticides),

it is required to process a sample under darkness to prevent degradation on exposure to
light.
Portions for sampling

As a general guide, food samples are analyzed in the form they are commonly consumed.
Inedible portions, such as stones (e.g. for mango), nutshells, or fish bones are removed and
discarded prior to analysis, and suitable note made of how the sample was prepared. The
technique used for setting the standard should be used to ensure comparability.
Sampling for Trace metals
Trace metals analysis can present significant problems, For example, the trace metals can
be distributed unequally between liquid and solid phases in pickles, canned vegetables and
canned fruits. Obviously, such irregular distribution of metals can pose problems for the
analyst in establishing the level of metal residues in the product, as well as for those
concerned with setting tolerances. Thus, it becomes necessary to analyze both the solid and
liquid phases.
DIFFICULTIES IN SAMPLING
As mentioned earlier, one of the most difficult problem in sampling from a lot, and in
subsequent lab subsamples, is trying to obtain a representative sample for the analysis of
aflatoxins in raw agricultural commodities. Aflatoxin contamination exhibits a highly erratic
distribution, with a reduction in heterogeneity as the food or feed is reduced in particle size.
After it was recognized that there was a high rate of variability and within same samples from
the same lot, there was a moment towards the collection of larger and larger samples.
Sample sizes started, for peanuts with 1 kg, and the size increased as more reliable results
were required by food procedures (increasing sample size reduces the number of good lots
that are likely to be rejected and the number of bad lots accepted).
Example for Effect of Sampling on Analytical Result

At the present time in the United States, the sample taken from a lot of shelled peanuts of
144 pounds; three 48 pounds samples with portions taken at random from the lot.
Examination in the lab is by sequential analysis with first 48 pounds sample ground in a
subsampling mill and test portions examined in duplicate. If the average of the test portions
is below the established tolerance (set by US Food and Drug Administration), the lot is
passed. If the average is above the acceptance level, the lot is rejected. If the findings fall
between the two figures the second 48 pound sample is comminuted and the analysis
repeated. If a decision cannot be made to accept or reject the lot, the third 48 pounds
sample is prepared, assayed, and the cumulative results considered. The foregoing example
point out dramatically the need for attention to lot sampling, lab subsampling, and sample
preparation for analysis. While this is a rather extreme case, it illustrates that sampling
problems cannot be ignored or treated indifferently. In Canada, while the specified sample
sizes are smaller, ranging from 12 to 20 kg. depending on the commodity and the lot size,
and minimum number of sampling sites are also stipulated to address the erratic distribution
of aflatoxin contamination.
KEY WORDS
The definitions of sampling terms used in this document are mostly those specified in ISO
7002. Some of the more commonly used terms in acceptance sampling are described in this
section.

Lot: A definite quantity of some commodity manufactured or produced under conditions,
which are presumed uniform for the purpose of this document.
Consignment: A consignment is a quantity of some commodity delivered at one time. It may

consist in either a portion of a lot, either a set of several lots.
Sample (Representative sample): Set composed of one or several items (or a portion of
matter) selected by different means in a population (or in an important quantity of matter). It
is intended to provide information on a given characteristic of the studied population (or
matter), and to form a basis for a decision concerning the population or the matter or the
process, which has produced it.
A representative sample is a sample in which the characteristics of the lot from which it is
drawn are maintained. It is in particular the case of a simple random sample where each of
the items or increments of the lot has been given the same probability of entering the
sample.
Sampling: Procedure used to draw or constit Empirical or punctual sampling procedures are
sampling procedures, which are not statistical-based procedures that are used to make a
decision on the inspected lot.
Total Estimation Error: Total Estimation of a parameter, the total estimation error is the
difference between the calculated value and the true value of the parameter. The total
estimation error is due to: i) Sampling error ii) Measurement error iii) Rounding-of-values vi)
Bias of the estimator or sub division in to the classes
Sampling Error: Part of the total estimation error due to one or several of the follow • The
heterogeneity of the inspected characteristics. • The random nature of a sampling. • The
known and acceptable characteristics of the sampling plans.
Acceptable Quality Level (AQL): The inspection of a lot using either an attributes or
variables sampling plan will allow a decision to be made on the quality of the lot.
AQL for a given sampling plan is the rate of the nonconforming items at which a lot will be
rejected with a low probability, usually 5%.
Limiting Quality (LQ): For a given sampling plan is the rate of nonconforming items at
which a lot will be accepted with a low probability, usually 10%.
Sampling Plan: A pre-determined procedure for the selection, withdrawal, preservation,

transportation and preparation of the portions to be removed from a lot as samples.

UNIFORM SPECIFICATION OF RICE, PADDY, MAIZE, RAGI,
JOWAR, ETC., AT THE TIME OF PROCUREMENT
UNIFORM SPECIFICATION OF ALL VARIETIES OF PADDY
Paddy shall be in sound merchantable condition, dry, clean, wholesome of good food value,
uniform in colour and size of grains and free from moulds, weevils, obnoxious smell,
Argemone mexicana, Lathyrus sativus (Khesari) and admixture of deleterious substances.
Paddy will be classified into Grade 'A' and 'Common' groups.
Schedule of Specification
S. No. Refractions Maximum Limit (%)
1. Foreign matter
a. Inorganic 1.0
b. Organic 1.0
2. Damaged, discoloured, sprouted and weevilled grains 5.0*
3. Immature, Shrunken and shrivelled grains 3.0
4. Admixture of lower class 6.0
5. Moisture content 17.0
Damaged, sprouted and weevilled grains should not exceed 4%.
N.B.
1. The definitions of the above refractions and method of analysis are to be followed as per
BIS 'Method of analysis for foodgrains' Nos. IS: 4333 (Part -1): 1996, IS: 4333 (Part-II):
2002 and 'Terminology for foodgrains' IS: Nos.2813-1995, as amended from time to
time.
2. The method of sampling is to be followed as per BIS method for sampling of Cereals and
Pulses IS: 14818-2000 as amended from time to time.
3. Within the overall limit of 1.0% for organic foreign matter, poisonous seeds shall not
exceed 0.5% of which Dhatura and Akra seeds (Vicia species) not to exceed 0.025%
and 0.2% respectively.
UNIFORM SPECIFICATION FOR GRADE' A' & 'COMMON' RICE
Rice shall be in sound merchantable condition, sweet, dry, clean, wholesome, of good food
value, uniform in colour and size of grains and free from moulds, weevils, obnoxious smell,
admixture of unwholesome poisonous substances, Argemone mexicana and Lathyrus
sativus (Khesari) in any form, or colouring agents and all impurities except to the extent in
the schedule below. It shall also conform to prescribed norms under Food Safety &
Standards Act, 2006IRuies prescribed hereunder.
Grade ‗A‘ Common
1. Brokens* Raw 25.0 25.0
2. Foreign Matter** Raw / Parboiled / single 16.0 16.0
parboiled rice
3. Damaged # / Slightly Raw 0.5 0.5
Damaged Grains Parboiled / single parboiled rice 4.0 4.0
4. Discoloured Grains Raw 3.0 3.0

Parboiled / single parboiled rice 5.0 5.0
5. Chalky Grains Raw 5.0 5.0
6. Red Grains Raw/Parboiled / Single parboiled 5.0 5.0
rice
7. Admixture of lower Raw / Parboiled / Single 6.0 -
class parboiled rice
8. Dehusked Grains Raw / Parboiled / Single 13.0 13.0
parboiled rice
9. Moisture content @ Raw / Parboiled / Single 14.0 14.0
parboiled rice
10. FRK (Fortified Rice In case of procurement of fortified rice stock, 1% of FRK
Kernel) (w/w) should be blended with normal rice stock.
*Not more than 1% by weight shall be small broken.
** Not more than 0.25% by weight shall be mineral matter and not more than 0.10% by
weight shall be impurities of animal origin.
Including pin point damaged grains.
@ Rice (both Raw & Parboiled/Single Parboiled) can be procured with moisture content upto
a maximum limit of 15% with value cut. There will be no value cut upto 14%. Between 14%
to 15% moisture, value cut will be applicable at the rate of full value.
UNIFORM SPECIFICATION FOR JOWAR
The Jowar shall be dried and matured grains of Sorghum vulgare. It shall have uniform size
and shape. It shall be in sound merchantable condition and also conforming to prescribe
norms under Food Safety & Standards Act, 2006/Rules prescribed here under.
Jowar shall be sweet, hard, clean, wholesome and free from Argemone mexicana and
Lathyrus sativus (khesari) in any form, colouring matter, moulds, weevils, obnoxious smell,
admixture of deleterious substances and all other impurities except to the extent indicated in
the schedule below:
1. Foreign matter* 1.0
2. Other foodgrains 3.0
3. Damaged grains 1.5
4. Slightly damaged & discoloured grains 1.0
5. Shrivelled & Immature grains 4.0
6. Weevilled grains 1.0
 Not more than 0.25% by weight shall be mineral matter and not more than 0.10% by
N.B.
1. The definition of the above refractions and method of analysis are to be followed as
given in Bureau of Indian Standard 'Method of Analysis for foodgrains' Nos. IS: 4333
(Part-I): 1996 and IS: 4333(Part-II): 2002 and 'Terminology for foodgrains' IS: 2813-1995
as amended from time to time.

2. The method of sampling is to be followed as given in Bureau of Indian Standard 'Method
of sampling of Cereals and Pulses' No. IS: 14818-2000 as amended from time to time.
3. Within the overall limit of 1.0% for foreign matter the poisonous seeds shall not exceed
0.5% of which Dhatura and Akra seeds (Vida species) not to exceed 0.025% and 0.2%
respectively.
4. Kernels with glumes will not be treated as unsound grains. During physical analysis the
glumes will be removed and treated as organic foreign matter.
UNIFORM SPECIFICATION FOR MAIZE
The maize shall be the dried and matured grain of Zea mays. It shall have uniform shape
and colour. It shall be in sound merchantable condition and also conforming to prescribed
norms under Food Safety & Standards Act,2006IRules prescribed hereunder.
Maize shall be sweet, hard, clean, wholesome and free from Argemone mexicana and
Lathyrus sativus (khesari) in any form, colouring matter, moulds weevils, obnoxious smell,
the schedule below:
1. Foreign matter** 1.0
4. Slightly damaged & discoloured and touched grains 4.5
5. Shrivelled & Immature grains 3.0
6. Weevilled grains 1.0
N.B.
given in Bureau of Indian Standard 'Method of Analysis for Foodgrains' Nos. IS: 4333
(Part-I): 1996 and IS: 4333 (Part-II): 2002 and 'Terminology for foodgrains' IS: 2813-
1995 as amended from time to time.
of sampling of cereals and pulses' No. IS: 14818-2000 as amended from time to time.
3. Within the overall limit of 1.0% for foreign matter, the poisonous seeds shall not exceed
0.5% of which Dhatura and Akra Seeds (Vida species) not to exceed 0.025% and 0.2%
respectively.
4. The small sized maize grains, if the same are otherwise fully developed, should not be
treated as shrivelled and immature grains.
UNIFORM SPECIFICATION FOR RAGI
The Ragi shall be dried and matured grains of Eleusine coracana. It shall have uniform size
and shape. It shall be in sound merchantable condition and also conforming to prescribed
norms under Food Safety & Standards Act,2006/Rules prescribed hereunder.

Ragi shall be sweet, hard, clean, wholesome and free from moulds, weevils, obnoxious
smell, Argemone mexicana and Lathyrus sativus (khesari) in any form, colouring matter,
the schedule below:
1. Foreign matter* 1.0
4. Slightly damaged grains 2.0
N.B.
given in Bureau of Indian Standard 'Method of analysis for foodgrains' Nos. IS: 4333
(part-I): 1996 and IS: 4333 (Part-II): 2002 and 'Terminology for foodgrains' IS: 2813-1995
as amended from time to time.
of sampling of cereals and pulses' No. IS: 14818-2000 as amended from time to time.
3. Within the overall limit of 1.0% for foreign matter, the poisonous seeds shall not exceed
0.5% of which Dhatura and Akara seeds (Vida species) not to exceed 0.025% and 0.2%
respectively.
4. Kernels with husk will not be treated as unsound, grains. During physical analysis the
husk will be removed and treated as organic foreign matter.

CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT & ITS IMPORTANCE
Consumer Protection Act, 2019
The new Consumer Protection Act was passed by Parliament in 2019. It came into force in
July 2020 and replaced the Consumer Protection Act, 1986.
Need for the new act

 The Digital Age has ushered in a new era of commerce and digital branding, as well as a
new set of customer expectations. Digitisation has provided easy access, a large variety
of choices, convenient payment mechanisms, improved services and shopping as per
convenience. However, there are also associated challenges related to consumer
protection.
 To help address the new set of challenges faced by consumers in the digital age, the
Indian Parliament passed the landmark Consumer Protection Bill, 2019 which aims to
provide timely and effective administration and settlement of consumer disputes.
Enactment August 9, 2019

Date:
Act Year: 2019
Short Title: The Consumer Protection Act, 2019
Long Title: An Act to provide for protection of the interests of consumers and for the
said purpose, to establish authorities for timely and effective
administration and settlement of consumers‘ disputes and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto
Ministry: Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution
Department: Department of Consumer Affairs
Details
 Consumer Protection Act, 2019 is a law to protect the interests of the consumers. This
Act provides safety to consumers regarding defective products, dissatisfactory services,
and unfair trade practices.
 The basic aim of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 is to save the rights of the
consumers by establishing authorities for timely and effective administration and
settlement of consumers‘ disputes.
Rights of the consumers

 Consumers have the right to information on various aspects of goods and services. This
could be information about the quantity, quality, purity, potency, price, and standard of
goods or services.
 To be protected from hazardous goods and services. Right to protection against goods
and services that can be dangerous to life and property.
 To be protected from unfair or restrictive trade practices.
 Consumers have the right to access a variety of goods and services at competitive
prices.
 Consumers should have the right to redressal.
Salient Provisions of the Consumer Protection Act
New definition of consumer:

 The new Act has widened the definition of ‗consumer‘.
Definition of consumer:
 As per the Act, a person is called a consumer who avails the services and buys any
good for self-use. Worth to mention that if a person buys any good or avails any service
for resale or commercial purposes, he/she is not considered a consumer. This definition
covers all types of transactions i.e. offline and online through teleshopping, direct selling
or multi-level marketing.
Central Consumer Protection Authority

 The Act proposes the establishment of the Central Consumer Protection Authority
(CCPA) as a regulatory authority.
 The CCPA will protect, promote and enforce the rights of consumers and regulate cases
related to unfair trade practices, misleading advertisements, and violation of consumer
rights.
 CCPA would be given wide-ranging powers.
 The CCPA will have the right to take suo-moto actions, recall products, order
reimbursement of the price of goods/services, cancel licenses, impose penalties and
file class-action suits.
 The CCPA will have an investigation wing to conduct independent inquiry or
investigation into consumer law violations.
Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission:

 The Act has the provision of the establishment of Consumer Disputes Redressal
Commissions (CDRCs) at the national, state and district levels to entertain consumer
complaints.
 As per the notified rules, the State Commissions will furnish information to the Central
Government on a quarterly basis on vacancies, disposal, the pendency of cases and
other matters.
 The CDRCs will entertain complaints related to:
 Overcharging or deceptive charging
 Unfair or restrictive trade practices
 Sale of hazardous goods and services which may be hazardous to life.
 Sale of defective goods or services
 As per the Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission Rules, there will be no fee for
filing cases up to Rs. 5 lakh.
E-Filing of Complaints
 The new Act provides flexibility to the consumer to file complaints with the jurisdictional
consumer forum located at the place of residence or work of the consumer. This is unlike

the earlier condition where the consumer had to file a complaint at the place of purchase
or where the seller has its registered office address.
 The new Act also contains enabling provisions for consumers to file complaints
electronically and for hearing and/or examining parties through video-conferencing.
 Consumers will also not need to hire a lawyer to represent their cases.
Product Liability & Penal Consequences

 The Act has introduced the concept of product liability.
 A manufacturer or product service provider or product seller will now be responsible
to compensate for injury or damage caused by defective products or deficiency in
services.
 This provision brings within its scope, the product manufacturer, product service provider
and product seller, for any claim for compensation. The term ‗product seller‘ would also
include e-commerce platforms.
Penalties for Misleading Advertisement

 The CCPA may impose a penalty on a manufacturer or an endorser, for a false or
misleading advertisement. The CCPA may also sentence them to imprisonment.
Provision for Alternate Dispute Resolution:

 The new Act provides for mediation as an Alternate Dispute Resolution mechanism. For
mediation, there will be a strict timeline fixed in the rules.
 As per the recently notified rules, a complaint will be referred by a Consumer
Commission for mediation, wherever scope for early settlement exists and parties agree
for it. The mediation will be held in the Mediation Cells to be established under the aegis
of the Consumer Commissions. There will be no appeal against settlement through
mediation.
Unfair Trade Practices:

 The new Act has armed the authorities to take action against unfair trade practices too.
 The Act introduces a broad definition of Unfair Trade Practices, which also includes the
sharing of personal information given by the consumer in confidence unless such
disclosure is made in accordance with the provisions of any other law.
The Central Consumer Protection Council:

 The Consumer Protection Act empowers the Central Government to establish a Central
Consumer Protection Council. It will act as an advisory body on consumer issues.
 As per the notified Central Consumer Protection Council Rules, the Central
Consumer Protection Council would be headed by the Union Minister of Consumer
Affairs, Food and Public Distribution with the Minister of State as Vice Chairperson
and 34 other members from different fields.
 The Council, which has a three-year tenure, will have a Minister-in-charge of
consumer affairs from two States from each region – North, South, East, West, and
NER. There is also a provision for having working groups from amongst the members
for specific tasks.
Applicability:
 This Act is applicable to all the products and services, until or unless any product or
service is especially debarred out of the scope of this Act by the Central Government.

Significance of the Act
Empowering consumers
 The new Act will empower consumers and help them in protecting their rights through its
various rules and provisions. The new Act will help in safeguarding consumer interests
and rights.
 Consumer-driven businesses such as retail, e-commerce would need to have robust
policies dealing with consumer redressal in place.
 The new Act will also push the consumer-driven businesses to take extra precautions
against unfair trade practices and unethical business practices.
Inclusion of the e-commerce sector:

 The earlier Act did not specifically include e-commerce transactions, and this lacuna has
been addressed by the new Act.
 E-commerce has been witnessing tremendous growth in recent times. The Indian e-
commerce market is expected to grow to US$ 200 billion by 2026.
 The Act also enables regulations to be notified on e-commerce and direct selling with a
focus on the protection of interest of consumers. This would involve rules for the
prevention of unfair trade practices by e-commerce platforms.
 As per the notified rules, every e-commerce entity is required to provide information
relating to return, refund, exchange, warranty and guarantee, delivery and shipment,
modes of payment, grievance redressal mechanism, payment methods, the security
of payment methods, charge-back options, etc. including country of origin which are
necessary for enabling the consumer to make an informed decision at the pre-
purchase stage on its platform.
 The e-commerce platforms will have to acknowledge the receipt of any consumer
complaint within forty-eight hours and redress the complaint within one month from
the date of receipt under this Act. This will bring e-commerce companies under the
ambit of a structured consumer redressal mechanism.
 E-commerce entities that do not comply will face penal action.
Time-bound redressal:
 A large number of pending consumer complaints in consumer courts have been common
across the country. The new Act by simplifying the resolution process can help solve the
consumer grievances speedily.
 A main feature of the Act is that under this, the cases are decided in a limited time
period.
Responsible endorsement:
 The new Act fixes liability on endorsers considering that there have been numerous
instances in the recent past where consumers have fallen prey to unfair trade practices
under the influence of celebrities acting as brand ambassadors.
 This will make all stakeholders – brands, agencies, celebrities, influencers and e-
commerce players – a lot more responsible. The new Act would force the endorser to
take the onus and exercise due diligence to verify the veracity of the claims made in the
advertisement to refute liability claims.
Upholding consumer interests

 For the first time, there will be an exclusive law dealing with Product Liability.

 Product liability provision will deter manufacturers and service providers from delivering
defective products or deficient services.
 The new legislation empowers the National Consumers Dispute Redressal Committee as
well as the State Commission to declare null and void any terms of a contract while
purchasing a product. This will go a long way in protecting consumers, who are often
subject to contract conditions that favour a seller or manufacturer.
Alternate dispute redressal mechanism:

 The provision of Mediation will make the process of dispute adjudication simpler and
quicker.
 This will provide a better mechanism to dispose of consumer complaints in a speedy
manner and will help in the disposal of a large number of pending cases in consumer
courts across the nation.
Simplified process for grievance redressal:

 The new Act would ease the overall process of consumer grievance redressal and
dispute resolution process. This will help reduce inconvenience and harassment for the
consumers.
 The enhanced pecuniary jurisdiction and provisions providing statutory recognition to
mediation processes, enabling filing of complaints from any jurisdiction and for hearing
parties through video-conferencing will increase accessibility to judicial forums and afford
crucial protection in times when international e-commerce giants are expanding their
base.
Consumer Protection Laws in India
The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 enforces rights of consumers and provides for redressal
of complaints at the district, state and national level. Such complaints may be regarding
defects in goods or deficiency in services. The Act also recognises offences such as unfair
trade practices, which include providing false information regarding the quality or quantity of
a good or service, and misleading advertisements.
Over the years, there have been challenges in the implementation of the Act. A high number
of consumers were unaware of their rights under the Act. While the disposal rate of
consumer cases was high (about 90%), the time taken for their disposal was long. It took 12
months on an average to resolve a consumer case. Also, the Act does not address
consumer contracts between a consumer and manufacturer that contain unfair terms. In this
context, the Law Commission of India had recommended that a separate law be enacted
and presented a draft Bill in relation to unfair contract terms. In 2018, a Bill to amend the
1986 Act was introduced to enable consumers to file online complaints, and against unfair
terms in a contract. However, the Bill lapsed in Rajya Sabha after dissolution of Lok Sabha.
Comparison of the 1986 Act with the 2019 Act
Provision 1986 Act 2019 Act

Ambit of law All goods and services for All goods and services, including telecom
consideration. Free and and housing construction, and all modes
personal services are excluded. of transactions (online, teleshopping, etc.)

for consideration.
Free and personal services are excluded.
Unfair trade Includes six types of such Adds three types of practices to the list,
practices* practices, like false namely: (i) failure to issue a bill or receipt;
representation, misleading (ii) refusal to accept a good returned
advertisements. within 30 days; and (iii) disclosure of
personal information given in confidence,
unless required by law or in public
interest.
Contests/ lotteries may be notified as not
falling under the ambit of unfair trade
practices.
Product No provision. Claim for product liability can be made

liability against manufacturer, service provider,
and seller.
Compensation can be obtained by
proving one of the several specified
conditions in the Bill.
Unfair No provision. Defined as contracts that cause

contracts significant change in consumer rights.
Lists six contract terms which may be
held as unfair.
Central CPCs promote and protect the Makes CPCs advisory bodies for
Protection rights of consumers. promotion and protection of consumer
Councils CPCs established at the district, rights.
(CPCs) state, and national level. Establishes CPCs at the district, state
and national level.
Regulator No provision. Establishes the Central Consumer

Protection Authority (CCPA) to promote,
protect, and enforce the rights of
consumers as a class.
CCPA may: (i) issue safety notices; (ii)
pass orders to recall goods, prevent
unfair practices, and reimburse purchase
price paid; and (iii) impose penalties for
false and misleading advertisements.
Pecuniary District: Up to Rs 20 lakh. State: District: Up to Rs one crore. State:

jurisdiction of Between Rs 20 lakh and up to Between Rs one crore and up to Rs 10
Commissions Rs one crore. National: Above crore. National: Above Rs 10 crore.
Rs one crore.
Composition District: Headed by current or District: Headed by a President and at
of former District Judge and two least two members. State: Headed by a
Commissions members. President and at least four members.

State: Headed by a current or National: Headed by a President and at
former High Court Judge and at least four members.
least two members.
National: Headed by a current

or former Supreme Court Judge
and at least four members.
Appointment Selection Committee No provision for Selection Committee.

(comprising a judicial member Central government will appoint through
and other officials) will notification.
recommend members on the
Commissions.
Alternate No provision. Mediation cells will be attached to the
dispute District, State, and National
redressal Commissions.
mechanism
Penalties If a person does not comply with If a person does not comply with orders
orders of the Commissions, he of the Commissions, he may face
may face imprisonment between imprisonment up to three years, or a fine
one month and three years or not less than Rs 25,000 extendable to Rs
fine between Rs 2,000 to Rs one lakh, or both.
10,000, or both.
E-commerce No provision. Defines direct selling, e-commerce and
electronic service provider.
The central government may prescribe
rules for preventing unfair trade practices
in e-commerce and direct selling.


FOOD SAFETY & STANDARD ACT, 2006 & ITS IMPORTANCE
Food Safety and Standards Act,2006 Comprises 12 Chapter, 101 Section and 2 Schedule.
CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY
SECTION 1. Short title, extent and commencement:

1) This Act may be called the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
2) It extends to the whole of India.
3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in
the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different
provisions of this Act and any reference in any such provision to commencement of this
Act shall be construed as a reference to the coming into force of that provision.
SECTION 2. Declaration as to expediency of control by the Union:

It is hereby declared that it is expedient in the public interest that the Union should take
under its control the food industry.
SECTION 3. Definitions
(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires:
a) ―adulterant‖ means any material which is or could be employed for making the food
unsafe or substandard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter.
b) ―advertisement‖ means any audio or visual publicity, representation or pronouncement
made by means of any light, sound, smoke, gas, print, electronic media, internet or
website and includes through any notice, circular, label, wrapper, invoice or other
documents.
c) ―Chairperson‖ means the Chairperson of the Food Authority.
d) ―claim‖ means any representation which states, suggests, or implies that a food has
particular qualities relating to its origin, nutritional properties, nature, processing,
composition or otherwise.
e) ―Commissioner of Food Safety‖ means the Commissioner of Food Safety appointed
under section 30.
f) ―consumer‖ means persons and families purchasing and receiving food in order to meet
their personal needs.
g) ―contaminant‖ means any substance, whether or not added to food, but which is present
in such food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop
husbandry,animal husbandry or veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing,
preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a
result of environmental contamination and does not include insect fragments, rodent
hairs and other extraneous matter.
h) ―Designated Officer‖ means the officer appointed under section 36.
i) ―extraneous matter‖ means any matter contained in an article of food which may be
carried from the raw materials, packaging materials or process systems used for its
manufacture or which is added to it, but such matter does not render such article of food
unsafe.
j) ―Food‖ means any substance, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed,
which is intended for human consumption and includes primary food to the extent
defined in clause (zk), genetically modified or engineered food or food containing such
ingredients, infant food, packaged drinking water, alcoholic drink, chewing gum, and any
substance, including water used into the food during its manufacture, preparation or
treatment but does not include any animal feed, live animals unless they are prepared or
processed for placing on the market for human consumption, plants, prior to harvesting,
drugs and medicinal products, cosmetics, narcotic or psychotropic substances : Provided
that the Central Government may declare, by notification in the Official Gazette, any
other article as food for the purposes of this Act having regards to its use, nature,
substance or quality.

k) ―food additive‖ means any substance not normally consumed as a food by itself or used
as a typical ingredient of the food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional
addition of which to food for a technological (including organoleptic) purpose in the
manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or
holding of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result (directly or
indirectly), in it or its by-products becoming a component of or otherwise affecting the
characteristics of such food but does not include ―contaminants‖ or substances added to
food for maintaining or improving nutritional qualities.
l) ―Food Analyst‖ means an analyst appointed under section45.
m) ―Food Authority‖ means the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India established
under section 4.
n) ―Food business‖ means any undertaking, whether for profit or not and whether public or
private, carrying out any of the activities related to any stage of manufacture, processing,
packaging, storage, transportation, distribution of food, import and includes food
services, catering services, sale of food or food ingredients.
o) ―food business operator‖ in relation to food business means a person by whom the
business is carried on or owned and is responsible for ensuring the compliance of this
Act, rules and regulations made thereunder.
p) ―food laboratory‖ means any food laboratory or institute established by the Central or a
State Government or any other agency and accredited by National Accreditation Board
for Testing and Calibration Laboratories or an equivalent accreditation agency and
recognised by the Food Authority under section 43.
q) ―food safety‖ means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according
to its intended use.
r) ―food safety audit‖ means a systematic and functionally independent examination of food
safety measures adopted by manufacturing units to determine whether such measures
and related results meet with objectives of food safety and the claims made in that
behalf.
s) ―Food Safety Management System‖ means the adoption Good Manufacturing Practices,
Good Hygienic Practices, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point and such other
practices as may be specified by regulation, for the food business.
t) ―Food Safety Officer‖ means an officer appointed under section 37.
u) ―hazard‖ means a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the
potential to cause an adverse health effect.
v) ―import‖ means bringing into India any article of food by land, sea or air.
w) ―improvement notice‖ means a notice issued under section 32 of this Act.
x) ―infant food‖ and ―infant milk substitute‖ shall have the meanings assigned to them in
clauses (f) and (g) of subsection (l) of section 2 of the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding
Bottles and Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act,
1992(41 of 1992), respectively.
y) ―ingredient‖ means any substance, including a food additive used in the manufacture or
preparation of food and present in the final product, possibly in a modified form.
z) ―label‖ means any tag, brand, mark, pictorial or other descriptive matter, written, printed,
stencilled, marked, embossed, graphic, perforated, stamped or impressed on or attached
to container, cover, lid or crown of any food package and includes a product insert.
aa) ―licence‖ means a licence granted under section 31.
bb) ―local area‖ means any area, whether urban or rural, notified by the Commissioner of
Food Safety, to be a local area for the purposes of this Act.
cc) ―manufacture‖ means a process or adoption or any treatment for conversion of
ingredients into an article of food, which includes any sub-process, incidental or ancillary
to the manufacture of an article of food.
dd) ―manufacturer‖ means a person engaged in the business of manufacturing any article of
food for sale and includes any person who obtains such article from another person and
packs and labels it for sale or only labels it for such purposes.
ee) ―Member‖ means Member of the Food Authority and includes the Chairperson.
ff) ―misbranded food‖ means an article of food

if it is purported, or is represented to be, or is being:
i. offered or promoted for sale with false, misleading or deceptive claims either.
(a) upon the label of the package, or
(b) through advertisement, or
ii. sold by a name which belongs to another article of food. or
iii. offered or promoted for sale under the name of a fictitious individual or company as the
manufacturer or producer of the article as borne on the package or containing the article
or the label on such package. or
(B) if the article is sold in packages which have been sealed or prepared by or at the
instance of the manufacturer or producer bearing his name and address but –
(i) the article is an imitation of, or is a substitute for, or resembles in a manner likely to
deceive, another article of food under the name of which it is sold, and is not plainly and
conspicuously labelled so as to indicate its true character. or
(ii) the package containing the article or the label on the package bears any statement,
design or device regarding the ingredients or the substances contained therein, which is
false or misleading in any material particular, or if the package is otherwise deceptive
with respect to its contents. or
(iii) the article is offered for sale as the product of any place or country which is false. or
(C) if the article contained in the package:

(i) contains any artificial flavouring, colouring or chemical preservative and the package is
without a declaratory label stating that fact or is not labelled in accordance with the
requirements of this Act or regulations made thereunder or is in contravention thereof. or
(ii) is offered for sale for special dietary uses, unless its label bears such information as may
be specified by regulation, concerning its vitamins, minerals or other dietary properties in
order sufficiently to inform its purchaser as to its value for such use. or
(iii) is not conspicuously or correctly stated on the outside thereof within the limits of
variability laid down under this Act.
(zg) ―notification‖ means a notification published in the Official Gazette.

(zh) ―package‖ means a pre-packed box, bottle, casket, tin, barrel, case, pouch, receptacle,
sack, bag, wrapper or such other things in which an article of food is packed.
(zi) ―premises‖ include any shop, stall, hotel, restaurant, airline services and food
canteens, place or vehicle or vessel where any article of food is sold or manufactured
or stored for sale.
(zj) ―prescribed‖ means prescribed by rules made by the Central Government or the State
Government, as the case may be under this Act.
(zk) ―primary food‖ means an article of food, being a produce of agriculture or horticulture
or animal husbandry and dairying or aquaculture in its natural form, resulting from the
growing, raising, cultivation, picking, harvesting, collection or catching in the hands of a
person other than a farmer or fisherman.
(zl) ―prohibition order‖ means an order issued under section 33 of this Act.
(zm) ―risk‖, in relation to any article of food, means the probability of an adverse effect on
the health of consumers of such food and the severity of that effect, consequential to a
food hazard.
(zn) ―risk analysis‖, in relation to any article of food, means a process consisting of three
components,
i. e. risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.
(zo) ―risk assessment‖ means a scientifically based process consisting of the following
steps:
(i) hazard identification,
(ii) hazard characterisation.
(iii) exposure assessment, and
(iv) risk characterisation.
(zp) ―risk communication‖ means the interactive exchange of information and opinions
throughout the risk analysis process concerning risks, risk-related factors and risk
perceptions, among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers, industry, the academic

community and other interested parties, including the explanation of risk assessment
findings and the basis of risk management decisions.
(zq) ―risk management‖ means the process, distinct from risk assessment, of evaluating
policy alternatives, in consultation with all interested parties considering risk
assessment and other factors relevant for the protection of health of consumers and
for the promotion of fair trade practices, and, if needed, selecting appropriate
prevention and control options.
(zr) ―sale‖ with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions, means the sale of any
article of food, whether for cash or on credit or by way of exchange and whether by
wholesale or retail, for human consumption or use, or for analysis, and includes an
agreement for sale, an offer for sale, the exposing for sale or having in possession for
sale of any such article, and includes also an attempt to sell any such article.
(zs) ―sample‖ means a sample of any article of food taken under the provisions of this Act
or any rules and regulations made thereunder.
(zt) ―specified by regulations‖ means specified by regulations made by the Food Authority.
(zu) ―standard‖, in relation to any article of food, means the standards notified by the Food
Authority.
(zv) ―State Government‖ in relation to a Union territory means the Administrator of that
Union territory appointed by the President under article 239 of the Constitution.
(zw) ―substance‖ includes any natural or artificial substance or other matter, whether it is in
a solid state or in liquid form or in the form of gas or vapour.
(zx) ―Sub-standard‖ an article of food shall be deemed to be sub-standard if it does not
meet the specified standards but not so as to render the article of food unsafe.
(zy) ―Tribunal‖ means the Food Safety Appellate Tribunal established under section 70.
(zz) ―unsafe food‖ means an article of food whose nature, substance or quality is so
affected as to render it injurious to health:
(i) by the article itself, or its package thereof, which is composed, whether wholly or in
part, of poisonous or deleterious substance. or
(ii) by the article consisting, wholly or in part, of any filthy, putrid, rotten, decomposed or
diseased animal substance or vegetable substance. or
(iii) by virtue of its unhygienic processing or the presence in that article of any harmful
substance. or
(iv) by the substitution of any inferior or cheaper substance whether wholly or in part. or
(v) by addition of a substance directly or as an ingredient which is not permitted. or
(vi) by the abstraction, wholly or in part, of any of its constituents. or
(vii) by the article being so coloured, flavoured or coated, powdered or polished, as to
damage or conceal the article or to make it appear better or of greater value than it
really is. or
(viii) by the presence of any colouring matter or preservatives other than that specified in
respect thereof. or
(ix) by the article having been infected or infested with worms, weevils, or insects. or
(x) by virtue of its being prepared, packed or kept under insanitary conditions. or
(xi) by virtue of its being mis-branded or sub-standard or food containing extraneous
matter.
(xii) by virtue of containing pesticides and other contaminants in excess of quantities
specified by regulations.
(2) Any reference in this Act to a law which is not in force in the State of Jammu and
Kashmir shall, in relation to that State, be construed as a reference to the
corresponding Law, if any, in force in that State.
CHAPTER II FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARS AUTHORITY OF INDIA SECTION

4. Establishment of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India.
(1) The Central Government shall, by notification, establish a body to be known as the
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India to exercise the powers conferred on, and
to perform the functions assigned to, it under this Act.

(2) The Food Authority shall be a body corporate by the name aforesaid, having perpetual
succession and a seal with power to acquire, hold and dispose of property, both
movable and immovable, and to contract and shall, by the said name, sue or be sued.
(3) The head office of the Food Authority shall be at Delhi.
(4) The Food Authority may establish its offices at any other place in India.
SECTION 5. Composition of Food Authority and qualifications for appointment of its

Chairperson and other Members
(1) The Food Authority shall consist of a Chairperson and the following twenty-two
members out of which one-third shall be women, namely:-
(a) seven Members, not below the rank of a Joint Secretary to the Government of India, to
be appointed by the Central Government, to respectively represent the Ministries or
Departments of the Central Government dealing with:
(i) Agriculture,
(ii) Commerce,
(iii) Consumer Affairs,
(iv) Food Processing,
(v) Health,
(vi) Legislative Affairs,
(vii) Small Scale Industries, who shall be Members ex officio,
(b) two representatives from food industry of which one shall be from small scale
industries.
(c) two representatives from consumer organisations.
(d) three eminent food technologists or scientists.
(e) five members to be appointed by rotation every three years, one each in seriatim from
the Zones as specified in the First Schedule to represent the States and the Union
territories.
(f) two persons to represent farmers‘ organisations.
(g) one person to represent retailers‘ organisations.
(2) The Chairperson and other Members of the Food Authority shall be appointed in such
a manner so as to secure the highest standards of competence, broad range of
relevant expertise, and shall represent, the broadest possible geographic distribution
within the country.
(3) The Chairperson shall be appointed by the Central Government from amongst the
persons of eminence in the field of food science or from amongst the persons from the
administration who have been associated with the subject and is either holding or has
held the position of not below the rank of Secretary to the Government of India.
(4) The Chairperson and the Members other than ex officio Members of the Food
Authority shall be appointed by the Central Government on the recommendations of
the Selection Committee.
(5) The Chairperson or Members other than ex-officio Members of the Food Authority
shall not hold any other office.
SECTION 6. Selection Committee for selection of Chairperson and Members of Food

Authority.
(1) The Central Government shall, for the purpose of selection of the Chairperson and the
Members other than ex officio Members of the Food Authority, constitute a Selection
Committee consisting of-
(a) Cabinet Secretary – Chairperson,
(b) Secretary-in-charge of the Ministry or the Department responsible for administration of
this Act as the convener– Member,
(c) Secretary-in-charge of the Ministries or the Departments of the Central Government
dealing with Health, Legislative and Personnel– Members,
(d) Chairman of the Public Enterprises Selection Board –Member,

(e) An eminent food technologist to be nominated by the Central Government – Member.
Explanation– For the purposes of clause
(e) the Central Government shall nominate a person from amongst persons holding the
post of Director or the Head, by whatever name called, of any national research or
technical institution.
(2) The Central Government shall, within two months from the date of occurrence of any
vacancy by reason of death, resignation, or removal of the Chairperson or a Member
of the Food Authority and three months before the superannuation or completion of the
term of office of the Chairperson or any Member of that Authority, make a reference to
the Selection Committee for filling up of the vacancy.
(3) The Selection Committee shall finalise the selection of the Chairperson and Members
of the Food Authority within two months from the date on which the reference is made
to it.
(4) The Selection Committee shall recommend a panel of two names for every vacancy
referred to it.
(5) Before recommending any person for appointment as a Chairperson or other Member
of the Food Authority, the Selection Committee shall satisfy itself that such person
does not have any financial or other interest, which is likely to affect prejudicially his
functions as a Member.
(6) No appointment of the Chairperson or other Member of the Food Authority shall be
invalid merely by reason of any vacancy in the Selection Committee.
SECTION 7. Term of Office, salary, allowances and other conditions of service of

Chairperson and Members of Food Authority
(1) The Chairperson and the members other than ex officio Members shall hold office for a
term of three years from the date on which they enter upon their offices, and shall be
eligible for reappointment for a further period of three years: Provided that the
Chairperson shall not hold office as such after he has attained the age of sixty-five
years.
(a) in the case of the Chairperson, the age of sixty-five years, and
(b) in the case of a Member, the age of sixty-two years.
(2) The salary and allowances payable to, and the other terms and conditions of service of
the Chairperson and Members other than ex-officio Members shall be such as may be
prescribed by the Central Government.
(3) The Chairperson and every Member shall, before entering upon his office, make and
subscribe to an oath of office and of secrecy in such form and in such manner and
before such authority as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section the Chairperson or any Member
may –
(a) relinquish his office by giving in writing to the Central Government a notice of not less
than three months. or
(b) be removed from his office in accordance with the provisions of section 8.
(5) The Chairperson or any Member ceasing to hold office as such shall not represent any
person before the Food Authority or any State Authority in any manner.
SECTION 8. Removal of Chairperson and Members of Food Authority.

(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) of section 7, the Central
Government may, by order, remove from office the Chairperson or any other Member,
if the Chairperson or as the case may be, such other Member,-
(a) has been adjudged an insolvent. Or
(b) has been convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the Central Government,
involves moral turpitude. or
(c) has become physically or mentally incapable of acting as a Member. or

(d) has acquired such financial or other interests as is likely to affect prejudicially his
functions as a Member. or
(e) has so abused his position as to render his continuance in office prejudicial to the
public interest.
(2) No Member shall be removed under clauses (d) and (e) of sub-section (1) unless he
has been given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in the matter.
SECTION 9. Officers and other employees of Food Authority.

(1) There shall be a Chief Executive Officer of the Food Authority, not below the rank of
Additional Secretary to the Government of India, who shall be the Member-Secretary
of the Authority, to be appointed by the Central Government.
(2) The Food Authority may, with the approval of the Central Government, determine the
number, nature and categories of other officers and employees required to the Food
Authority in the discharge of its functions.
(3) The salaries and allowances payable to and other conditions of service of, the Chief
Executive Officer, officers, and other employees shall be such as may be specified by
regulations by the Food Authority with the approval of the Central Government.
SECTION 10. Functions of the Chief Executive Officer

(1) The Chief Executive Officer shall be the legal representative of the Food Authority and
shall be responsible for –
(a) the day-to-day administration of the Food Authority.
(b) drawing up of proposal for the Food Authority‘s work programmes in consultation with
the Central Advisory Committee.
(c) implementing the work programmes and the decisions adopted by the Food Authority.
(d) ensuring the provision of appropriate scientific, technical and administrative support for
the Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel.
(e) ensuring that the Food Authority carries out its tasks in accordance with the
requirements of its users, in particular with regard to the adequacy of the services
provided and the time taken.
(f) the preparation of the statement of revenue and expenditure and the execution of the
budget of the Food Authority. and
(g) developing and maintaining contact with the Central Government, and for ensuring a
regular dialogue with its relevant committees.
(2) Every year, the Chief Executive Officer shall submit to the Food Authority for approval
–
(a) a general report covering all the activities of the Food Authority in the previous year.
(b) programmes of work.
(c) the annual accounts for the previous year. and
(d) the budget for the coming year.
(3) The Chief Executive Officer shall, following adoption by the Food Authority, forward,
the general report and the programmes to the Central Government and the State
Governments and shall have them published.
(4) The Chief Executive Officer shall approve all financial expenditure of the Food
Authority and report on the Authority‘s activities to the Central Government.
(5) The Chief Executive Officer shall exercise the powers of the Commissioner of Food
Safety while dealing with matters relating to food safety of such articles.
(6) The Chief Executive Officer shall have administrative control over the officers and
other employees of the Food Authority.
SECTION 11. Central Advisory Committee.

(1) The Food Authority shall, by notification, establish a Committee to be known as the
Central Advisory Committee.

(2) The Central Advisory Committee shall consist of two members each to represent the
interests of food industry, agriculture, consumers, relevant research bodies and food
laboratories and all Commissioners of Food Safety, and the Chairperson of the
Scientific Committee shall be ex officio member.
(3) The representatives of the concerned Ministries or Departments of the Central
Government in Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Bio-technology,
Commerce and Industry, Consumer Affairs, Environment and Forests, Food
Processing Industries, Health, Panchayati Raj, Small Scale Industries and Food and
Public Distribution or government institutes or organisations and government
recognised farmers‘ shall be invitees to the deliberations of the Central Advisory
Committee.
(4) The Chief Executive Officer shall be ex officio Chairperson of the Central Advisory
Committee.
(5) The Central Advisory Committee shall follow such rules of procedure including its
transaction of business as may be specified by regulations.
SECTION 12. Functions of Central Advisory Committee.

(1) The Central Advisory Committee shall ensure close cooperation between the Food
Authority and the enforcement agencies and organisations operating in the field of
food.
(2) The Central Advisory Committee shall advise the Food Authority on –
(a) the performance of its duties under this section and in particular in drawing up of a
proposal for the Food Authority‘s work programme,
(b) on the prioritisation of work,
(c) identifying potential risks,
(d) pooling of knowledge, and
(e) such other functions as may be specified by regulations.
(3) The Central Advisory Committee shall meet regularly at the invitation of the
Chairperson of Central Advisory Committee or at the request of at least one-third of its
members, and not less than three times a year.
SECTION 13. Scientific Panels.

(1) The Food Authority shall establish scientific panels, which shall consist of independent
scientific experts.
(2) The Scientific Panel shall invite the relevant industry and consumer representatives in
its deliberations.
(3) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section
(1) the Food Authority may establish as many Scientific Panels as it considers necessary
in addition to the Panels on:
(a) food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food.
(b) pesticides and antibiotics residues.
(c) genetically modified organisms and foods.
(d) functional foods, nutraceuticals, dietetic products and other similar products.
(e) biological hazards.
(f) contaminants in the food chain.
(g) labelling. and
(h) method of sampling and analysis.
(4) The Food Authority may from time to time re-constitute the Scientific Panels by adding
new members or by omitting the existing members or by changing the name of the
panel as the case may be.
SECTION 14. Scientific Committee.

(1) The Food Authority shall constitute Scientific Committee which shall consist of the
Chairpersons of the Scientific Panels and six independent scientific experts not
belonging or affiliated to any of the Scientific Panels.

(2) The Scientific Committee shall be responsible for providing the scientific opinions to
the Food Authority, and shall have the powers, where necessary, of organising public
hearings.
(3) The Scientific Committee shall be responsible for the general co-ordination necessary
to ensure consistency of the scientific opinion procedure and in particular with regard
to the adoption of working procedures and harmonisation of working methods of the
Scientific Panels.
(4) The Scientific Committee shall provide opinions on multi-sectoral issues falling within
the competence of more than one Scientific Panel, and on issues which do not fall
within the competence of any of the Scientific Panels.
(5) Wherever necessary, and particularly, in the case of subjects which do not fall within
the competence of any of the Scientific Panel, the Scientific Committee shall set up
working groups and in such cases, it shall draw on the expertise of those working
groups when establishing scientific opinions.
SECTION 15. Procedure for Scientific Committee and Scientific Panel.

(1) The members of the Scientific Committee, who are not members of the Scientific
Panel and the members of the Scientific Panel shall be appointed by the Food
Authority, for a period of three years, which shall be renewable for such period, and
the vacancy notice shall be published in the relevant leading scientific publications and
on the Food Authority‘s website for a call for expressions of interest.
(2) The Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel shall each choose a Chairperson
from amongst their members.
(3) The Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel shall act by a majority of their
members and the views of the members shall be recorded.
(4) The procedure for the operation and co-operation of the Scientific Committee and the
Scientific Panel shall be specified by regulations.
(5) These procedures shall relate in particular to –
(a) The number of times that a member can serve consecutively on a Scientific Committee
or Scientific Panel.
(b) the number of members in each Scientific Panel.
(c) the procedure for re-imbursing the expenses of members of the Scientific Committee
and the Scientific Panel.
(d) the manner in which tasks and requests for scientific opinions are assigned to the
Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel.
(e) The creation and organisation of the working groups of the Scientific Committee and
the Scientific Panel, and the possibility of external experts being included in those
working groups.
(f) The possibility of observers being invited to meetings of the Scientific Committee and
the Scientific Panel.
(g) The possibility of organising public hearings. and
(h) Quorum of the meeting, meeting notice, agenda of the meeting and such other
matters.
SECTION 16. Duties and functions of Food Authority.

(1) It shall be the duty of the Food Authority to regulate and monitor the manufacture,
processing, distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure safe and wholesome
food.
(2) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (1), the Food Authority may by
regulations specify:
(a) the standards and guidelines in relation to articles of food and specifying an
appropriate system for enforcing various standards notified under this Act.
(b) the limits for use of food additives, crop contaminants, pesticide residues, residues of
veterinary drugs, heavy metals, processing aids, myco-toxins, antibiotics and
pharmacological active substances and irradiation of food.

(c) the mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies engaged in
certification of food safety management systems for food businesses.
(d) the procedure and the enforcement of quality control in relation to any article of food
imported into India.
(e) the procedure and guidelines for accreditation of laboratories and notification of the
accredited laboratories.
(f) the method of sampling, analysis and exchange of information among enforcement
authorities.
(g) conduct survey of enforcement and administration of this Act in the country.
(h) food labelling standards including claims on health, nutrition, special dietary uses and
food category systems for foods. and
(i) the manner in which and the procedure subject to which risk analysis, risk
assessment, risk communication and risk management shall be undertaken.
(3) The Food Authority shall also:

(a) provide scientific advice and technical support to the Central Government and the
State Governments in matters of framing the policy and rules in areas which have a
direct or indirect bearing on food safety and nutrition.
(b) search, collect, collate, analyse and summarise relevant scientific and technical data
particularly relating to
(i) food consumption and the exposure of individuals to risks related to the consumption
of food.
(ii) incidence and prevalence of biological risk.
(iii) contaminants in food.
(iv) residues of various contaminants.
(v) identification of emerging risks. and
(vi) introduction of rapid alert system.
(c) promote, co-ordinate and issue guidelines for the development of risk assessment
methodologies and monitor and conduct and forward messages on the health and
nutritional risks of food to the Central Government, State Governments and
Commissioners of Food Safety.
(d) provide scientific and technical advice and assistance to the Central Government and
the State Governments in implementation of crisis management procedures with
regard to food safety and to draw up a general plan for crisis management and work in
close co-operation with the crisis unit set up by the Central Government in this regard.
(e) establish a system of network of organisations with the aim to facilitate a scientific co-
operation framework by the co-ordination of activities, the exchange of information, the
development and implementation of joint projects, the exchange of expertise and best
practices in the fields within the Food Authority‘s responsibility.
(f) provide scientific and technical assistance to the Central Government and the State
Governments for improving co-operation with international organisations.
(g) take all such steps to ensure that the public, consumers, interested parties and all
levels of panchayats receive rapid, reliable, objective and comprehensive information
through appropriate methods and means.
(h) provide, whether within or outside their area, training programmes in food safety and
standards for persons who are or intend to become involved in food businesses,
whether as food business operators or employees or otherwise.
(i) undertake any other task assigned to it by the Central Government to carry out the
objects of this Act.
(j) contribute to the development of international technical standards for food, sanitary
and phyto sanitary standards.
(k) contribute, where relevant and appropriate to the development of agreement on
recognition of the equivalence of specific food related measures.
(l) promote co-ordination of work on food standards undertaken by international
governmental and nongovernmental organisations.

(m) promote consistency between international technical standards and domestic food
standards while ensuring that the level of protection adopted in the country is not
reduced. and
(n) promote general awareness as to food safety and food standards.
(4) The Food Authority shall make it public without undue delay:
(a) the opinions of the Scientific Committee and the Scientific Panel immediately after
adoption.
(b) the annual declarations of interest made by members of the Food Authority, the Chief
Executive Officer, members of the Advisory Committee and members of the Scientific
Committee and Scientific Panel, as well as the declarations of interest if any, made in
relation to items on the agendas of meetings.
(c) the results of its scientific studies. and
(d) the annual report of its activities.
(5) The Food Authority may from time to time give such directions, on matters relating to
food safety and standards, to the Commissioner of Food Safety, who shall be bound
by such directions while exercising his powers under this Act.
(6) The Food Authority shall not disclose or cause to be disclosed to third parties
confidential information that it receives for which confidential treatment has been
requested and has been acceded, except for information which must be made public if
circumstances so require, in order to protect public health.
SECTION 17. Proceedings of Food Authority

(1) The Food Authority shall meet at the head office or any of its offices at such time as
the Chairperson may direct, and shall observe such rules of procedure in regard to the
transaction of business at its meetings (including the quorum at its meetings) as may
be specified by regulations.
(2) If the Chairperson is unable to attend a meeting of the Food Authority, any other
Member nominated by the Chairperson in this behalf and, in the absence of such
nomination or where there is no Chairperson, any Member chosen by the Members
present from amongst themselves, shall preside at the meeting.
(3) All questions which come up before any meeting of the Food Authority shall be
decided by a majority of votes of the Members present and voting, and in the event of
an equality of votes, the Chairperson or the person presiding over the meeting shall
have the right to exercise a second or casting vote.
(4) All orders and decisions of the Food Authority shall be authenticated by the Chief
Executive Officer.
(5) The Chief Executive Officer shall take part in the meetings of the Food Authority but
without a right to vote.
(6) The Food Authority may invite the Chairperson of the Scientific Committee to attend its
meetings but without a right to vote.
(7) No act or proceedings of the Food Authority shall be questioned or invalidated merely
on the ground of existence of any vacancy or defect in the constitution of Food
Authority.
CHAPTER III GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOOD SAFETY SECTION
18. General principles to be followed in Administration of Act. The Central Government,

the State Governments, the Food Authority and other agencies, as the case may be,
while implementing the provisions of this Act shall be guided by the following principles
namely:
(1)(a) endeavour to achieve an appropriate level of protection of human life and health and
the protection of consumer‘s interests, including fair practices in all kinds of food trade
with reference to food safety standards and practices.
(b) carry out risk management which shall include taking into account the results of risk
assessment and other factors which in the opinion of the Food Authority are relevant to

the matter under consideration and where the conditions are relevant, in order to
achieve the general objectives of regulations.
(c) where in any specific circumstances, on the basis of assessment of available
information, the possibility of harmful effects on health is identified but scientific
uncertainty persists, provisional risk management measures necessary to ensure
appropriate level of health protection may be adopted, pending further scientific
information for a more comprehensive risk assessment.
(d) the measures adopted on the basis of clause (c) shall be proportionate and no more
restrictive of trade than is required to achieve appropriate level of health protection,
regard being had to technical and economic feasibility and other factors regarded as
reasonable and proper in the matter under consideration.
(e) The measures adopted shall be reviewed within a reasonable period of time,
depending on the nature of the risk to life or health being identified and the type of
scientific information needed to clarify the scientific uncertainty and to conduct a more
comprehensive risk assessment.
(f) in cases where there are reasonable grounds to suspect that a food may present a risk
for human health, then, depending on the nature, seriousness and extent of that risk,
the Food Authority and the Commissioner of Food Safety shall take appropriate steps
to inform the general public of the nature of the risk to health, identifying to the fullest
extent possible the food or type of food, the risk that it may present, and the measures
which are taken or about to be taken to prevent, reduce or eliminate that risk. and
(g) where any food which fails to comply with food safety requirements is part of a batch,
lot or consignment of food of the same class or description, it shall be presumed until
the contrary is proved, that all of the food in that batch, lot or consignment fails to
comply with those requirements.
(2) The Food Authority shall, while framing regulations or specifying standards under this
Act–
(a) take into account:
(i) prevalent practices and conditions in the country including agricultural practices and
handling, storage and transport conditions. and
(ii) international standards and practices, where international standards or practices exist
or are in the process of being formulated, unless it is of opinion that taking into account
of such prevalent practices and conditions or international standards or practices or
any particular part thereof would not be an effective or appropriate means for securing
the objectives of such regulations or where there is a scientific justification or where
they would result in a different level of protection from the one determined as
appropriate in the country.
(b) determine food standards on the basis of risk analysis except where it is of opinion that
such analysis is not appropriate to the circumstances or the nature of the case.
(c) undertake risk assessment based on the available scientific evidence and in an
independent, objective and transparent manner.
(d) ensure that there is open and transparent public consultation, directly or through
representative bodies including all levels of panchayats, during the preparation,
evaluation and revision of regulations, except where it is of opinion that there is an
urgency concerning food safety or public health to make or amend the regulations in
which case such consultation may be dispensed with: Provided that such regulations
shall be in force for not more than six months.
(e) ensure protection of the interests of consumers and shall provide a basis for
consumers to make informed choices in relation to the foods they consume.
(f) ensure prevention of:
(i) fraudulent, deceptive or unfair trade practices which may mislead or harm the
consumer. and
(ii) unsafe or contaminated or sub-standard food.
(3) The provisions of this Act shall not apply to any farmer or fisherman or farming
operations or crops or livestock or aquaculture, and supplies used or produced in

farming or products of crops produced by a farmer at farm level or a fisherman in his
operations.
CHAPTER IV GENERAL POVISIONS AS TO ARTICLES OF FOOD
SECTION 19. Use of food additive or processing aid

No article of food shall contain any food additive or processing aid unless it is in accordance
with the provisions of this Act and regulations made thereunder. Explanation. - For the
purposes of this section, ―processing aid‖ means any substance or material, not including
apparatus or utensils, and not consumed as a food ingredient by itself, used in the
processing of raw materials, foods or its ingredients to fulfil a certain technological purpose
during treatment or processing and which may result in the non-intentional but unavoidable
presence of residues or derivatives in the final product.
SECTION 20. Contaminants, naturally occurring toxic substances, heavy metals, etc.
No article of food shall contain any contaminant, naturally occurring toxic substances or
toxins or hormone or heavy metals in excess of such quantities as may be specified by
regulations.
SECTION 21. Pesticides, veterinary drugs residues, antibiotic residues and

microbiological counts.
(1) No article of food shall contain insecticides or pesticides residues, veterinary drugs
residues, antibiotic residues, solvent residues, pharmacological active substances and
micro-biological counts in excess of such tolerance limit as may be specified by
regulations.
(2) No insecticide shall be used directly on article of food except fumigants registered and
approved under the Insecticides Act, 1968 (46 of 1968). Explanation. -For the
purposes of this section, –
(1) ―pesticide residue‖ means any specified substance in food resulting from the use of a
pesticide and includes any derivatives of a pesticide, such as conversion products,
metabolites, reaction products and impurities considered to be of toxicological
significance and also includes such residues coming into food from environment.
(2) ―residues of veterinary drugs‖ include the parent compounds or their metabolites or
both in any edible portion of any animal product and include residues of associated
impurities of the veterinary drugs concerned.
SECTION 22. Genetically modified foods, organic foods, functional foods, proprietary
foods, etc.
Save as otherwise provided under this Act and regulations made thereunder, no person shall
manufacture, distribute, sell or import any novel food, genetically modified articles of food,
irradiated food, organic foods, foods for special dietary uses, functional foods,
neutraceuticals, health supplements, proprietary foods and such other articles of food which
the Central Government may notify in this behalf.
Explanation– For the purposes of this section,-

(1) ―foods for special dietary uses or functional foods or nutraceuticals or health
supplements‖ means:
(a) foods which are specially processed or formulated to satisfy particular dietary
requirements which exist because of a particular physical or physiological condition or
specific diseases and disorders and which are presented as such, wherein the
composition of these foodstuffs must differ significantly from the composition of
ordinary foods of comparable nature, if such ordinary foods exist, and may contain one
or more of the following ingredients, namely:-
(i) plants or botanicals or their parts in the form of powder, concentrate or extract in
water, ethyl alcohol or hydro alcoholic extract, single or in combination.

(ii) minerals or vitamins or proteins or metals or their compounds or amino acids (in
amounts not exceeding the Recommended Daily Allowance for Indians) or enzymes
(within permissible limits).
(iii) substances from animal origin.
(iv) a dietary substance for use by human beings to supplement the diet by increasing the
total dietary intake
(b)(i) a product that is labelled as a ―Food for special dietary uses or functional foods or
nutraceuticals or health supplements or similar such foods‖ which is not represented
for use as a conventional food and whereby such products may be formulated in the
form of powders, granules, tablets, capsules, liquids, jelly and other dosage forms but
not parenterals, and are meant for oral administration.
(ii) such product does not include a drug as defined in clause (b) and ayurvedic, sidha and
unani drugs as defined in clauses (a) and (h) of section 3 of the Drugs and Cosmetics
Act, 1940 (23 of 1940) and rules made thereunder.
(iii) does not claim to cure or mitigate any specific disease, disorder or condition (except
for certain health benefit or such promotion claims) as may be permitted by the
regulations made under this Act.
(iv) does not include a narcotic drug or a psychotropic substance as defined in the
Schedule of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (61 of 1985)
and rules made thereunder and substances listed in Schedules E and EI of the Drugs
and Cosmetics Rules, 1945
(2) ―genetically engineered or modified food‖ means food and food ingredients composed
of or containing genetically modified or engineered organisms obtained through
modern biotechnology, or food and food ingredients produced from but not containing
genetically modified or engineered organisms obtained through modern biotechnology.
(3) ―organic food‖ means food products that have been produced in accordance with
specified organic production standards.
(4) ―proprietary and novel food‖ means an article of food for which standards have not
been specified but is not unsafe: Provided that such food does not contain any of the
foods and ingredients prohibited under this Act and regulations made thereunder.
SECTION 23. Packaging and labelling of foods.

(1) No person shall manufacture, distribute, sell or expose for sale or despatch or deliver
to any agent or broker for the purpose of sale, any packaged food products which are
not marked and labelled in the manner as may be specified by regulations: Provided
that the labels shall not contain any statement, claim, design or device which is false or
misleading in any particular concerning the food products contained in the package or
concerning the quantity or the nutritive value implying medicinal or therapeutic claims
or in relation to the place of origin of the said food products.
(2) Every food business operator shall ensure that the labelling and presentation of food,
including their shape, appearance or packaging, the packaging materials used, the
manner in which they are arranged and the setting in which they are displayed, and
the information which is made available about them through whatever medium, does
not mislead consumers.
SECTION 24. Restrictions of advertisement and prohibition as to unfair trade

practices.
(1) No advertisement shall be made of any food which is misleading or deceiving or
contravenes the provisions of this Act, the rules and regulations made thereunder.
(2) No person shall engage himself in any unfair trade practice for purpose of promoting
the sale, supply, use and consumption of articles of food or adopt any unfair or
deceptive practice including the practice of making any statement, whether orally or in
writing or by visible representation which-

(a) falsely represents that the foods are of a particular standard, quality, quantity or grade-
composition.
(b) makes a false or misleading representation concerning the need for, or the usefulness.
(c) gives to the public any guarantee of the efficacy that is not based on an adequate or
scientific justification thereof: Provided that where a defence is raised to the effect that
such guarantee is based on adequate or scientific justification, the burden of proof of
such defence shall lie on the person raising such defence.
CHAPTER V PROVISIONS RELATING TO IMPORT
SECTION 25. All imports of articles of food to be subject to this Act.

(1) No person shall import into India:
(i) any unsafe or misbranded or sub-standard food or food containing extraneous matter.
(ii) any article of food for the import of which a licence is required under any Act or rules or
regulations, except in accordance with the conditions of the licence. and
(iii) any article of food in contravention of any other provision of this Act or of any rule or
regulation made thereunder or any other Act.
(2) The Central Government shall, while prohibiting, restricting or otherwise regulating
import of article of food under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act,
1992 (22 of 1992), follow the standards laid down by the Food Authority under the
provisions of this Act and the Rules and regulations made thereunder.
CHAPTER VI SPECIAL RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO FOOD SAFETY
SECTION 26. Responsibilities of the Food business operator.

(1) Every food business operator shall ensure that the articles of food satisfy the
requirements of this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder at all stages of
production, processing, import, distribution and sale within the businesses under his
control.
(2) No food business operator shall himself or by any person on his behalf manufacture,
store, sell or distribute any article of food:
(i) which is unsafe. or
(ii) which is misbranded or sub-standard or contains extraneous matter. or
(iii) for which a licence is required, except in accordance with the conditions of the licence.
or
(iv) which is for the time being prohibited by the Food Authority or the Central Government
or the State Government in the interest of public health. or
(v) in contravention of any other provision of this Act or of any rule or regulation made
thereunder.
(3) No food business operator shall employ any person who is suffering from infectious,
contagious or loathsome disease.
(4) No food business operator shall sell or offer for sale any article of food to any vendor
unless he also gives a guarantee in writing in the form specified by regulations about
the nature and quality of such article to the vendor: Provided that a bill, cash memo, or
invoice in respect of the sale of any article of food given by a food business operator to
the vendor shall be deemed to be a guarantee under this section, even if a guarantee
in the specified form is not included in the bill, cash memo or invoice.
(5) Where any food which is unsafe is part of a batch, lot or consignment of food of the
same class or description, it shall be presumed that all the food in that batch, lot or
consignment is also unsafe, unless following a detailed assessment within a specified
time, it is found that there is no evidence that the rest of the batch, lot or consignment
is unsafe: Provided that any conformity of a food with specific provisions applicable to
that food shall be without prejudice to the competent authorities taking appropriate

measures to impose restrictions on that food being placed on the market or to require
its withdrawal from the market for the reasons to be recorded in writing where such
authorities suspect that, despite the conformity, the food is unsafe.
SECTION 27. Liability of the manufacturers, packers, wholesalers, distributors and

sellers
(1) The manufacturer or packer of an article of food shall be liable for such article of food if
it does not meet the requirements of this Act and the rules and regulations made
thereunder.
(2) The wholesaler or distributor shall be liable under this Act for any article of food which
is:
(a) Supplied after the date of its expiry. or
(b) Stored or supplied in violation of the safety instructions of the manufacturer. or
(c) Unsafe or misbranded. or
(d) Unidentifiable of manufacturer from whom the article of food have been received. or
(e) Stored or handled or kept in violation of the provisions of this Act, the rules and
regulations made thereunder. or
(f) received by him with knowledge of being unsafe.
(3) The seller shall be liable under this Act for any article of food which is:
(a) sold after the date of its expiry. or
(b) handled or kept in unhygienic conditions. or
(c) misbranded. or
(d) unidentifiable of the manufacturer or the distributors from whom such articles of food
were received. or
(e) received by him with knowledge of being unsafe.
SECTION 28. Food recall procedures.

(1) If a food business operator considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he
has processed, manufactured or distributed is not in compliance with this Act, or the
rules or regulations, made thereunder, he shall immediately initiate procedures to
withdraw the food in question from the market and consumers indicating reasons for its
withdrawal and inform the competent authorities thereof.
(2) A food business operator shall immediately inform the competent authorities and co-
operate with them, if he considers or has reasons to believe that a food which he has
placed on the market may be unsafe for the consumers.
(3) The food business operator shall inform the competent authorities of the action taken
to prevent risks to the consumer and shall not prevent or discourage any person from
cooperating, in accordance with this Act, with the competent authorities, where this
may prevent, reduce or eliminate a risk arising from a food.
(4) Every food business operator shall follow such conditions and guidelines relating to
food recall procedures as the Food Authority may specify by regulations.
CHAPTER VII ENFORCEMENT OF THE ACT
SECTION 29. Authorities responsible for enforcement of Act.

(1) The Food Authority and the State Food Safety Authorities shall be responsible for the
enforcement of this Act.
(2) The Food Authority and the State Food Safety Authorities shall monitor and verify that
the relevant requirements of law are fulfilled by food business operators at all stages of
food business.

(3) The authorities shall maintain a system of control and other activities as appropriate to
the circumstances, including public communication on food safety and risk, food safety
surveillance and other monitoring activities covering all stages of food business.
(4) The Food Safety Officers shall enforce and execute within their area the provisions of
this Act with respect to which the duty is not imposed expressly or by necessary
implication on some other authority.
(5) The regulations under this Act shall specify which of the Food Safety Officers are to
enforce and execute them, either generally or in relation to cases of a particular
description or a particular area, and any such regulations or orders may provide for the
giving of assistance and information by any authority concerned in 11the
administration of the regulations or orders, or of any provisions of this Act, to any other
authority so concerned, for the purposes of their respective duties under them.
(6) The Commissioner of Food Safety and Designated Officer shall exercise the same
powers as are conferred on the Food Safety Officer and follow the same procedure
specified in this Act.
SECTION 30. Commissioner of Food Safety of the State.

(1) The State Government shall appoint the Commissioner of Food Safety for the State for
efficient implementation of food safety and standards and other requirements laid
down under this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder.
(2) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall perform all or any of the following functions,
namely:
(a) prohibit in the interest of public health, the manufacture, storage, distribution or sale of
any article of food, either in the whole of the State or any area or part thereof for such
period, not exceeding one year, as may be specified in the order notified in this behalf
in the Official Gazette.
(b) carry out survey of the industrial units engaged in the manufacture or processing of
food in the State to find out compliance by such units of the standards notified by the
Food Authority for various articles of food.
(c) conduct or organise training programmes for the personnel of the office of the
Commissioner of Food Safety and, on a wider scale, for different segments of food
chain for generating awareness on food safety.
(d) ensure an efficient and uniform implementation of the standards and other
requirements as specified and also ensure a high standard of objectivity,
accountability, practicability, transparency and credibility.
(e) sanction prosecution for offences punishable with imprisonment under this Act.
(f) such other functions as the State Government may, in consultation with the Food
Authority, prescribe.
(3) The Commissioner of Food Safety may, by Order, delegate, subject to such conditions
and restrictions as may be specified in the Order, such of his powers and functions
under this Act (except the power to appoint Designated Officer, Food Safety Officer
and Food Analyst) as he may deem necessary or expedient to any officer subordinate
to him.
SECTION 31. Licensing and registration of food business.

(1) No person shall commence or carry on any food business except under a licence.
(2) Nothing contained in sub-section (1) shall apply to a petty manufacturer who himself
manufactures or sells any article of food or a petty retailer, hawker, itinerant vendor or
a temporary stall holder or small scale or cottage or such other industries relating to
food business or tiny food business operator. but they shall register themselves with
such authority and in such manner as may be specified by regulations, without

prejudice to the availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption or
affecting the interests of the consumers.
(3) Any person desirous to commence or carry on any food business shall make an
application for grant of a licence to the Designated Officer in such manner containing
such particulars and fees as may be specified by regulations.
(4) The Designated Officer on receipt of an application under sub-section (3), may either
grant the licence or after giving the applicant an opportunity of being heard and for
reasons to be recorded in writing, refuse to grant a licence to any applicant, if he is
satisfied that it is necessary so to do in the interest of public health and shall make
available to the applicant a copy of the order: Provided that if a licence is not issued
within two months from the date of making the application or his application is not
rejected, the applicant may start his food business after expiry of the said period and in
such a case, the Designated Officer shall not refuse to issue a licence but may, if he
considers necessary, issue an improvement notice, under section 32 and follow
procedures in that regard.
(5) Every licence shall be in such form and subject to such conditions as may be specified
by regulations.
(6) A single licence may be issued by the Designated Officer for one or more articles of
food and also for different establishments or premises in the same area.
(7) If the articles of food are manufactured, stored, sold or exhibited for sale at different
premises situated in more than one area, separate applications shall be made and
separate licence shall be issued in respect of such premises not falling within the same
area.
(8) An appeal against the order of rejection for the grant of licence shall lie to the
Commissioner of Food Safety.
(9) A licence unless suspended or cancelled earlier shall be in force for such period as
may be specified by regulations: Provided that if an application for a renewal of licence
is made before the expiry of the period of validity of the licence, the licence shall
continue to be in force until orders are passed on the application.
(10) The licence shall subsist for the benefit of the deceased‘s personal representative or
any other member of his family, until the expiry of – (a) the period of three months
beginning with his death. or (b) such longer period as the Designated Officer may
allow.
SECTION 32. Improvement notices.

(1) If the Designated Officer has reasonable ground for believing that any food business
operator has failed to comply with any regulations to which this section applies, he
may, by a notice served on that food business operator (in this Act referred to as an
―improvement notice‖) –
(a) state the grounds for believing that the food business operator has failed to comply
with the regulations.
(b) specify the matters which constitute the food business operator‘s failure so to comply.
(c) specify the measures which, in the opinion of the said Authority, the food business
operator must take, in order to secure compliance. and
(d) require the food business operator to take those measures, or measures which are at
least equivalent to them, within a reasonable period (not being less than fourteen
days) as may be specified in the notice.
(2) If the food business operator fails to comply with an improvement notice, his licence
may be suspended.
(3) If the food business operator still fails to comply with the improvement notice, the
Designated Officer may, after giving the licensee an opportunity to show cause, cancel
the licence granted to him: Provided that the Designated Officer may suspend any
licence forthwith in the interest of public health for reasons to be recorded in writing.

(4) Any person who is aggrieved by:
(a) an improvement notice. or
(b) refusal to issue a certificate as to improvement. or
(c) cancellation or suspension or revocation of licence under this Act, may appeal to the
Commissioner of Food Safety whose decision thereon, shall be final.
(5) The period within which such an appeal may be brought shall be:
(a) fifteen days from the date on which notice of the decision was served on the person
desiring to appeal. or
(b) in the case of an appeal under sub-section (1), the said period or the period specified
in the improvement notice, whichever expires earlier. Explanation - For the purpose of
this sub-section, the making of the complaint shall be deemed to be the bringing of the
appeal.
SECTION 33. Prohibition orders.

(1) If – (a) any food business operator is convicted of an offence under this Act. and (b)
the court by or before which he is so convicted is satisfied that the health risk exists
with respect to that food business, the court, after giving the food business operator an
opportunity of being heard, may by an order, impose the following prohibitions,
namely:
(i) a prohibition on the use of the process or treatment for the purposes of the food
business.
(ii) a prohibition on the use of the premises or equipment for the purposes of the food
business or any other food business of the same class or description.
(iii) a prohibition on the use of the premises or equipment for the purposes of any food
business.
(2) The court may, on being satisfied that it is necessary so to do, by an order, impose a
prohibition on the food business operator participating in the management of any food
business, or any food business of a class or description specified in the order.
(3) As soon as practicable after the making of an order under sub-section (1) or sub
section (2) (in this Act referred to as a ―prohibition order‖), the concerned Food Safety
Officer shall
(a) serve a copy of the order on the food business operator. and (b) in the case of an
order under subsection (1), affix a copy of the order at a conspicuous place on such
premises used for the purposes of the food business, and any person who knowingly
contravenes such an order shall be guilty of an offence and be punishable with a fine
which may extend to three lakh rupees.
(4) The concerned Food Safety Officer shall with the approval of the Designated Officer
issue a certificate to the effect that the food business operator has taken sufficient
measures justifying lifting of the prohibition order, within seven days of his being
satisfied on an application made by the food business operator for such a certificate or
the said officer shall-
(a) determine, as soon as is reasonably practicable and in any event within fourteen days,
whether or not he is so satisfied. and
(b) if he determines that he is not so satisfied, give notice to the food business operator of
the reasons for that determination.
(5) A prohibition order shall cease to have effect upon the court being satisfied, on an
application made by the food business operator not less than six months after the
prohibition order has been passed, that the food business operator has taken sufficient
measures justifying the lifting of the prohibition order.
(6) The court shall give a direction on an application by the food business operator, if the
court thinks it proper so to do having regard to all the circumstances of the case,

including in particular, the conduct of the food business operator since the making of
the order. but no such application shall be entertained if it is not made:
(a) within six months after the making of the prohibition order. or
(b) within three months after the making by the food business operator of a previous
application for such a direction. Explanation – For the purpose of this section,- any
reference above shall apply in relation to a manager of a food business as it applies in
relation to the food business operator. and any reference to the food business operator
of the business, or to the food business operator, shall be construed accordingly.
―manager‖, in relation to a food business, means any person who is entrusted by the
food business operator with the day-to-day running of the business, or any part of the
business.
SECTION 34. Emergency prohibition notices and orders.

(1) If the Designated Officer is satisfied that the health risk condition exists with respect to
any food business, he may, after a notice served on the food business operator (in this
Act referred to as an ‗emergency prohibition notice‖), apply to the Commissioner of
Food Safety for imposing the prohibition.
(2) If the Commissioner of Food Safety is satisfied, on the application of such an officer,
that the health risk condition exists with respect to any food business, he shall, by an
order, impose the prohibition.
(3) The Designated Officer shall not apply for an emergency prohibition order unless, at
least one day before the date of the application, he has served notice on the food
business operator of the business of his intention to apply for the order.
(4) As soon as practicable after the making of an emergency prohibition order, the
Designated Officer shall require the Food Safety Officer to:
(a) serve a copy of the order on the food business operator of the business. or
(b) affix a copy of the order at a conspicuous place on such premises used for the
purposes of that business. and any person who knowingly contravenes such an order
shall be guilty of an offence and shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to two years and with fine which may extend to two lakh rupees.
(5) An emergency prohibition order shall cease to have effect on the issue by the
Designated Officer of a certificate to the effect that he is satisfied that the food
business operator has taken sufficient measures for justifying the lifting of such order.
(6) The Designated Officer shall issue a certificate under subsection (5) within seven days
of an application by the food business operator for such a certificate and on his being
not satisfied, the said officer shall give notice to the food business operator within a
period of ten days indicating the reasons for such decision.
SECTION 35. Notification of food poisoning.

The Food Authority may, by notification, require registered medical practitioners carrying on
their profession in any local area specified in the notification, to report all occurrences of food
poisoning coming to their notice to such officer as may be specified.
SECTION 36. Designated Officer.

(1) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, by order, appoint the Designated Officer, who
shall not be below the rank of a Sub-Divisional Officer, to be in-charge of food safety
administration in such area as may be specified by regulations.
(2) There shall be a Designated Officer for each district.
(3) The functions to be performed by the Designated Officer shall be as follows, namely:
(a) to issue or cancel licence of food business operators.

(b) to prohibit the sale of any article of food which is in contravention of the provisions of
this Act and rules and regulations made thereunder.
(c) to receive report and samples of article of foods from Food Safety Officer under his
jurisdiction and get them analysed.
(d) to make recommendations to the Commissioner of Food Safety for sanction to launch
prosecutions in case of contraventions punishable with imprisonment.
(e) to sanction or launch prosecutions in cases of contraventions punishable with fine.
(f) to maintain record of all inspections made by Food Safety Officers and action taken by
them in the performance of their duties.
(g) to get investigated any complaint which may be made in writing in respect of any
contravention of the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made
thereunder.
(h) to investigate any complaint which may be made in writing against the Food Safety
Officer. and
(i) to perform such other duties as may be entrusted by the Commissioner of Food
Safety.
SECTION 37. Food Safety Officer.

(1) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, by notification, appoint such persons as he
thinks fit, having the qualifications prescribed by the Central Government, as Food
Safety Officers for such local areas as he may assign to them for the purpose of
performing functions under this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder.
(2) The State Government may authorise any officer of the State Government having the
qualifications prescribed under sub-section
(1) to perform the functions of a Food Safety Officer within a specified jurisdiction.
SECTION 38. Powers of Food Safety Officer.

(1) The Food Safety Officer may
(a) take a sample –
(i) of any food, or any substance, which appears to him to be intended for sale, or to have
been sold for human consumption. or
(ii) of any article of food or substance which is found by him on or in any such premises.
which he has reason to believe that it may be required as evidence in proceedings
under any of the provisions of this Act or of the regulations or orders made thereunder.
or
(b) seize any article of food which appears to the Food Safety Officer to be in
contravention of this Act or the regulations made thereunder. and
(c) keep it in the safe custody of the food business operator such article of food after
taking a sample. and in both cases send the same for analysis to a Food Analyst for
the local area within which such sample has been taken: Provided that where the Food
Safety Officer keeps such article in the safe custody of the food business operator, he
may require the food business operator to execute a bond for a sum of money equal to
the value of such article with one or more sureties as the Food Safety Officer deems fit
and the food business operator shall execute the bond accordingly.
(2) The Food Safety Officer may enter and inspect any place where the article of food is
manufactured, or stored for sale, or stored for the manufacture of any other article of
food, or exposed or exhibited for sale and where any adulterant is manufactured or
kept, and take samples of such articles of food or adulterant for analysis.
(3) Where any sample is taken, its cost calculated at the rate at which the article is usually
sold to the public shall be paid to the person from whom it is taken.
(4) Where any article of food seized under clause (b) of subsection (1) is of a perishable
nature and the Food Safety Officer is satisfied that such article of food is so
deteriorated that it is unfit for human consumption, the Food Safety Officer may, after
giving notice in writing to the food business operator, cause the same to be destroyed.

(5) The Food Safety Officer shall, in exercising the powers of entry upon, and inspection
of any place under this section, follow, as far as may be, the provisions of the Code of
Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) relating to the search or inspection of a place by
a police officer executing a search warrant issued under that Code.
(6) Any adulterant found in the possession of a manufacturer or distributor of, or dealer in,
any article of food or in any of the premises occupied by him as such and for the
possession of which he is unable to account to the satisfaction of the Food Safety
Officer and any books of account or other documents found in his possession or
control and which would be useful for, or relevant to, any investigation or proceeding
under this Act, may be seized by the Food Safety Officer and a sample of such
adulterant submitted for analysis to a Food Analyst: Provided that no such books of
account or other documents shall be seized by the Food Safety Officer except with the
previous approval of the authority to which he is subordinate.
(7) Where the Food Safety Officer takes any action under clause (a) of sub-section (1), or
sub-section (2), or sub-section (4) or sub-section (6), he shall, call one or more
persons to be present at the time when such action is taken and take his or their
signatures.
(8) Where any books of account or other documents are seized under sub-section (6), the
Food Safety Officer shall, within a period not exceeding thirty days from the date of
seizure, return the same to the person from whom they were seized after copies
thereof or extracts there from as certified by that person in such manner as may be
prescribed by the Central Government have been taken: Provided that where such
person refuses to so certify and a prosecution has been instituted against him under
this Act, such books of account or other documents shall be returned to him only after
copies thereof and extracts there from as certified by the court have been taken.
(9) When any adulterant is seized under sub-section (6), the burden of proving that such
adulterant is not meant for purposes of adulteration shall be on the person from whose
possession such adulterant was seized.
(10) The Commissioner of Food Safety may from time to time issue guidelines with regard
to exercise of powers of the Food Safety Officer, which shall be binding: Provided that
the powers of such Food Safety Officer may also be revoked for a specified period by
the Commissioner of Food Safety.
SECTION 39. Liability of Food Safety Officer in certain cases.

Any Food Safety Officer exercising powers under this Act or the rules and regulations made
thereunder who:
(a) vexatiously and without any reasonable ground seizes any article of food or adulterant.
or
(b) commits any other act to the injury of any person without having reason to believe that
such act is necessary for the execution of his duty. shall be guilty of an offence under
this Act and shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees: Provided
that in case any false complaint is made against a Food Safety Officer and it is proved
so, the complainant shall be guilty of an offence under this Act and shall be punishable
with fine which shall not be less than fifty thousand rupees but may extend to one lakh
rupees.
SECTION 40. Purchaser may have food analysed.

(1) Nothing contained in this Act shall be held to prevent a purchaser of any article of food
other than a Food Safety Officer from having such article analysed by the Food
Analyst on payment of such fees and receiving from the Food Analyst a report of his
analysis within such period as may be specified by regulations: Provided that such
purchaser shall inform the food business operator at the time of purchase of his

intention to have such article so analysed: Provided further that if the report of the
Food Analyst shows that the article of food is not in compliance with the Act or the
rules or regulations made thereunder, the purchaser shall be entitled to get refund of
the fees paid by him under this section.
(2) In case the Food Analyst finds the sample in contravention of the provisions of this Act
and rules and regulations made thereunder, the Food Analysts shall forward the report
to the Designated Officer to follow the procedure laid down in section 42 for
prosecution.
SECTION 41. Power of search, seizure, investigation, prosecution and procedure

thereof
(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section
(2) of section 31, the Food Safety Officer may search any place, seize any article of food
or adulterant, if there is a reasonable doubt about them being involved in commission
of any offence relating to food, and shall thereafter inform the Designated Officer of the
actions taken by him in writing: Provided that no search shall be deemed to be
irregular by reason only of the fact that witnesses for the search are not inhabitants of
the locality in which the place searched is situated. (2) Save as in this Act otherwise
expressly provided, provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974)
relating to search, seizure, summon, investigation and prosecution, shall apply, as far
as may be, to all action taken by the Food Safety Officer under this Act.
SECTION 42. Procedure for launching prosecution.

(1) The Food Safety Officer shall be responsible for inspection of food business, drawing
samples and sending them to Food Analyst for analysis.
(2) The Food Analyst after receiving the sample from the Food Safety Officer shall
analyse the sample and send the analysis report mentioning method of sampling and
analysis within fourteen days to Designated Officer with a copy to Commissioner of
Food Safety.
(3) The Designated Officer after scrutiny of the report of Food Analyst shall decide as to
whether the contravention is punishable with imprisonment or fine only and in the case
of contravention punishable with imprisonment, he shall send his recommendations
within fourteen days to the Commissioner of Food Safety for sanctioning prosecution.
(4) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall, if he so deems fit decide, within the period
prescribed by the Central Government, as per the gravity of offence, whether the
matter be referred to, – (a) a court of ordinary jurisdiction in case of offences
punishable with imprisonment for a term up to three years. or (b) a Special Court in
case of offences punishable with imprisonment for a term exceeding three years where
such Special Court is established and in case no Special Court is established, such
cases shall be tried by a Court of ordinary jurisdiction.
(5) The Commissioner of Food Safety shall communicate his decision to the Designated
Officer and the concerned Food Safety Officer who shall launch prosecution before
courts of ordinary jurisdiction or Special Court, as the case may be. and such
communication shall also be sent to the purchaser if the sample was taken under
section 40.
CHAPTER VIII ANALYSIS OF FOOD
SECTION 43. Recognition and accreditation of laboratories, research institutions and

referral food laboratory
(1) The Food Authority may notify food laboratories and research institutions accredited by
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories or any other
accreditation agency for the purposes of carrying out analysis of samples by the Food
Analysts under this Act.
(2) The Food Authority shall, establish or recognise by notification, one or more referral
food laboratory or laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted to the referral food
laboratory by this Act or any rules and regulations made thereunder.

(3) The Food Authority may frame regulations specifying:
(a) The functions of food laboratory and referral food laboratory and the local area or
areas within which such functions may be carried out.
(b) The procedure for submission to the said laboratory of samples of articles of food for
analysis or tests, the forms of the laboratory‘s reports thereon and the fees payable in
respect of such reports. and
(c) Such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable the said laboratory to
carry out its functions effectively.
SECTION 44. Recognition of organisation or agency for food safety audit.

The Food Authority may recognise any organisation or agency for the purposes of food
safety audit and checking compliance with food safety management systems required under
this Act or the rules and regulations made thereunder.
SECTION 45. Food Analysts.

The Commissioner of Food Safety may, by notification, appoint such persons as he thinks fit,
having the qualifications prescribed by the Central Government, to be Food Analysts for
such local areas as may be assigned to them by the Commissioner of Food Safety: Provided
that no person, who has any financial interest in the manufacture or sale of any article of
food shall be appointed to be a Food Analyst under this section: Provided further that
different Food Analysts may be appointed for different articles of food.
SECTION 46. Functions of Food Analyst.

(1) On receipt of a package containing a sample for analysis from a Food Safety Officer or
any other person, the Food Analyst shall compare the seal on the container and the
outer cover with specimen impression received separately and shall note the
conditions of the seal thereon: Provided that in case a sample container received by
the Food Analyst is found to be in broken condition or unfit for analysis, he shall within
a period of seven days from the date of receipt of such sample inform the Designated
Officer about the same and send requisition to him for sending second part of the
sample.
(2) The Food Analyst shall cause to be analysed such samples of article of food as may
be sent to him by Food Safety Officer or by any other person authorised under this Act.
(3) The Food Analyst shall, within a period of fourteen days from the date of receipt of any
sample for analysis, send:
(i) where such sample is received under section 38 or section 47, to the Designated
Officer, four copies of the report indicating the method of sampling and analysis. and
(ii) where such sample is received under section 40, a copy of the report indicating the
method of sampling and analysis to the person who had purchased such article of food
with a copy to the Designated Officer: Provided that in case the sample cannot be
analysed within fourteen days of its receipt, the Food Analyst shall inform the
Designated Officer and the Commissioner of Food Safety giving reasons and
specifying the time to be taken for analysis.
(4) An appeal against the report of Food Analyst shall lie before the Designated Officer
who shall, if he so decides, refer the matter to the referral food laboratory as notified by
the Food Authority for opinion.
SECTION 47. Sampling and analysis.

(1) When a Food Safety Officer takes a sample of food for analysis, he shall:
(a) give notice in writing of his intention to have it so analysed to the person from whom he
has taken the sample and to the person, if any, whose name, address and other
particulars have been disclosed.
(b) except in special cases as may be provided by rules made under this Act, divide the
sample into four parts and mark and seal or fasten up each part in such a manner as
its nature permits and take the signature or thumb impression Of the person from
whom the sample has been taken in such place and in such manner as may be

prescribed by the Central Government: Provided that where such person refuses to
sign or put his thumb impression, the Food Safety Officer shall call upon one or more
witnesses and take his signature or thumb impression, in lieu of the signature or thumb
impression of such person.
(c)(i) send one of the parts for analysis to the Food Analyst under intimation to the
Designated Officer.
(ii) send two parts to the Designated Officer for keeping these in safe custody. and
(iii) send the remaining part for analysis to an accredited laboratory, if so requested by the
food business operator, under intimation to the Designated Officer: Provided that if the
test reports received under sub clauses (i) and (iii) are found to be at variance, then
the Designated Officer shall send one part of the sample kept in his custody, to referral
laboratory for analysis, whose decision thereon shall be final.
(2) When a sample of any article of food or adulterant is taken, the Food Safety Officer
shall, by the immediate succeeding working day, send the sample to the Food Analyst
for the area concerned for analysis and report.
(3) Where the part of the sample sent to the Food Analyst is lost or damaged, the
Designated Officer shall, on a requisition made to him, by the Food Analyst or the
Food Safety Officer, dispatch one of the parts of the sample sent to him, to the Food
Analyst for analysis.
(4) An article of food or adulterant seized, unless destroyed, shall be produced before the
Designated Officer as soon as possible and in any case not later than seven days after
the receipt of the report of the Food Analyst: Provided that if an application is made to
the Designated Officer in this behalf by the person from whom any article of food has
been seized, the Designated Officer shall by order in writing direct the Food Safety
Officer to produce such article before him within such time as may be specified in the
order.
(5) In case of imported articles of food, the authorised officer of the Food Authority shall
take its sample and send to the Food Analyst of notified laboratory for analysis who
shall send the report within a period of five days to the authorised officer.
(6) The Designated Officer, the Food Safety Officer, the authorised officer and the Food
Analyst shall follow such procedure as may be specified by regulations.
CHAPTER IX OFFENCES AND PENALTIES
SECTION 48. General provisions relating to offences.

(1) A person may render any article of food injurious to health by means of one or more of
the following operations, namely:-
(a) adding any article or substance to the food.
(b) using any article or substance as an ingredient in the preparation of the food.
(c) abstracting any constituents from the food. or
(d) subjecting the food to any other process or treatment, with the knowledge that it may
be sold or offered for sale or distributed for human consumption.
(2) In determining whether any food is unsafe or injurious to health, regard shall be had to
–
(a)(i) the normal conditions of use of the food by the consumer and its handling at each
stage of production, processing and distribution.
(ii) the information provided to the consumer, including information on the label, or other
information generally available to the consumer concerning the avoidance of specific
adverse health effects from a particular food or category of foods not only to the
probable, immediate or short-term or long-term effects of that food on the health of a
person consuming it, but also on subsequent generations.

(iii) to the probable cumulative toxic effects.
(iv) to the particular health sensitivities of a specific category of consumers where the food
is intended for that category of consumers. and
(v) Also to the probable cumulative effect of food of substantially the same composition on
the health of a person consuming it in ordinary quantities.
(b) the fact where the quality or purity of the article, being primary food, has fallen below
the specified standard or its constituents are present in quantities not within the
specified limits of variability, in either case, solely due to natural causes and beyond
the control of human agency, then such article shall not be deemed to be unsafe or
sub-standard or food containing extraneous matter. Explanation – For the purposes of
this section, ―injury‖, includes any impairment, whether permanent or temporary, and
―Injurious to health‖ shall be construed accordingly.
SECTION 49. General provisions relating to penalty.

While adjudging the quantum of penalty under this Chapter, the Adjudicating Officer or the
Tribunal, as the case may be, shall have due regard to the following:
(a) The amount of gain or unfair advantage, wherever quantifiable, made as a result of the
contravention,
(b) The Amount of loss caused or likely to cause to any person as a result of the
contravention,
(c) The repetitive nature of the contravention,
(d) Whether the contravention is without his knowledge, and
(e) Any other relevant factor,
SECTION 50. Penalty for selling food not of the nature or substance or quality
demanded.
Any person who sells to the purchaser‘s prejudice any food which is not in compliance with
the provisions of this Act or the regulations made thereunder, or of the nature or substance
or quality demanded by the purchaser, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five lakh
rupees. Provided that the persons covered under sub-section (2) of section 31, shall for such
non-compliance be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty five thousand rupees.
SECTION 51. Penalty for sub-standard food.

Any person who whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for
sale or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption
which is sub-standard, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to five lakh rupees.
SECTION 52. Penalty for misbranded food.

(1) Any person who whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures
for sale or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human
consumption which is misbranded, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to
three lakh rupees.
(2) The Adjudicating Officer may issue a direction to the person found guilty of an offence
under this section, for taking corrective action to rectify the mistake or such article of
food shall be destroyed.
SECTION 53. Penalty for misleading advertisement.

(1) Any person who publishes, or is a party to the publication of an advertisement, which:
(a) falsely describes any food. or
(b) is likely to mislead as to the nature or substance or quality of any food or gives false
guarantee, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to ten lakh rupees.
(2) In any proceeding the fact that a label or advertisement relating to any article of food in
respect of which the contravention is alleged to have been committed contained an
accurate statement of the composition of the food shall not preclude the court from
finding that the contravention was committed.

SECTION 54. Penalty for food containing extraneous matter.
Any person whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for sale or
stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption containing
extraneous matter, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees.
SECTION 55. Penalty for failure to comply with the directions of Food Safety Officer.
If a food business operator or importer without reasonable ground, fails to comply with the
requirements of this Act or the rules or regulations or orders issued thereunder, as directed
by the Food Safety Officer, he shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to two lakh
rupees.
SECTION 56. Penalty for unhygienic or unsanitary processing or manufacturing of

food.
Any person who, whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures or
processes any article of food for human consumption under unhygienic or unsanitary
conditions, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees.
SECTION 57. Penalty for possessing adulterant.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this chapter, if any person who whether by himself or by
any other person on his behalf, imports or manufactures for sale, or stores, sells or
distribute any adulterant shall be liable:
(i) where such adulterant is not injurious to health, to a penalty not exceeding two lakh
rupees.
(ii) where such adulterant is injurious to health, to a penalty not exceeding ten lakh
rupees.
(2) In a proceeding under sub-section (1), it shall not be a defense that the accused was
holding such adulterant on behalf of any other person.
SECTION 58. Penalty for contraventions for which no specific penalty is provided.
Whoever contravenes any provisions of this Act or the rules or regulations made thereunder,
for the contravention of which no penalty has been separately provided in this Chapter, shall
be liable to a penalty which may extend to two lakh rupees.
SECTION 59. Punishment for unsafe food.

Any person who, whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures for
sale or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption
which is unsafe, shall be punishable:
(i) where such failure or contravention does not result in injury, with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to six months and also with fine which may extend to one lakh
rupees.
(ii) where such failure or contravention results in a non-grievous injury, with imprisonment
for a term which may extend to one year and also with fine which may extend to three
lakh rupees.
(iii) where such failure or contravention results in a grievous injury, with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to six years and also with fine which may extend to five lakh
rupees.
(iv) where such failure or contravention results in death, with imprisonment for a term
which shall not be less than seven years but which may extend to imprisonment for life
and also with fine which shall not be less than ten lakh Rupees.
SECTION 60. Punishment for interfering with seized items.

If a person without the permission of the Food Safety Officer, retains, removes or tampers
with any food, vehicle, equipment, package or labelling or advertising material or other thing
that has been seized under this Act, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to six months and also with fine which may extend to two lakh rupees.

SECTION 61. Punishment for false information.
If a person, in connection with a requirement or direction under this Act, provides any
information or produces any document that the person knows is false or misleading, he shall
be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months and also with
fine which may extend to two lakh rupees.
SECTION 62. Punishment for obstructing or impersonating a Food Safety Officer.

If a person without reasonable excuse, resists, obstructs, or attempts to obstruct,
impersonate, threaten, intimidate or assault a Food Safety Officer in exercising his functions
under this Act, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
three months and also with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees.
SECTION 63. Punishment for carrying out a business without license.

If any person or food business operator (except the persons exempted from licensing under
sub-section (2) of section 31 of this Act), himself or by any person on his behalf who is
required to obtain license, manufacturers, sells, stores or distributes or imports any article of
food without license, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
six months and also with a fine which may extend to five lakh rupees.
SECTION 64. Punishment for subsequent offences.

(1) If any person, after having been previously convicted of an offence punishable under
this Act subsequently commits and is convicted of the same offence, he shall be liable
to:
(i) twice the punishment, which might have been imposed on a first conviction, subject to
the punishment being maximum provided for the same offence.
(ii) a further fine on daily basis which may extend up to one lakh rupees, where the
offence is a continuing one. and
(iii) his license shall be cancelled.
(2) The Court may also cause the offender‘s name and place of residence, the offence
and the penalty imposed to be published at the offender‘s expense in such
newspapers or in such other manner as the court may direct and the expenses of such
publication shall be deemed to be part of the cost attending the conviction and shall be
recoverable in the same manner as a fine.
SECTION 65. Compensation in case injury of death of consumer:

(1) Without prejudice to the other provisions of this Chapter, if any person whether by
himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures or distributes or sells or
imports any article of food causing injury to the consumer or his death, it shall be lawful
for the Adjudicating Officer or as the case may be, the court to direct him to pay
compensation to the victim or the legal representative of the victim, a sum:
(a) not less than five lakh rupees in case of death.
(b) not exceeding three lakh rupees in case of grievous injury. and
(c) not exceeding one lakh rupees, in all other cases of injury: Provided that the
compensation shall be paid at the earliest and in no case later than six months from
the date of occurrence of the incident: Provided further that in case of death, an interim
relief shall be paid to the next of the kin within thirty days of the incident.
(2) Where any person is held guilty of an offence leading to grievous injury or death, the
Adjudicating Officer or the court may cause the name and place of residence of the
person held guilty, the offence and the penalty imposed to be published at the
offender‘s expense in such newspapers or in such other manner as the Adjudicating
Officer or the court may direct and the expenses of such publication shall be deemed
to be part of the cost attending the conviction and shall be recoverable in the same
manner as a fine.
(3) The Adjudicating Officer or the court may also:

(a) order for cancellation of license, re-call of food from market, forfeiture of establishment
and property in case of grievous injury or death of consumer.
(b) issue prohibition orders in other cases
SECTION 66. Offences by companies.

(1) Where an offence under this Act which has been committed by a company, every
person who at the time the offence was committed was in charge of, and was
responsible to, the company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well
as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be
proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that where a company has different establishments or branches or different
units in any establishment or branch, the concerned Head or the person in-charge of
such establishment, branch, unit nominated by the company as responsible for food
safety shall be liable for contravention in respect of such establishment, branch or unit:
Provided further that nothing contained in this subsection shall render any such person
liable to any punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was
committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the
commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section:

(1), where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company and it is proved
that the offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of or is
attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other
officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be
deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
punished accordingly. Explanation. -For the purpose of this section,
(a) ―company‖ means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other association of
individuals. And
(b) ―director‖ in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.
SECTION 67. Penalty for contravention of provisions of this Act in case of import of
articles of food to be in addition to penalties provided under any other Act.
(1) Any person who imports any article of food which is in contravention of the provisions
of this Act, rules and regulations made thereunder, shall, in addition to any penalty to
which he may be liable under the provisions of the Foreign Trade (Development and
Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of 1992) and the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962) be also
liable under this Act and shall be proceeded against accordingly.
(2) Any such article of food shall be destroyed or returned to the importer, if permitted by
the competent authority under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act,
1992 (22 of 1992) or the Customs Act, 1962 (52 of 1962), or any other Act, as the case
may be.
CHAPTER X ADJUDICATION AND FOOD SAFETY APPELLATE TRIBUNAL
SECTION 68. Adjudication.

(1) For the purposes of adjudication under this Chapter, an officer not below the rank of
Additional District Magistrate of the district where the alleged offence is committed,
shall be notified by the State Government as the Adjudicating Officer for adjudication in
the manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government.
(2) The Adjudicating Officer shall, after giving the person a reasonable opportunity for
making representation in the matter, and if, on such inquiry, he is satisfied that the
person has committed the contravention of provisions of this Act or the rules or the
regulations made thereunder, impose such penalty as he thinks fit in accordance with
the provisions relating to that offence.

(3) The Adjudicating Officer shall have the powers of a civil court and:
(a) all proceedings before him shall be deemed to be judicial proceedings within the
meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).
(b) shall be deemed to be a court for the purposes of sections 345 and 346 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974).
(4) while adjudicating the quantum of penalty under this Chapter, the Adjudicating Officer
shall have due regard to the guidelines specified in section
49. SECTION 69. Power to compound offences.

(1) The Commissioner of Food Safety may, by order, empower the Designated Officer, to
accept from petty manufacturers who himself manufacture and sell any article of food,
retailers, hawkers, itinerant vendors, temporary stall holders against whom a
reasonable belief exists that he has committed an offence or contravention against this
Act, payment of a sum of money by way of composition of the offence which such
person is suspected to have committed.
(2) On the payment of such sum of money to such officer, the suspected person, if in
custody, shall be discharged and no further proceedings in respect of the offence shall
be taken against such person
(3) The sum of money accepted or agreed to be accepted as composition under sub
section (1), shall not be more than one lakh rupees and due regard shall be made to
the guidelines specified in section 49: Provided that no offence, for which punishment
of imprisonment has been prescribed under this Act, shall be compounded.
SECTION 70. Establishment of Food Safety Appellate Tribunal.

(1) The Central Government or as the case may be, the State Government may, by
notification, establish one or more tribunals to be known as the Food Safety Appellate
Tribunal to hear appeals from the decisions of the Adjudicating Officer under section
68.
(2) The Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be, shall
prescribe, the matters and areas in relation to which the Tribunal may exercise
jurisdiction.
(3) The Tribunal shall consist of one person only (hereinafter referred to as the Presiding
Officer of the Tribunal) to be appointed, by notification, by the Central Government or
the State Government, as the case may be: Provided that no person shall be qualified
for appointment as a Presiding Officer to the Tribunal unless he is or has been a
District Judge.
(4) The qualifications, appointment, term of office, salary and allowances, resignation and
removal of the Presiding Officer shall be such as may be prescribed by the Central
Government.
(5) The procedure of appeal and powers of the Tribunal shall be such as may be
prescribed by the Central Government.
SECTION 71. Procedure and powers of the Tribunal.
(1) The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down by the Code of Civil
Procedure, 1908 (5 of 1908) but shall be guided by the principles of natural justice
and, subject to the other provisions of this Act and the rules made thereunder, the
Tribunal shall have powers to regulate its own procedure including the place at which it
shall have its sittings.
(2) The Tribunal shall have, for the purposes of discharging its functions under this Act,
the same powers as are vested in a civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908
(5 of 1908), while trying a suit, in respect of the following matters, namely:
(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and examining him on oath.
(b) requiring the discovery and production of documents or other electronic records.

(c) receiving evidence on affidavits.
(d) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or documents.
(e) reviewing its decisions.
(f) dismissing an application for default or deciding it ex parte.
(g) any other matter which may be prescribed by the Central Government.
(3) Every proceeding before the Tribunal shall be deemed to be a judicial proceeding
within the meaning of sections 193 and 228, and for the purposes of section 196 of the
Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), it shall be deemed to be a civil court for all the
purposes of section 195 and Chapter XXVI of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2
of 1974).
(4) The appellant may either appear in person or authorise one or more legal practitioners
or any of its officers to represent his case before the Tribunal.
(5) The provisions of the Limitation Act, 1963 (36 of 1963), shall, except as otherwise
provided in this Act, apply to an appeal made to the Tribunal.
(6) Any person aggrieved by any decision or order of the Tribunal may file an appeal to
the High Court within sixty days from the date of communication of the decision or
order of the Tribunal to him on any question of fact or law arising out of such order:
Provided that the High Court may, if it is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by
sufficient cause from filing the appeal within the said period, allow it to be filed within a
further period not exceeding sixty days.
SECTION 72. Civil court not to have jurisdiction.

No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any
matter which an Adjudicating Officer or the Tribunal is empowered by or under this Act to
determine and no injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any
action taken or to be taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.
SECTION 73. Power of court to try cases summarily.

Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), all
offences not triable by a Special Court, shall be tried in a summary way by a Judicial
Magistrate of the first class or by a Metropolitan Magistrate and the provisions of sections
262 to 265 (both inclusive) of the said Code shall, as far as may be, apply to such a trial:
Provided that in the case of any conviction in a summary trial under this section, it shall be
lawful for the Magistrate to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding one
year: Provided further that when at the commencement of, or in the course of, a summary
trial under this section, it appears to the Magistrate that the nature of the case is such that a
sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding one year may have to be passed or that it is,
for any other reason, undesirable to try the case summarily, the Magistrate shall after
hearing the parties, record an order to that effect and thereafter recall any witness who may
have been examined and proceed to hear or rehear the case in the manner provided by the
said Code.
SECTION 74. Special courts and Public Prosecutor.

(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act or in the Code of Criminal Procedure,
1973 (2 of 1974), the Central Government or the State Government in their respective
jurisdictions may, if consider expedient and necessary in the public interest, for the
purposes of the trial of offences relating to grievous injury or death of the consumer for
which punishment of imprisonment for more than three years has been prescribed
under this Act, constitute, by notification in the Official Gazette, as many Special
Courts with the concurrence of the Chief Justice of the High Court as may be
necessary for such area or areas and for exercising such jurisdiction, as may be
specified in the notification.

(2) A Special Court may, on its own motion, or on an application made by the Public
Prosecutor and if it considers it expedient or desirable so to do, sit for any of its
proceedings at any place other than its ordinary place of sitting.
(3) The trial under this Act of any offence by a Special Court shall have precedence over
the trial of any other case against the accused in any other court (not being a Special
Court) and shall be concluded in preference to the trial of such other case and
accordingly the trial of such other case shall remain in abeyance.
(4) For every Special Court, the Central Government or the State Government, as the
case may be, shall appoint a person to be the Public Prosecutor and may appoint
more than one person to be the Additional Public Prosecutors: Provided that the
Central Government or the State Government, as the case may be, may also appoint
for any case or class or group of cases, a Special Public Prosecutor.
(5) A person shall not be qualified to be appointed as a Public Prosecutor or an Additional

Public Prosecutor or a Special Public Prosecutor under this section unless he has
been in practice as an Advocate for not less than seven years or has held any post, for
a period of not less than seven years, under the Union or a State, requiring special
knowledge of law.
SECTION 75. Power to transfer cases to regular courts.

Where, after taking cognizance of any offence, a Special Court is of the opinion that the
offence is not triable by it, it shall, notwithstanding that it has no jurisdiction to try such
offence, transfer the case for the trial of such offence to any court having jurisdiction under
the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) and the court to which the case is
transferred may proceed with the trial of the offence as if it had taken cognizance of the
offence.
SECTION 76. Appeal.

(1) Any person aggrieved by a decision or order of a Special Court may, on payment of
such fee as may be prescribed by the Central Government and after depositing the
amount, if any, imposed by way of penalty, compensation or damage under this Act,
within forty-five days from the date on which the order was served, prefer an appeal to
the High Court: Provided that the High Court may entertain any appeal after the expiry
of the said period of forty-five days, if it is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by
sufficient cause for filing the appeal within the said period.
(2) An appeal preferred under this section shall be disposed of by the High Court by a
bench of not less than two judges.
SECTION 77. Time limit for prosecutions.

Notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, no court shall take cognizance of an offence
under this Act after the expiry of the period of one year from the date of commission of an
offence: Provided that the Commissioner of Food Safety may, for reasons to be recorded in
writing, approve prosecution within an extended period of up to three years.
SECTION 78. Power of court to implead manufacturer etc.

Where at any time during the trial of any offence under this Act alleged to have been
committed by any person, not being the importer, manufacturer, distributor or dealer of any
article of food, the court, is satisfied, on the evidence adduced before it, that such importer,
manufacturer, distributor or dealer is also concerned with that offence, then the court may,
notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (3) of section 319 of the Code of Criminal
Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974), or in section 71 of this Act, proceed against him as though a
prosecution has been instituted under this Act.

SECTION 79. Magistrate‟s power to impose enhanced punishment.
Notwithstanding anything contained in section 29 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2
of 1974), it shall be lawful for the court of ordinary jurisdiction to pass any sentence
authorised by this Act, except a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding six years in
excess of his powers under the said section.
SECTION 80. Defences which may or may not be allowed in prosecution under this
Act.
(A) Defence relating to publication of advertisements
(1) In any proceeding for an offence under this Act in relation to the publication of an
advertisement, it is a defence for a person to prove that the person carried on the
business of publishing or arranging for the publication of advertisements and that the
person published or arranged for the publication of the advertisement in question in the
ordinary course of that business.
(2) Clause (1) does not apply if the person:

(a) should reasonably have known that the publication of the advertisement was an
offence. or
(b) had previously been informed in writing by the relevant authority that publication of
such an advertisement would constitute an offence. or
(c) is the food business operator or is otherwise engaged in the conduct of a food
business for which the advertisements concerned were published.
(B) Defence of due diligence:

(1) In any proceedings for an offence, it is a defence if it is proved that the person took all
reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of
the offence by such person or by another person under the person‘s control.
(2) Without limiting the ways in which a person may satisfy the requirements of clause (1),
a person satisfies those requirements if it is proved:
(a) that the commission of the offence was due to:
(i) an act or default of another person. or
(ii) reliance on information supplied by another person. and
(b) (i) the person carried out all such checks of the food concerned as were reasonable in all
the circumstances. or
(ii) it was reasonable in all the circumstances to rely on checks carried out by the person
who supplied such food to the person. and
(c) that the person did not import the food into the jurisdiction from another country. and
(d) in the case of an offence involving the sale of food, that:
(i) the person sold the food in the same condition as and when the person purchased it.
or
(ii) the person sold the food in a different condition to that in which the person purchased
it, but that the difference did not result in any contravention of this Act or the rules and
regulations made thereunder. And
(e) that the person did not know and had no reason to suspect at the time of commission
of the alleged offence that the person‘s act or omission would constitute an offence
under the relevant section.
(3) In sub-clause (a) of clause (2), another person does not include a person who was:
(a) an employee or agent of the defendant. or
(b) in the case of a defendant which is a company, a director, employee or agent of that
company.
(4) Without limiting the ways in which a person may satisfy the requirements of clause
(1) and item (i) of sub-clause (b) of clause

(2), a person may satisfy those requirements by proving that:
(a) in the case of an offence relating to a food business for which a food safety
programme is required to be prepared in accordance with the regulations, the person
complied with a food safety programme for the food business s that complies with the
requirements of the regulations, or
(b) In any other case, the person complied with a scheme (for example, a quality
assurance programme or an industry code of practice) that was
(i) Designed to manage food safety hazards and based on national or international
standards, codes or guidelines designed for that purpose, and
(ii) Documented in some manner.
(C) Defence of mistaken and reasonable belief not available:

In any proceedings for an offence under the provisions of this Act, it is no defence that
the defendant had a mistaken but reasonable belief as to the facts that constituted the
offence.
(D) Defence in respect of handling food:

In proceedings for an offence under section 56, it is a defence if it is proved that the
person caused the food to which the offence relates to be destroyed or otherwise
disposed of immediately after the food was handled in the manner that was likely to
render it unsafe.
(E) Defences of significance of the nature, substance or quality of food.

It shall be no defence in a prosecution for an offence pertaining to the sale of any
unsafe or misbranded article of food to allege merely that the food business operator
was ignorant of the nature, substance or quality of the food sold by him or that the
purchaser having purchased any article for analysis was not prejudiced by the sale.
CHAPTER XI FINANCE, ACCOUNTS, AUDIT AND REPORTS
SECTION 81. Budget of Food Authority.

(1) The Food Authority shall prepare, in such form and at such time in each financial year
as may be prescribed by the Central Government, its budget for the next financial
year, showing the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Food Authority and
forward the same to the Central Government.
(2) The Food Authority with the prior approval of the Central Government, shall adopt
financial regulation which specifies in particular, the procedure for drawing up and
implementing the Authority‘s budget. SECTION 82. Finances of the Food Authority.
(1) The Central Government may, after due appropriation, make to the Food Authority
grants of such sums of money as the Central Government may think fit.
(2) The Food Authority on the recommendation of the Central Advisory Committee shall
specify a graded fee from licensed food business operators, accredited laboratories or
food safety auditors to be charged by the commissioner of Food Safety.
SECTION 83. Accounts and audit of Food Authority.

(1) The Food Authority shall maintain proper accounts and relevant records and prepare
an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the Central
Government in consultation with the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
(2) The Comptroller and Auditor-General and any person appointed by him in connection
with the audit of the accounts of the Food Authority under this Act shall have the same
rights and privileges and authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and
Auditor-General generally has in connection with the audit of Government accounts

and, in particular, shall have the right to demand the production of books, accounts,
connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to inspect any of the offices
of the Food Authority.
(3) The accounts of the Food Authority, as certified by the Comptroller and Auditor
General or any other person appointed by him in this behalf, together with the audit
report thereon shall be forwarded annually to the Central Government by the Food
Authority and the Central Government shall cause the audit report to be laid, as soon
as may be after it is received, before each House of Parliament.
SECTION 84. Annual report of Food Authority.

(1) The Food Authority shall prepare once every year, in such form and at such time as
may be prescribed by the Central Government, an annual report giving a summary of
its activities during the previous year and copies of the report shall be forwarded to the
Central Government and State Governments.
(2) A copy of the report received under sub-section (1) shall be laid, as soon as may be
after it is received, before each House of Parliament.
CHAPTER XII MISCELLANEOUS
SECTION 85. Power of Central Government to issue directions to Food Authority and
obtain reports and returns.
(1) Without prejudice to the foregoing provisions of this Act, the Food Authority shall, in
exercise of its powers and in performance of its functions under this Act, be bound by
such directions on questions of policy, other than those relating to technical and
administrative matters, as the Central Government may give in writing to it from time to
time: Provided that the Food Authority shall, as far as practicable, be given an
opportunity to express its views before any direction is given under this sub-section.
(2) If any dispute arises between the Central Government and the Food Authority as to
whether a question is or is not a question of policy, the decision of the Central
Government thereon shall be final.
(3) The Food Authority shall furnish to the Central Government such returns or other
information with respect to its activities as the Central Government may, from time to
time, require.
SECTION 86. Power of Central Government to give directions to State Governments.

The Central Government may give such directions, as it may deem necessary, to a State
Government for carrying out all or any of the provisions of this Act and the State Government
shall comply with such directions.
SECTION 87. Members, officers of Food Authority and Commissioner of Food Safety
to be public servants.
The Members, officers of the Food Authority and the Commissioners of Food Safety and
their officers shall be deemed, when acting or purporting to act in pursuance of any of the
provisions of this Act, to be public servants within the meaning section 21 of the Indian Penal
Code (45 of 1860).
SECTION 88. Protection of action taken in good faith.

No suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against the Central Government, the
State Government, the Food Authority and other bodies constituted under this Act or any
officer of the Central Government, the State Government or any member, officer or other
employee of such Authority and bodies or any other officer acting under this Act for anything
which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Act or the rules or regulations
made thereunder.

SECTION 89. Overriding effect of this Act over all other food related laws.
The provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith
contained in any other law for the time being in force or in any instrument having effect by
virtue of any law other than this Act.
SECTION 90. Transfer of existing employees of Central Government Agencies

governing various foods related Acts or Orders to the Food Authority.
On and from the date of establishment of the Food Authority, every employee holding office
under the Central Government Agencies administering food laws immediately before that
date shall hold his office in the Food Authority by the same tenure and upon the same terms
and conditions of service including remuneration, leave, provident fund, retirement and other
terminal benefits as he would have held such office if the Food Authority had not been
established and shall continue to do so as an employee of the Food Authority or until the
expiry of the period of six months from that date if such employee opts not to be the
employee of the Food Authority.
SECTION 91. Power of Central Government to make rules.

(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for
carrying out the provisions of this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules
may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:
(a) salary, terms and conditions of service of Chairperson and Members other than ex
officio Members under subsection (2) and the manner of subscribing to an oath of office
and secrecy under sub-section
(3) of section 7.
(b) qualifications of Food Safety Officer under sub-section (1) of section 37.
(c) the manner of taking the extract of documents seized under sub-clause (8) of section
38.
(d) determination of cases for referring to appropriate courts and time-frame for such
determination under sub-section (4) of section 42.
(e) qualifications of Food Analysts under section 45.
(f) the manner of sending sample for analysis and details of the procedure to be followed
in this regard under subsection (1) of section 47.
(g) the procedure to be followed in adjudication of cases under sub-section (1) of section
68.
(h) qualifications, terms of office, resignation and removal of Presiding Officer under sub-
section (4), the procedure of appeal and powers of Tribunal under sub-section (5) of
section 70.
(i) any other matter relating to procedure and powers of Tribunal under clause (g) of sub-
section (2) of section 71.
(j) the fee to be paid for preferring an appeal to the High Court under subsection (1) of
section 76.
(k) form and time of preparing budget under sub-section (1) of section 81.
(l) form and statement of accounts under sub-section (1) of section 83.
(m) the form and time for preparing annual report by Food Authority under sub-section (1)
of section 84. And
(n) any other matter which is required to be, or may be, prescribed or in respect of which
provision is to be made by rules by the Central Government.
SECTION 92. Power of Food Authority to make regulations.

(1) The Food Authority may, with the previous approval of the Central Government and
after previous publication, by notification, make regulations consistent with this Act and
the rules made thereunder to carry out the provisions of this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such
regulations may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:

(a) salaries and other conditions of service of officers and other employees of the Food
Authority under sub-section (3) of section 9.
(b) rules of procedure for transaction of business under subsection (5) of section 11.
(c) other functions of the Central Advisory Committee under sub-section (2) of section 12.
(d) procedure of Scientific Committee and Panels under subsection (4) of section 15.
(e) notifying standards and guidelines in relation to articles of food meant for human
consumption under sub-section (2) of section 16.
(f) procedure to be followed by Food Authority for transaction of business at its meetings
under sub-section (1) of section 17.
(g) making or amending regulations in view of urgency concerning food safety or public
health under clause (d) of sub-section (2) of section 18.
(h) limits of additives under section 19.
(i) limits of quantities of contaminants, toxic substance and heavy metals, etc., under
section 20.
(j) tolerance limit of pesticides, veterinary drugs residues, etc, under section 21.
(k) the manner of marking and labelling of foods under section 23.
(l) form in which guarantee shall be given under sub-section (4) of section 26.
(m) conditions and guidelines relating to food recall procedures under sub section (4) of
section 28.
(n) regulations relating to functioning of Food Safety Officer under sub section (5) of
section 29.
(o) notifying the registering authority and the manner of registration. the manner of making
application for obtaining licence, the fees payable therefore and the circumstances
under which such licence may be cancelled or forfeited under section 31.
(p) the respective areas of which the Designated Officer shall be in-charge for food safety
administration under subsection (1) of section 36.
(q) procedure in getting food analysed, details of fees etc., under sub-section (1) of
section 40.
(r) functions, procedure to be followed by food laboratories under sub-section (3) of
section 43.
(s) procedure to be followed by officials under sub-section (6) of section 47.
(t) financial regulations to be adopted by the Food Authority in drawing up its budget
under sub-section (2) of section 81.
(u) issue guidelines or directions for participation in Codex Meetings and preparation of
response to Codex matters. and
(v) any other matter which is required to be, or may be, specified by regulations or in
respect of which provision is to be made by regulations.
SECTION 93. Laying of rules and regulations before Parliament.

Every rule and every regulation made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it
is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty
days which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if,
before the expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive
sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or regulation or
both Houses agree that the rule or regulation should not be made, the rule or regulation shall
thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be. so,
however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of
anything previously done under that rule or regulation.
SECTION 94. Power of State Government to make rules.

(1) Subject to the powers of the Central Government and the Food Authority to make rules
and regulations respectively, the State Government may, after previous publication
and with the previous approval of the Food Authority, by notification in the Official
Gazette, make rules to carry out the functions and duties assigned to the State
Government and the State Commissioner of Food Safety under this Act and the rules
and regulations made thereunder.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules
may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:
(a) other functions of the Commissioner of Food Safety under clause (f) of sub-section (2)
of section 30.
(b) earmarking a fund and the manner in which reward shall be paid to a person rendering
assistance in detection of offence or apprehension of offender under section 95. and
(c) any other matter which is required to be, or may be prescribed or in respect of
which provision is to be made by rules by the State Government.
(3) Every rule made by the State Government under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may
be after it is made, before each House of the State Legislature where it consists of two
Houses or where such State Legislature consists of one House, before that House.
SECTION 95. Reward by State Government.

The State Government may empower the Commissioner of Food Safety to order payment of
reward to be paid to a person who renders assistance in the detection of the offence or the
apprehension of the offender, from such fund and in such manner as may be prescribed by
the State Government.
SECTION 96. Recovery of penalty.

A penalty imposed under this Act, if it is not paid, shall be recovered as an arrear of land
revenue and the defaulters license shall be suspended till the penalty is paid.
SECTION 97. Repeal and savings.

(1) With effect from such date as the Central Government may appoint in this behalf, the
enactment and Orders specified in the Second Schedule shall stand repealed:
Provided that such repeal shall not affect:
(i) the previous operations of the enactment and Orders under repeal or anything duly
done or suffered there under. or
(ii) any right, privilege, obligation or liability acquired, accrued or incurred under any of the
enactment or Orders under repeal. or
(iii) any penalty, forfeiture or punishment incurred in respect of any offences committed
against the enactment and Orders under repeal. or
(iv) any investigation or remedy in respect of any such penalty, forfeiture or punishment,
and any such investigation, legal proceedings or remedy may be instituted, continued
or enforced and any such penalty, forfeiture or punishment may be imposed, as if this
Act had not been passed:
(2) If there is any other law for the time being in force in any State, corresponding to this
Act, the same shall upon the commencement of this Act, stand repealed and in such
case, the provisions of section 6 of the General Clauses Act, 1897(10 of 1897) shall
apply as if such provisions of the State law had been repealed.
(3) Notwithstanding the repeal of the aforesaid enactment and Orders, the licences issued
under any such enactment or Order, which are in force on the date of commencement
of this Act, shall continue to be in force till the date of their expiry for all purposes, as if
they had been issued under the provisions of this Act or the rules or regulations made
thereunder.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, no
court shall take cognizance of an offence under the repealed Act or Orders after the
expiry of a period of three years from the date of the commencement of this Act.
SECTION 98. Transitory provisions for food standards

Notwithstanding the repeal of the enactment and Orders specified in the Second Schedule,
the standards, safety requirements and other provisions of the Act and the rules and
regulations made thereunder and Orders listed in that Schedule shall continue to be in force
and operate till new standards are specified under this Act or rules and regulations made
thereunder: Provided that anything done or any action taken under the enactment and
Orders under repeal shall be deemed to have been done or taken under the corresponding

provisions of this Act and shall continue in force accordingly unless and until superseded by
anything done or by any action taken under this Act.
SECTION 99. Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992 shall be deemed to be regulations
made under this Act.
(1) On and from the date of commencement of this Act, the Milk and Milk Products Order,
1992 issued under the Essential commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955) shall be deemed
to be the Milk and Milk Products Regulations, 1992 issued by the Food Authority under
this Act.
(2) The Food Authority may, with the previous approval of the Central Government and
after previous publication, by notification, amend the regulations specified in sub-
section (1) to carry out the purposes of this Act.
SECTION 100. Amendments to the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant
Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992.
As from the notified day, the provisions of the Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and
Infant Foods (Regulation of Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 1992 (41 of 1992)
(herein referred to as the principal Act) shall apply subject to the following amendments,
namely:
(a) throughout the principal Act, any reference to ―the Prevention of the Food Adulteration
Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)‖ shall be substituted by reference to ―the Food Safety and
Standards Act, 2006‖.
(b) in section 12 of the principal Act, the reference to ―any Food Inspector appointed under
section 9 of the Prevention of the Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)‖ shall be
substituted by reference to ―any Food Safety Officer appointed under the Food Safety
and Standards Act, 2006‖.
(c) throughout the principal Act, any reference to ―Food Inspector‖ shall be substituted by
the expression ―the Food Safety Officer‖. and
(d) in section 21 of the principal Act, in sub-section (1), the reference to clause (a) shall be
substituted by the following, namely:
(i) the Designated Officer or the Food Safety Officer directed under sub-section (5) of
section 42 of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006. or‖.
SECTION 101. Power to remove difficulties.

(1) If any difficulty arises in giving effect to the provisions of this Act, the Central
Government may, by order published in the Official Gazette, make such provisions not
inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, as may appear to be necessary, for
removing the difficulty: Provided that no order shall be made under this section after of
the expiry of the period of three years from the date of commencement of this Act,
(2) Every order made under this section shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made,
before each House of Parliament.

INSECTICIDE ACT & ITS IMPORTANCE
 This Act Was Aimed to regulate the manufacture, import, sale, transport, dilution and use
of insecticide too prevent the risk to animals and human-being.
SILENT FEATURES OF INSECTICIDE ACT, 1968
 It enforces the compulsory registration of any product at central level in order to control
the manufacture, formulation and sale at state level.
 The organizational co-ordination is achieved by an advisory board of ―Central
Insecticide Board" wit” 24 members (to be raised to 29 by an amendment).
 The registration of all insecticide is looked after by Registration Committee.
 The act bears the power to prohibit the manufacture, sale of insecticide and also to
confiscate the stocks.
 The power to make rules, prescribe the forms and fees are empowered to both the
control and state government.
 The insecticides act was formulated in 1968 and implemented in 1971 (insecticides Rule,
1971).
THE CENTRAL INSECTICIDE LABORATORY (CIL)
 Its function is to carry out the analysis related to the insecticide registration.
 For the CIL, the Central or State government recruits insecticide Inspector who is
empowered with:
I. To prevent the distribution and sale of unauthenticated use of insecticide.
II. To enter and search the premises of insecticide storage room.
III. The samples of insecticide under suspicion and send for analysis.
 The insecticide Rules, 1971 has 9 chapters relating to the functions of CIN, RM, CIL,
grant of licenses etc.
INTERNATIONAL QUARANTINE
 The National Plant Quarantine Station (NPQS) at Rangpuri, New Delhi and Four
Regional Plant Quarantine Stations (RPQS) at Amritsar, Chennai, Kolkata and
Mumbai are the major stations and are locate at places having international
airport/seaport/land frontier with neighbouring countries.
 There are 35 Plant Quarantine Stations at different Airports, seaports and Lnad
frontiers implementing the Plant Quarantine regulations.
 National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (BPGR), New Delhi which is the nodal
institution for exchange of plant genetic resources has been empowered under PQ.
PLANT QUARANTINE IN INDIA
 Plant Quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the ―Destructive Insects &
Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914)” in the country.
 The purpose and intent of this Act is to prevent the introduction of any insect, fungus
or other pest, which is or may be destructive to crops.
 The import of Agricultural commodities is presently regulated through the Plant
Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 issued under DIP Act, 1914
incorporating the provisions of New Policy on Seed Development, 1988

 Further, the significance of Plant Quarantine has increased in International trade of
plants and plant material in the wake of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement
under WTO.
 The Phytosanitary Certificate of Agricultural commodities being exported is also
undertaken through the scheme as per International Plant Protection Convention
(IPPC), 1951.
 All the products intended for export should be issued Phytosanitary Certificate.
 Plant Quarantine Organization India (National Plant Protection Organization-
NPPO) works under the purview of Directorate of Plat Protection, Quarantine & Storage
(DPPQS), Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, Krishi
Bhavan, New Delhi.
 Joint Secretary (Plant Protection) will look after Directorate of Plant Protection,
Quarantine & Storage (Faridabad, Haryana) headed by Plant Protection Advisor (PPA)
to GOI.
IPPC (INTERNATIONAL PLANT PROTECTION CONVENTION)
 The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is an International Plant health

agreement, established in 1952, that aims to protect cultivated and wild plants by
preventing the introduction and spread of pests.
 The 172 signatories (as of 30 November 2009) adhere to the Convention.
 IPPC‟s core activities include governance, standards setting, information exchange,
guidelines and recommendations recognized as the basis for phytosanitary measures
applied by Members of the World Trade Organization under the Agreement on the
application of Sanitary and phytosanitary Measures (the SPS Agreement).
 ISPMs are adopted by contracting parties to the IPPC through the Commission of
phytosanitary Measures (CPM).
The Insecticides Rules, 1971

There are nine chapters in the insecticide rule, 1971 relating to the functions of CIB, RC,
CIL, grant of licenses, packing, labelling, first aid, antidote protective clothing etc.
Pesticides Management Bill, 2020

The Pesticides Management Bill (PMB), 2020 was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on March
23, 2020 and seeks to replace The Insecticides Act, 1968.
Key provisions in the Bill

1. The Bill will regulate the business of pesticides and compensate farmers in
case of losses from the use of agrochemicals.
2. Pesticide Data: It will empower farmers by providing them with all the information
about the strength and weakness of pesticides, the risk and alternatives. All
information will be available openly as data in digital format and in all languages.
3. Compensation: The Bill has a unique feature in the form of a provision for
compensations in case there is any loss because of the spurious or low quality of
pesticides. If required, a central fund will be formed to take care of the
compensations.
4. Organic Pesticides: The Bill also intends to promote organic pesticides.
5. Registration of Pesticide Manufacturers: All pesticide manufacturers have to be
registered and bound by the new Act, once it is passed. The advertisements of

pesticides will be regulated so there should be no confusion or no cheating by the
manufacturers.

MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE & CENTRAL ISSUE PRICE THEIR
IMPORTANCE
Minimum Support Price (MSP)
Historical Perspective
 The Center was the first to implement the Minimum Support Price, or MSP, in 1966-67.
 This occurred after India experienced a significant deficit in cereal production at the time
of independence. The low output was unable to meet the high demand of the population.
 As a result, after a decade of struggle, the Indian government has finally decided to
implement extensive agricultural reforms.
 The Minimum Support Price, or MSP, was implemented as a first step toward agricultural
reformation.
 The Government's Price Support Policy is intended to protect agricultural producers from
sharp drops in farm prices.
 The minimum guaranteed prices are set in order to provide a floor below which market
prices cannot fall.
 Government announced two types of administered prices until the mid-1970s:
 Minimum Support Levels (MSP)
 Purchase Prices
 The MSPs served as the floor prices and were set by the government as a long-term
guarantee for producers' investment decisions, with the assurance that prices of their
commodities would not be allowed to fall below the level set by the government, even in
the case of a bumper crop.
 Procurement prices were the kharif and rabi cereal prices at which grain was to be
procured domestically by public agencies (such as the FCI) for release through PDS. It
was announced shortly after harvest started.
 Typically, procurement prices were lower than open market prices and higher than
MSPs.
 In the case of paddy, this policy of announcing two official prices continued with some
variation until 1973-74.
 In the case of wheat, it was discontinued in 1969 and then revived for one year only in
1974-75.
 Because there were too many requests to increase the MSP in 1975-76, the current
system evolved, with only one set of prices announced for paddy (and other Kharif
crops) and wheat being procured for buffer stock operations.
What is Minimum Support Price (MSP)?

 MSP is a type of government intervention designed to protect farmers against a sharp
drop in the pricing of their commodities and to assist them in avoiding losses.
 The Indian government sets the MSP for 24 commodities twice a year.
 The government does this to shield farmers against a drop in prices during a good crop
year.
 When the market price falls below the announced MSP, the government will buy the full
amount from the farmers at the MSP.
 The government incentivizes crop development, guaranteeing that India does not run
short of staple food grains.
 MSPs set the bar for agricultural prices not just in the commodities for which they are
published, but also in replacement crops.
 A true MSP necessitates the government intervening whenever market prices fall below
a predetermined level, primarily in cases of excess production and oversupply or a price
collapse caused by international factors.
 MSP can also be used as an incentive price for many crops that are important for
nutritional security, such as coarse cereals, as well as pulses and edible oils, for which
India is reliant on imports.

Determination of MSP
 The Rabi and Kharif cropping seasons are India's two major cropping seasons.
 At the start of the Rabi and Kharif cropping seasons, the Central Government of India
fixes and announces the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for the crops.
 This decision is made after the government thoroughly examines the major points raised
by the Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices.
 Farmers incur both implicit and explicit costs when growing crops. Family labour and rent
paid by farmers are examples of implicit or unpaid costs.
 All of these costs are taken into account when calculating and setting the Minimum
Support Price, or MSP.
 Consider the variables A2, FL and C2 when talking in more calculative and technical
terms.
 The Commission considers the following variables for Agricultural Costs and Prices, or
CACP:
 A2 - This includes all costs incurred by farmers for the purchase of chemicals,
fertilisers, seeds, and hired labour for the growth, production, and maintenance of
food crops.
 A2 + FL - This covers both the actual costs incurred and the implicit costs incurred in
the form of family labour.
 C2 - This includes A2 + FL, as well as fixed capital assets and farmers' rent.
 Along with the factors listed above, the Commission of Agricultural Costs and Prices
(CACP) considers the following when determining the Minimum Support Price (MSP):
 Costs of cultivation per hectare and crop costs in other regions of the country are
compared and differences noted.
 Cost of production per quintal and costs in other regions to compare and contrast
differences.
 Market prices for all crops involved, as well as any changes within them.
 Other production and labour costs, as well as any changes in them.
 Farmers' prices for any commodities sold or purchased, as well as any changes in
these prices.
 Information on the availability of produce. This includes area, yield, production,
imports, exports, domestic supply, produce availability, and any stocks held by public
agencies, governments, or industries.
 Demand information for the entire region. This includes total and per capita
consumption, trends, and processing industry capacity.
 Information on global market demand and supply, as well as produce prices in the
international market and any changes in them.
 Prices of farm product derivatives such as jute goods, jaggery, sugar, and cotton
yarn. Oils that are edible or inedible, among other things.
 The costs and changes in the costs of agricultural product processing
 Costs and changes in marketing, storage, transportation, taxes or fees, marketing
services, and so on.
 Information on macroeconomic variables such as consumer price indices and
general price levels.
Commission for Agricultural Cost and Prices (CACP)

 In January 1965, the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) was
established.
 It was previously known as the Agriculture Price Commission before being renamed
the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) in 1985.
 CACP is a decentralised Government of India organisation. It serves as an advisory
body to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
 It is a statutory panel of the Government of India's Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers'
Welfare.
 The CACP is an expert body that recommends to the Cabinet Committee on
Economic Affairs (CCEA) the MSPs for the notified Kharif and Rabi crops.

 The Commission was formed to recommend Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) in order to
encourage cultivators and farmers to adopt cutting-edge technology in order to optimise
resource use and increase productivity.
 However, its recommendations are not legally binding on the government.
Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP)

 The FRP is the government-mandated price that mills must pay to farmers for cane
purchased from them.
 Mills have the option of entering into an arrangement with farmers to pay the FRP in
instalments.
 Delays in payment can result in interest charges of up to 15% per year, and the sugar
commissioner can recover unpaid FRP as revenue recovery dues by attaching mill
facilities.
 The Sugarcane Control Order, 1966, established under the Essential Commodities Act
(ECA), 1955, governs FRP payment across the country, mandating payment within 14
days of cane supply.
 It was decided based on the Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices' (CACP)
advice and announced by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA).
 The CACP is a branch of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
 It is a non-binding advisory group whose recommendations do not bind the government.
The Prime Minister of India chairs the CCEA.
 The FRP is based on the Rangarajan Committee report on sugarcane sector
reorganization.
Crops Covered under MSP

 The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) proposes minimum
support prices (MSPs) for 22 required crops, as well as a fair and remunerative price
(FRP) for sugarcane.
 The CACP is a branch of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
 14 kharif crops, 6 rabi crops, and 2 additional commercial crops are among the
compulsory crops.
 Furthermore, the MSPs for toria and de-husked coconut are based on the MSPs for
rapeseed/mustard and copra.
 The following are the crops covered under MSP:
 Cereals - Paddy, Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Ragi
 Pulses - Gram, Ahrar/Tur, Moong, Urad, Lentil
 Raw Cotton
 Raw Jute
 Copra
 De-husked Coconut
 Sugarcane (Fair and Remunerative Price)
 Virginia flu cured (VFC) tobacco
Factors Considered by CACP for Recommending MSPs

 A commodity's demand and supply.
 Its manufacturing cost.
 Price movements in the market (both domestic and international).
 Price parity between crops.
 Trade terms between agriculture and non-agriculture (that is, the ratio of prices of farm
inputs and farm outputs).
 A minimum of 50% as a profit margin over the cost of manufacturing.
 The anticipated consequences of an MSP on product customers.
Minimum Support Price (MSP) - Significance

 Better price for their crops: As the MSP rises, farmers will receive a higher price
for their products, and procurement will take place.

 Oilseed promotion: As farmers receive a guaranteed price for their products, it will
encourage more farmers to plant oilseeds and move away from cereals.
 The area under oilseed cultivation has been steadily increasing in recent years, and we
anticipate that this trend will continue.
 Crop Diversification: MSP rises for pulses, oilseeds, and coarse cereals are slightly
greater, which aids in the goal of crop diversification.
 Differential remuneration and farmer protection: It aids in crop diversification and
land use pattern diversification.
 It protects farmers from unjustified price fluctuations caused by foreign price fluctuations.
 Any severe drop in a commodity's market price may be handled since MSP acts as a
shock absorber.
 Repair the demand-supply imbalance: Oilseeds, pulses, and coarse cereals have
benefited from concerted attempts to realign MSPs.
 It encouraged farmers to cultivate wider areas of these crops and to implement best
technology and farming techniques in order to remedy the demand-supply mismatch.
 Concentrate on nutrient-dense crops: The increased emphasis on nutrient-rich nutri-
cereals is intended to encourage their production in locations where rice-wheat cannot
be produced without long-term negative consequences for groundwater tables.
 Consumer demands: MSP guarantees that the country's agricultural production reacts
to changing consumer needs.
 For example, the government increased the MSP for pulses in order to increase pulse
sowing.
 Food Crops: The MSP encourages the development of a particular food crop that is in
short supply.
 Forward chain: The MSP increases agricultural earnings, which encourages farmers to
invest more on inputs, technology, and so on.
 Atma-nirbhar Bharat: To improve pulse and oilseed output and lessen the country's
reliance on imports, the government boosted the tur support price by Rs. 300 to Rs.
6,300 per quintal for the 2021-22 crop year, up from Rs. 6,000 per quintal the previous
year.
Latest Minimum Support Price - Kharif (2023-24); Rabi (2023-24)

Sowing season in India of crops varies from state to state and the harvesting of the crop also
depends on variety. Thus a harvested crop sown in kharif may reach in the market even
before October. MSP of Kharif Crops for 2023-24 is applicable from 1 September 2023. MSP
for all mandated Rabi crops is for Rabi Marketing Season (RMS) 2023-24.
The increase in MSP for Kharif Crops for Marketing Season 2023-24 is in line with the Union
Budget 2018-19 announcement of fixing the MSP at a level of at least 1.5 times of the All-
India weighted average Cost of Production, aiming at reasonably fair remuneration for the
farmers. The expected margin to farmers over their cost of production are estimated to be
highest in case of bajra (82%) followed by tur (58%), soybean (52%) and urad (51%). For
rest of the crops, margin to farmers over their cost of production is estimated to be at least
50%.
The increase in MSP for Rabi Crops for Marketing Season 2023-24 is in line with the Union
Budget 2018-19 announcement of fixing the MSP at a level of atleast 1.5 times of the All-
India weighted average Cost of Production, aiming at reasonably fair remuneration for the
farmers. The maximum rate of return is 104 percent for rapeseed & mustard, followed by
100 percent for wheat, 85 per cent for lentil; 66 per cent for gram; 60 per cent for barley; and
50 per cent for safflower.
Commodity Variety MSP for 2022- MSP for 2023- Increase over
2023 (Rs per 2024 (Rs per previous year (Rs
quintal) quintal) per quintal)

KHARIF CROPS
Paddy Common 2040 2183 143
Grade 2060 2203 143

'A'
Jowar Hybrid 2970 3180 210
Maldandi 2990 3225 235

Bajra 2350 2500 150
Maize 1962 2090 128
Ragi 3578 3846 268
Arhar (Tur) 6600 7000 400
Moong 7755 8558 803
Urad 6600 6950 350
Cotton Medium 6080 6620 540

Staple*
Long 6380 7020 640
Staple **
Groundnut in shell 5850 6377 527
Sunflower seed 6400 6760 360
Soyabeen Yellow 4300 4600 300
Sesamum - 7830 8635 805
Nigerseed - 7287 7734 447
RABI CROPS (Rabi Marketing Season (RMS) 2023-24)
Wheat 2015 2125 110
Barley 1635 1735 100
Gram 5230 5335 105
Masur (Lentil) 5500 6000 500
Rapeseed & 5050 5450 400

Mustard
Safflower 5441 5650 209
Toria 5050 5450 400
OTHER CROPS
Copra (2022 crop Milling 10,335 10,590 255

season)
Ball 10,600 11,000 400
De-husked 2800 2860 60

coconut (2022
crop season)

Raw Jute (for 2023 4750 5050 300
-24 season)
Sugarcane $ (for 315 -
the sugar season
2023-24)
* Staple length (mm) of 24.5 -25.5 and Micronaire value of 4.3 -5.1
** Staple length (mm) of 29.5 -30.5 and Micronaire value of 3.5 -4.3
$ Fair and remunerative price
The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane payable by sugar mills for 2023-23
sugar season (October-September) is as follows:
 FRP of sugarcane for 2023-24 sugar season at Rs. 315/qtl for a basic recovery rate of
10.25%.
 premium of Rs. 3.07/qtl for each 0.1% increase in recovery over and above 10.25%;
and reduction in FRP by Rs. 3.07/qtl for every 0.1% decrease in recovery.
 No deduction in case of sugar mills where recovery is below 9.5%. Such farmers will get
Rs. 291.975/qtl for sugarcane in ensuing sugar season 2023-24 in place of Rs.
282.125/qtl in current sugar season 2022-23.

ISSUE OF FOOD GRAINS TO STATE GOVERNMENT & THEIR
AGENCIES FOR TPDS & OTHER WELFARE SCHEMES
What is Public Distribution System (PDS)?
 The Public Distribution System (PDS) is a food security system in India that is overseen
by the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution.
 PDS arose as a system of scarcity management through the distribution of food grains at
low cost.
 The PDS is managed jointly by the Central and State Governments.
 The Food Corporation of India (FCI) has assumed responsibility for the procurement,
storage, transportation, and bulk allocation of food grains to state governments.
 The operational responsibilities of the State Governments include allocation within the
State, identification of eligible families, issuance of Ration Cards, and supervision of the
operation of Fair Price Shops (FPSs), among other things.
 Currently, commodities such as wheat, rice, sugar, and kerosene are allocated to
states/UTs for distribution under the PDS.
 Some states/UTs also distribute additional mass-consumption items through PDS
outlets, such as pulses, edible oils, iodized salt, spices, and so on.
Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS)

 The Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) was launched in June 1992 with the
goal of strengthening and streamlining the PDS as well as improving its reach in remote,
hilly, and inaccessible areas where a significant portion of the poor life.
 Food grains for distribution in RPDS areas were issued to states at a 50-paise discount
from the Central Issue Price.
 The issuing scale was up to 20 kg per card.
 The RPDS included an area approach to ensuring the effective reach of PDS
commodities, their delivery by State Governments at the doorsteps of FPSs in identified
areas, additional ration cards to excluded families, infrastructure requirements such as
additional Fair Price Shops, storage capacity, and so on.
Targeted Public Distribution System - Background

 For the PDS to function properly, the Central Government is responsible for procuring
and supplying foodgrains such as wheat and rice, as well as sugar, imported edible oils,
and kerosene to state governments and union territories for distribution.
 Some states/UTs also distribute additional mass-consumption items through PDS
outlets.
 The PDS had previously been chastised for its urban bias and inability to effectively
serve the poorer sections of the population.
 For a long time, there was a desire to review PDS and make it more focused.
 The former PDS was replaced by the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) in
June 1997.
 A two-tiered subsidized pricing system was introduced under the new system to benefit
the poor.
What is Targeted Public Distribution System?

 The Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) is an important policy instrument aimed
at reducing poverty by delivering minimum requirements of food grains at heavily
subsidized prices to the population living below the poverty line.
 Through a network of ration shops, TPDS hopes to provide subsidized food and fuel to
the poor.
 When it was first introduced, the scheme was intended to benefit approximately 6 crore
poor families, with a yearly allocation of approximately 72 lakh tonnes of food grains.
 The identification of the poor under the scheme was done by the states based on the
Planning Commission's State-wise poverty estimates for 1993-94, which were based

on the methodology of the "Expert Group on the estimation of proportion and
number of poor" chaired by Late Prof Lakdawala.
 The allocation of food grains to the States/UTs was based on average consumption in
the past, i.e., the average annual offtake of food grains under the PDS over the previous
ten years at the time of TPDS implementation.
 Beneficiaries of the TPDS fall into one of two categories: "Households Below the
Poverty Line" (BPL) and "Households Above the Poverty Line" (APL).
 Furthermore, the functions of this scheme are split between the center and the state.
Objectives of TPDS
 It aims to provide food security to poor and vulnerable people.
 It also provides subsidized fuel for household use in cooking and lighting.
 It is the largest food distribution program in the world, accounting for 34% of all
cardholders in our sample.
How Does TPDS Work?

 The Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) is managed jointly by the Central and
State/Union Territory (UT) governments.
 The Central Government is in charge of procuring, allocating, and transporting food
grains to the Food Corporation of India's designated depots.
 The operational responsibilities for allocating and distributing foodgrains within the
States/UTs, identifying eligible beneficiaries, issuing ration cards to them, and
supervising and monitoring the operation of Fair Price Shops (FPSs) fall to the
respective State/UT governments.
 The government of India established the FCI and the Commission of Agricultural
Costs and Prices (CACP) in order to improve domestic procurement and storage of
food grains.
 All ration card holders are divided into APL and BPL families under the TPDS.
 BPL families pay one-half the price for food grains, sugar, and kerosene as APL families
do.
Implementation of TPDS
 The Government of India increased the allocation to BPL families from 10 kg to 20
kg of food grains per family per month at 50% of the economic cost, and the
allocation to APL families at 100% of the economic cost, effective at 1.4.2000.
 This is done keeping in mind the consensus on increasing the allocation of food grains to
BPL families, and in order to better target the food subsidy
 The allocation of APL families was maintained at the same level as when TPDS was
introduced, but the Central Issue Prices (CIPs) for APL was fixed at 100% of economic
cost from that date forward, allowing the entire consumer subsidy to be directed to the
benefit of the BPL population.
 Beneficiaries are identified by the states based on the Planning Commission's state-by-
state poverty estimates.
 The goal is to limit the benefit to the truly poor and vulnerable groups: landless
agricultural laborers, marginal farmers, rural artisans/craftsmen, potters, tappers,
weavers, blacksmiths, and carpenters in rural areas.
 Food grains in excess of the needs of Below Poverty Line (BPL) families were provided
to the state as a 'transitory allocation,' with a total of 103 lakh tonnes of food grains
earmarked annually.
 Additional allocation to states was made in addition to the TPDS allocation.
 The transitory allocation was intended to ensure the continuation of the benefit of
subsidized food grains to the population above the poverty line (APL), as any abrupt
withdrawal of PDS benefits from them was deemed undesirable.
 Furthermore, the central government has another scheme known as Antyodaya Anna
Yojana (AAY), which was launched in the year 2000 and provides 35 kg of rice at 3 per
kg and wheat at 2 per kg through the same fair price shops to the bottom 2.5 crores
below poverty families.

 The central government plans to launch a digital system called "Online Storage
Management (OSM)" on April 1, 2022, in an effort to improve operational efficiency in
the storage, movement, and distribution of food grains under the Targeted Public
Distribution System (TPDS).
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY)

 AAY was a step toward making the TPDS aim to reduce hunger among the poorest
segments of the BPL population.
 The "Antyodaya Anna Yojana" (AAY) was launched in December 2000 for one crore
poorest of the poor families in order to make TPDS more focused and targeted towards
this population.
 AAY entailed identifying one crore of the poorest of the poor families from among the
number of BPL families covered by TPDS in the states and providing them with food
grains at a heavily subsidized rate of Rs.2/- per kg. for wheat and Rs.3/- per kg. for rice.
 The states/UTs were required to bear the distribution costs, which included dealer and
retailer margins as well as transportation costs. As a result, the scheme passed on the
entire food subsidy to consumers.
 With effect from April 1, 2002, the issue's scale was increased from 25 kg per family per
month to 35 kg per family per month.
 Since then, the AAY Scheme has grown to cover 2.50 crore of the poorest of the poor
households.
 In 2003-04, the AAY Scheme was expanded by adding another 50 lakh BPL households
headed by widows, terminally ill or disabled people, or people aged 60 or older with no
guaranteed means of subsistence or societal support.
 The AAY was expanded by another 50 lakh BPL families, as announced in the Union
Budget 2004-05, by including, among other things, all households at risk of hunger.
 The guidelines specified the following criteria for identifying these households:
 Landless agriculture laborers, marginal farmers, rural artisans/craftsmen such as
potters, tanners, weavers, blacksmiths, carpenters, slum dwellers and persons
earning their living on a daily basis in the informal sector such as porters, coolies,
rickshaw pullers, hand cart pullers, fruit and flower sellers, snake charmers, rag
pickers, cobblers, etc.
 Households headed by widows or terminally ill/disabled people/people over the age
of 60 with no guaranteed means of subsistence or societal support.
 Widows, terminally ill or disabled people, people over the age of 60, or single women
or men without family or societal support or a reliable source of income.
 Primitive tribal households.
Issues Related to Targeted Public Distribution System

 The main flaw in the system is that a large portion of those eligible for subsidized food
grains under the BPL category has been left out, calling into question the
comprehensiveness of the TPDS.
 The criteria for inclusion in the BPL list are solely economic, which is frequently
overstated or underreported due to a lack of national income data.
 There have been allegations that people with political connections have been
included on the BPL list. Not all BPL families are BPL, but they are all included.
 A large number of very poor families fall into the APL category, denying them the
right to obtain subsidized food grains from TPDS.
 Furthermore, BPL families who graduate in terms of income criteria should technically be
excluded as BPL beneficiaries, but they continue to do so.
 In the current system, there is "no exit but entry," making the government an ever-
increasing liability in terms of increased subsidy bills and benefits that are "not exactly"
for those for whom it is intended.
 Clearly, it is not the schemes that have failed us, but the delivery channel. Starting
with bogus identification cards for beneficiaries. There has been no attempt to review
the ration cards that have been issued.

 The other is widespread black marketing, hoardings, and their diversion to the open
market.
 According to government sources, up to 20% of the food grains intended to be
supplied under TPDS find their way into the open market.
 Given the conditions of storage in FCI warehouses, the quality of food grains supplied
under TPDS is also questionable.
 The TPDS in its current form is not only inefficient, but it also does not reach out to the
poor, resulting in waste and diversion.

BASICS COMPUTER KNOWLEDGE IN MS OFFICE
Microsoft Office is a software which was developed by Microsoft in 1988. This Office suite
comprises various applications which form the core of computer usage in today‘s world.
MS Office Applications & its Functions

Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their functions.
1. MS Word
 First released on October 25, 1983
 Extension for Doc files is ―.doc‖
 It is useful in creating text documents
 Templates can be created for Professional use with the help of MS Word
 Work Art, colours, images, animations can be added along with the text in the same file
which is downloadable in the form of a document
 Authors can use for writing/ editing their work
What is MS Word?
Used to make professional-quality documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a word
processor developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features which allow you to format and
edit your files and documents in the best possible way.
Where to find MS Word on your personal computer?

Follow these simple steps to open MS Word on your personal computer:
Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS Word.
What are the uses of MS Word?

MS Word enables users to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc. This is
one of the most commonly used programs under the Office suite.
How to create an MS Word document?

To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps mentioned above to open Microsoft Word. Then
once the program is open, click on ―File‖ followed by ―New‖. This opens a new doc where
something new can be created.
Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in colleges and for official purposes,
having proper knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must. The preview of the MS Doc file once it
is opened is given below:

Features of MS Word
Now let us read more about the features and components of an MS Word doc file in detail.
The image given below shows the different elements and categories which are available in
MS Word doc:
 Home
This has options like font colour, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All
the basic elements which one may need to edit their document is available under the Home
option.
 Insert
Tables, shapes, images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc. can all be
entered in the document. They are included in the ―Insert‖ category.
 Design
The template or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected
under the Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab will enhance the appearance of your
document.
 Page Layout
Under the Page Layout tab comes options like margins, orientation, columns, lines,
indentation, spacing, etc.

 References
This tab is the most useful for those who are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy
documents. Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, bibliography, etc. can
be found under this tab.
 Review
Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all
be tracked under the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get their
documents reviewed on MS Word.
Apart from all the above-mentioned features, the page can be set in different views and
layouts, which can be added and optimised using the View tab on the Word document.
Margins and scales are also available for the benefit of the users.
Uses of MS Word
Given below are the different fields in which MS Word is used and simplifies the work of an
individual:
 In Education: It is considered as one of the simplest tools which can be used by both
teachers and students. Creating notes is easier using MS Word as they can be made
more interactive by adding shapes and images. It is also convenient to make
assignments on MS Word and submitting them online.
 In Workplace: Submitting letters, bills, creating reports, letterheads, sample documents,
can all easily be done using MS Word.
 Creating & Updating Resume: One of the best tools to create your resumes and is
easy to edit and make changes in it as per your experience.
 For Authors: Since separate options are available for bibliography, table of contents,
etc., it is the best tool which can be used by authors for writing books and adjusting it as
per the layout and alignment of your choice.
2. MS Excel
 Majorly used for making spreadsheets
 A spreadsheet consists of grids in the form of rows and columns which is easy to
manage and can be used as a replacement for paper
 It is a data processing application
 Large data can easily be managed and saved in tabular format using MS Excel
 Calculations can be done based on the large amount of data entered into the cells of a
spreadsheet within seconds
 File extension, when saved in the computer, is ―.xls‖
What is MS Excel?
 MS Excel is a spreadsheet program where one can record data in the form of tables. It is
easy to analyse data in an Excel spreadsheet. The image given below represents how
an Excel spreadsheet looks like:

How to open MS Excel?

To open MS Excel on your computer, follow the steps given below:
 Click on Start
 Then All Programs
 Next step is to click on MS Office
 Then finally, choose the MS-Excel option
Alternatively, you can also click on the Start button and type MS Excel in the search option
available.
What is a cell?
A spreadsheet is in the form of a table comprising rows and columns. The rectangular box at
the intersection point between rows and columns forms a cell. Given below is an image of a
cell:

What is Cell Address?
The cell address is the name by which is cell can be addressed. For example, if row 7 is
interested in column G, then the cell address is G7.
Features of MS Excel
Various editing and formatting can be done on an Excel spreadsheet. Discussed below are
the various features of MS Excel.
The image below shows the composition of features in MS Excel:
 Home
 Comprises options like font size, font styles, font colour, background colour,
alignment, formatting options and styles, insertion and deletion of cells and editing
options.
 Insert
 Comprises options like table format and style, inserting images and figures, adding
graphs, charts and sparklines, header and footer option, equation and symbols.
 Page Layout
 Themes, orientation and page setup options are available under the page layout
option.
 Formulas
 Since tables with a large amount of data can be created in MS excel, under this
feature, you can add formulas to your table and get quicker solutions.
 Data
 Adding external data (from the web), filtering options and data tools are available
under this category.
 Review
 Proofreading can be done for an excel sheet (like spell check) in the review category
and a reader can add comments in this part
 View
 Different views in which we want the spreadsheet to be displayed can be edited here.
Options to zoom in and out and pane arrangement are available under this category
Benefits of Using MS Excel

MS Excel is widely used for various purposes because the data is easy to save, and
information can be added and removed without any discomfort and less hard work.

Given below are a few important benefits of using MS Excel:
 Easy To Store Data: Since there is no limit to the amount of information that can be
saved in a spreadsheet, MS Excel is widely used to save data or to analyse data.
Filtering information in Excel is easy and convenient.
 Easy To Recover Data: If the information is written on a piece of paper, finding it may
take longer, however, this is not the case with excel spreadsheets. Finding and
recovering data is easy.
 Application of Mathematical Formulas: Doing calculations has become easier and
less time-taking with the formulas option in MS excel
 More Secure: These spreadsheets can be password secured in a laptop or personal
computer and the probability of losing them is way lesser in comparison to data written in
registers or piece of paper.
 Data at One Place: Earlier, data was to be kept in different files and registers when the
paperwork was done. Now, this has become convenient as more than one worksheet
can be added in a single MS Excel file.
 Neater and Clearer Visibility of Information: When the data is saved in the form of a
table, analysing it becomes easier. Thus, information is a spreadsheet that is more
readable and understandable.
MS Excel – Points To Remember

There are certain things which one must know with respect to MS Excel, its applications and
usage:
 An MS Excel file is saved with an extension of .xls
 Companies with large staff and workers use MS Excel as saving employee information
becomes easier
 Excel spreadsheets are also used in hospitals where the information of patients can be
saved more easily and can be removed conveniently once their medical history is
cleared
 The sheet on which you work is called a Worksheet
 Multiple worksheets can be added in a single Excel file
 This is a data processing application
3. MS PowerPoint
 The program was created in a software company named Forethought, Inc. by Robert
Gaskins and Dennis Austin.
 It was released on April 20, 1987, and after 3 months of its creation, it was acquired
by Microsoft.
 The first version of this program, when introduced by Microsoft was MS PowerPoint
2.0 (1990).
 It is a presentation-based program that uses graphics, videos, etc. to make a
presentation more interactive and interesting.
 The file extension of a saved Powerpoint presentation is ―.ppt‖.
 A PowerPoint presentation comprising slides and other features is also known as
PPT.
Gradually, with each version, the program was more creative and more interactive. Various
other features were added in PowerPoint which massively increased the requirement and
use of this MS Office program.

Basics of MS PowerPoint
Discussed below are a few questions that one must be aware of while discussing the basics
of MS PowerPoint. Once this is understood, using the program and analysing how to use it
more creatively shall become easier.
Question: What is MS PowerPoint?

Answer: PowerPoint (PPT) is a powerful, easy-to-use presentation graphics
software program that allows you to create professional-looking electronic slide shows.
The image given below shows the main page of MS PowerPoint, where a person lands
when the program is opened on a computer system:
Question: How to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer?

Answer: Follow the steps below to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer:
1. Click on the start button

2. Then choose ―All Programs‖
3. Next step is to select ―MS Office‖
4. Under MS Office, click on the ―MS PowerPoint‖
A blank presentation is open on the screen. According to the requirement, a person can
modify the template for a presentation and start using the program.
Question: What is a PowerPoint presentation or PPT?
Answer: A combination of various slides depicting a graphical and visual interpretation of

data, to present information in a more creative and interactive manner is called a PowerPoint
presentation or PPT.
Question: What is a slide show in a PowerPoint presentation?
Answer: When all the slides of a PowerPoint presentation are set in series and then
presented to a group of people, where each slide appears one after the other, is a set
pattern, this is known as a PowerPoint slide show.

Question: What all elements can be added to a slide?
Answer: The following elements can be added to a Powerpoint slide:
1. Clip Art
2. Graphs
3. Tables
4. Photographs
5. Charts
6. Media Clips
7. Videos
All these elements are mainly used to enhance presentation skills and make the slide more
interactive.
Features of MS PowerPoint
There are multiple features that are available in MS PowerPoint which can customise and
optimise a presentation. The same have been discussed below.
 Slide Layout
Multiple options and layouts are available based on which a presentation can be created.
This option is available under the ―Home‖ section and one can select from the multiple layout
options provided.
The image below shows the different slide layout options which are available for use:
 Insert – Clipart, Video, Audio, etc.

Under the ―Insert‖ category, multiple options are available where one can choose what
feature they want to insert in their presentation. This may include images, audio, video,
header, footer, symbols, shapes, etc.
The image below shows the features which can be inserted:

 Slide Design
MS PowerPoint has various themes using which background colour and designs or textures
can be added to a slide. This makes the presentation more colourful and attracts the
attention of the people looking at it.
This feature can be added using the ―Design‖ category mentioned on the homepage of MS
PowerPoint. Although there are existing design templates available, in case someone wants
to add some new texture or colour, the option to customise the design is also available.
Apart from this, slide designs can also be downloaded online.
Refer to the below for slide design:
 Animations
During the slide show, the slides appear on the screen one after the other. In case, one
wants to add some animations to the way in which a slide presents itself, they can refer to
the ―Animations‖ category.
The different animation styles available on PowerPoint are:
Apart from all these options; font size, font style, font colour, word art, date and time, etc.
can also be added to a PPT.
Uses of PowerPoint Presentation

PowerPoint presentations are useful for both personal and professional usage. Given below
are a few of the major fields where PPT is extremely useful:
 Education – With e-learning and smart classes being chosen as a common mode of
education today, PowerPoint presentations can help in making education more
interactive and attract students towards the modified version of studying
 Marketing – In the field of marketing, PowerPoint presentations can be extremely
important. Using graphs and charts, numbers can be shown more evidently and clearly
which may be ignored by the viewer if being read
 Business – To invite investors or to show the increase or decrease in profits, MS
PowerPoint can be used
 Creating Resumes – Digital resumes can be formed using MS PowerPoint. Different
patterns, photograph, etc. can be added to the resume
 Depicting Growth – Since both graphics and text can be added in a presentation,
depicting the growth of a company, business, student‘s marks, etc. is easier using PPT.
4. MS Access
 It was released on November 13, 1992
 It is Database Management Software (DBMS)
 Table, queries, forms and reports can be created on MS Access
 Import and export of data into other formats can be done
 The file extension is ―.accdb‖
5. MS Outlook
 It was released on January 16, 1997
 It is a personal information management system
 It can be used both as a single-user application or multi-user software
 Its functions also include task managing, calendaring, contact managing, journal logging
and web browsing
 It is the email client of the Office Suite
 The file extension for an Outlook file is ―.pst‖
6. MS OneNote
 It is a note-taking application
 When introduced, it was a part of the Office suite only. Later, the developers made it
free, standalone and easily available at play store for android devices
 The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
 The extension for OneNote files is ―.one‖
 It can be used both online and offline and is a multi-user application
Microsoft Office Versions

 Microsoft Office for Windows Version was launched in the year-1990.
 Microsoft Office 3.0 Version was started in- August 30, 1992.
 Microsoft Office 4.0 Version was commenced in the year- 1994.
 Microsoft Office 95 Version was launched in-August 24, 1995.
 Microsoft Office 97 Version was commenced in the year -1997.
 Microsoft Office 2000 Version was launched in-June 7, 1999.
 Microsoft Office XP Version was launched in- May 31, 2001.
 Microsoft Office 2003 Version was launched in- October 21, 2003.
 Microsoft Office 2007 Version was started in-January 30, 2007.
 Microsoft Office 2010 Version was initiated on -June 15, 2010.
 Microsoft Office 2013 Version was inaugurated in-January 29, 2013.
 Microsoft Office 2016 Version was started in- September 22, 2015.
 Microsoft Office 2019 Version was started in- September 24, 2018.

WORD PROCESSING
Word processing – the use of a program (software application) running on a computer that
allows users to create, edit, format, and store documents.
Create a Document
Steps to create a new word processing
document (Word, Office 365):
1. Start Microsoft Word.
2. Click the File tab.
3. Click the New tab.
4. Click Blank document. (A new blank
document appears.)
5. Type your text. The text you type will be
inserted into the document.
Edit a Document
Editing a document – making revisions to a document, focusing on correcting errors,
improving the accuracy of language, rearranging, making words and sentences clearer and
more effective, etc.
Editing in word processing may include the following tasks:

 Adding text (terms, phrases, paragraphs, etc.)
 Deleting a part of a text
 Copying text
 Moving text
 Pasting text
 Checking for grammar and spelling
 Formatting text
Select Text
Before editing text, you‘ll need to select it. This is also sometimes called ―highlighting text.‖
1. Click File Explorer icon.
2. Go to the location where stores your file or folder (hard drive, USB,
etc.).
3. Open the document you wish to edit.
4. Move the I-beam pointer to where you wish to select text.
1. To select a word: double-click the word.

2. To select an entire line of text: move the I-beam to the left of the line until it turns into
a right-pointing arrow , then click.

3. To select a paragraph: triple-click the paragraph.
4. To select any amount of text: click and drag the I-beam over the text to highlight it.
5. To select an entire document: move the I-beam to the left of any text until it turns into
a right-pointing arrow , then triple-click. Or click the Home tab, under Editing,
click Select, and then click Select All.
Delete (or remove) text
Method 1
1. Select the text you wish to delete.
2. Press the Delete key (on the keyboard).
Method 2
1. Move the I-beam pointer to the text you want to delete. Click to set the insertion point
there (a blinking vertical line).
2. To delete text to the left of the insertion point, press the Backspace key on the
keyboard. (On a Mac keyboard, press the Delete key.)

3. To delete text to the right of the insertion point, press the Delete key on the keyboard.
(On a Mac keyboard, press the fn key plus the Delete key.)
Copy and Paste
Copy vs. cut

 Copy – duplicates the selected item (text, symbol, table, image, etc.).
 Cut – removes the selected item from its original position.
Copy and paste vs. cut and paste

 Copy and paste – duplicates the selected item. The selected item can be found in both
original and the new, pasted location(s).
 Cut and paste – duplicates the selected item then deletes the original. The selected data
can be found only at the new, pasted location (the item has moved from one location to
another).
Steps to copy / cut and paste
Method 1
2. Select the item you wish to Copy or Cut.
3. Right-click the highlighted item and click Copy or Cut. You can also use your keyboard:
a. Copy: Cntr + c (On a Mac, it is Cmd + c)
b. Cut: Cntr + x (On a Mac, it is Cmd + x)
4. Position the insertion point where you wish to insert the item.
5. Right-click and click the Paste icon. You can also

use your keyboard by pressing Cntr + v (On a Mac, it
is Cmd + v).

Method 2
2. Select the item you wish to copy or cut.
3. Click the Home tab at the top (on the ribbon). Click the Copy button.
4. Position the insertion point where you wish to insert the item.
5. Under the Home tab at the top, click the Paste button.
Review a Document
Check Spelling and Grammar
Method 1
2. Right-click a word that is underlined with a wavy line (that indicates a misspelled word).
3. Select the correct spelling from the suggestion list to correct the spelling error. For
each error, Word will offer one or more suggestions.
Method 2
2. Click the Review tab.
3. Click the Editor button (it may also say, ―Spelling and Grammar‖). If the program finds
spelling errors, the Spelling & Grammar pane will appear.
4. Click one of the options from the suggestion list to change the spelling error. The
program will move to the next misspelled word.

Find Synonyms
Method 1
2. Right-click a word for which you wish to find a synonym for.
3. Click the Synonyms command from the pop-out menu.
4. Find a desired word in the list and click it to replace the original word.
5. If none of the synonyms are desired, click the Thesaurus command to open the full
thesaurus. (The Thesaurus pane will appear.)
6. Find a desired word in the Thesaurus pane list and right-click it and then click Insert.
7. Close the Thesaurus pane.
Method 2
2. Select a word for which you wish to use the thesaurus.
3. Click the Review tab.
4. Click the Thesaurus button.
5. Find a desired word in the ―Thesaurus‖ pane and right-click it and then click Insert.
6. Close the Thesaurus pane.

MICROSOFT WINDOWS
MS Windows
Developer Microsoft
Initial Release 20th November 1985
Marketing Target Personal Computing
Languages Available in 138 languages
Default User Interface Windows Shell
Official Website microsoft.com
What is Windows Operating System?

By definition, an Operating System is a group of several GUIs (Graphical User Interface)
families, all of which are developed, sold and marketed by Microsoft.
The latest version of Microsoft Operating System which is being widely used across the
world is Windows 10.
History and Development of Windows
It was 1983 when work on ―Interface Manager‖ was started by Microsoft but it was in
November 1995, when the first Windows 1.0 was introduced. Later on, with developments in
technology, the requirement of the people and increased demand for Graphical User
Interface, Microsoft kept releasing revised versions of Operating Systems.
Versions of Windows Operating System

Let us understand the different versions of Windows Operating System along with the
features of each of them individually.
1. Windows 1.0
 Pure Operating Environment
 Used Graphical User Interface
 Simple Graphics
 Offered limited multi-tasking was expected to have a better future potential
2. Windows 2.0
 It was released on December 9, 1987
 16-bit Graphic User Interface (GUI) based operating environment
 Introduced Control Panel, and the first version of MS Word and Excel
 Unlike Windows 1.0, it had the capacity to allow applications to overlap each other
 It was also the last Windows OS which did not require a hard disk
 Hardware played an important role
3. Windows 3.0
 It was released in 1990

 It was better at multitasking
 Used 8086 microprocessors
 It has both, conventional and extendable memory
 First version of Windows to gather critical appreciation
 Better memory/ storage
Note* – None of the above mentioned Windows was Operating Systems. They all came
under the category of Windows, working based on a graphical operating environment. It was
Windows 95, which was the first Operating System released by Microsoft.
4. Window 95
 It was the first complete Operating System
 It was released on August 15, 1995
 It merged MS-DOS and Windows products
 It simplified plug and play features
 Taskbar and Start menu was introduced with this Windows OS
 Advanced from 16 bit GUI to 32 bit GUI
 Long file names could be saved
 Initially, computers with Windows 95 did not have Internet Explorer installed but by the
release date of Windows 95, the first version of Internet Explorer was installed in the
software
 On December 31, 2001, Windows declared this version of OS outdated and ended its
support for the same
5. Windows 98
 It was released to manufacturing on May 15, 1998
 It was a 16 bit and 32 bit product based on MS DOS
 It was not an entirely new version but just a tuned-up version to Windows 95
 Internet Explorer 4.01 was released along with this Windows version
 It did not support USB printers or mass storage devices
 An update to this version ―Windows SE‖ was released in 1999
6. Windows 2000
 It was officially released on February 17, 2000. However, its manufacturing had begun in
late 1999
 A core set of features was followed for manufacturing Windows 2000 but 4 different
editions, targeting different sectors of the market were released. These included: Server,
Professional, Advanced Server and Datacenter Server
 It was considered as one of the most secure OS ever
 A local disk manager was introduced with these Windows
 Multilingual User Interface – it supported many different languages

7. Windows XP
 While the manufacturing started on August 24, 2001, the official product was released on
October 25, 2001
 Advanced portable PC support
 Automatic wireless connection support
 Fast start-up
 Better Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 Help and support centre
8. Windows Vista
 It was released on January 30, 2007
 It had an upgraded version of Graphical User Interface
 It was the first operating system to use DVD-ROM for installation
9. Windows 7
 It was released on October 22, 2009
 A large number of new features were introduced
 Redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar
 Incremental upgrade to the Windows line
 Libraries were added in the file management system
 A few features from the past Windows were removed
 Extended hardware support
10. Windows 8
 It was released for retail on October 26, 2012
 Optimisations for touch-based
 Installed in new devices like Laptops, Mobile phones, tablets, etc.
 Increased integration with cloud services
 Windows Store service for software distribution
 Task manager had been redesigned
 New security features were introduced
 Online Applications could be directly downloaded
11. Windows 10
 It was released on July 29, 2015
 Addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8
 A virtual desktop system
 It had the ability to run windows store apps within windows on the desktop rather than in
the full-screen mode
 Included new icons

 To reduce storage shortcomings, Windows 10 automatically compresses the file size
Applications in Windows
There are all kinds of applications which are available at the Windows store and people can
easily access them and download them for their personal or professional usage.
Given below is a list of such application available on Windows:
 Web Browsers
 Adobe Photoshop
 Adobe Reader
 Messenger
 Media Players
 Games
 Audio/ Video Chatting Apps
 Maps & Calendar and this list goes on
List of Important Commands for Windows
Since Computers run over a set of commands which are entered in the form of input, which
with the advancement of Operating Systems can be entered through various Hardware
devices.
Important Commands for Windows

cd – change directory help – help about a command
cls – clear window notepad – windows notepad text editor
dir – display list of contents of current type – displays content of text file
directory
assoc – display/modify file extensions attrib – displays/ change file attributes
call – calls one batch program file from color – set text and background colour
another
comp – compares the contents of two copy – to copy one or more files to another
files location
date – displays date del – delete multiple files
edit – Run MS-DOS text editor exit – close MS-DOS window
find – search for a text string in a file move – move one or more files to another
location

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Mob: 9473826765 www.agriculturegk.

Agriculture & GK Page 1

Agriculture & GK Page 2

MORPHOLOGY OF CEREAL, MAJOR & MINOR MILLETS

Average composition of cereals and legumes

Agriculture & GK Page 3

 Traditional Food Products:

 Ethnic Food Products:

 Bakery Food Products:

 Nutraceutical/Industrial Food Products:

Average Composition of Cereals

Composition of some oat, rye & barley products

Agriculture & GK Page 4

WHEAT GRAIN (4- to 10-mm)

Agriculture & GK Page 5

Agriculture & GK Page 6

Agriculture & GK Page 7

Nutritive value of cereals (per 100 g)

k.cal. g. g. g. mg. mg. mcg. mg. mg. mg.

Jowar 349 10.4 1.9 72.6 25 4.1 47 0.37 0.13 3.1

Rice, 349 8.5 0.6 77.4 10 2.8 9 0.27 0.12 4.0

Rice, 346 6.4 0.4 79.0 9 1.0 - 0.21 0.05 3.8

Agriculture & GK Page 8

Wheat bread 245 7.8 0.7 51.9 11 1.1 - 0.07 - 0.7

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF WHEAT

Agriculture & GK Page 9

The fruit is a caryopsis. It is a one

Agriculture & GK Page 10

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF RICE

Agriculture & GK Page 11

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 Self-pollinated crop (up to 5% cross-pollination).

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF MAIZE

Family: Gramineae or Poaceae

Agriculture & GK Page 13

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF PEARL MILLET

Family: Gramineae (Poaceae)

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF SORGHUM

Agriculture & GK Page 14

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF PULSES

Agriculture & GK Page 15

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Agriculture & GK Page 17

Agriculture & GK Page 18

Moisture-content of the grains at which Different Species can Breed

Agriculture & GK Page 19

(2) Oxygen Availability:

S.No. Insect Species Stage Oxygen Content

Agriculture & GK Page 20

(3) Temperature Complications:

These are mainly due to:

Agriculture & GK Page 21

A. Analysis of Airtight versus Ventilated Storage:

Agriculture & GK Page 22

B. Analysis of Bag Storage versus Bulk Storage:

The points in favour of bag storage are:

C. Analysis of Underground Storage versus Above-Ground Storage:

These practical considerations in favour of underground storage are:

Agriculture & GK Page 23

The considerations in favour of above-ground storage on the other hand are:

D. Analysis of Storage for Different Periods:

(b) Short-Term Storage:

(c) Long-Term Storage:

Agriculture & GK Page 24