4.5 Ballasted Track

Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition
Track Structure Design
Additional suggested design features include the following:
• Diverting surface runoff from the direct fixation track or embedded track sections so that it
doesn’t enter the transition area. In direct fixation track, provide an end barrier wall and
drain surface runoff to the side of the track beyond the embankment. In embedded track,
provide a surface drain within 5 feet [1.5 meters] of the end face of the embedded track.
• Using a series of progressively longer concrete ties leading up to the abutment or

embedment face of the non-ballasted track. Additional abutment width should be
provided to accommodate a wider concrete base track slab and a wider embankment
section to retain the widened track structure.
• Providing lateral perforated track drains at the ends of the base slabs to carry off base
slab runoff.
• In embedded track, encasing the last 2 feet [60 cm] of booted rail prior to the beginning of
the ballasted track in 60 durometer polyurethane. This will provide a track stiffness
transition and protect the rail and pavement against damage that could occur when
mechanically raising and tamping the adjoining ballasted track. The use of porous filler
materials, such as cork of shredded rubber, can enhance the resiliency.
4.5 BALLASTED TRACK
Ballasted track is the most prevalent track type used in light rail transit. While ballasted track for
light rail transit resembles conventional railroad track in appearance, its design may have to
contend with issues such as electrical isolation and acoustic attenuation. In addition, ballasted
LRT track may include continuous welded rail on an alignment that includes curves far sharper
and grades far steeper than would ever be encountered on a freight railroad or even a “heavy rail”
transit route.
Proper design of the roadbed, ballast, and subballast elements of the track structure is a key
issue. It is essential in providing an adequate foundation for the track so as to minimize future
maintenance requirements. Roadbed and ballast sections should be designed to minimize the
overall width of the right-of-way while providing a uniform and well-drained ballast foundation for
the track structure.
4.5.1 Ballasted Track Defined
Ballasted track can be described as a track structure consisting of rail, tie plates or fastenings,
cross ties, and the ballast/subballast bed supported on a prepared subgrade. The subgrade may
be a compacted embankment or fill section, an excavation or cut section, a bridge structure, or a
subway tunnel invert. Ballasted track is generally the standard for light rail transit routes that are
constructed on an exclusive right-of-way.
Ballasted track can be constructed to various designs, depending on the specific requirements of
the transit system. Depending on the portion of the system under design and presuming for the
moment that stray traction power currents are not an issue, a satisfactory ballasted track design
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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

could consist of either timber cross ties with conventional tie plates, cut spikes, and rail anchors
or concrete cross ties with elastic rail fastenings that incorporate conventional insulating
components (so as to retain traction power currents within the rail). While the loadings typically
are limited to those of the light rail vehicles only, heavier loading standards may be required. The
track designer must consider that the heaviest loading may be generated by the maintenance-of-
way equipment. In addition, ballasted track may need to accommodate freight railroad loadings
where the track is to be shared with a commercial railroad. Light rail track structural loading is
one-quarter to one-third of that imposed on freight railroad tracks. (Light rail bridges and aerial
structures must also take these design parameters into consideration. Refer to Chapter 7 for
structural design details.)
4.5.2 Ballasted Track Criteria
To develop ballasted track design, the following track components and standards must be
specified:
• Rail section.
• Track gauge.
• Guarding of curved track and restraining rail features.
• Rail fastenings and tie plates.
• Type of track cross ties and corresponding track structure to suit operations.
4.5.2.1 Ballasted Track Rail Section and Track Gauge

Refer to Article 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this Handbook for guidance on determining rail section, track
gauge, and flangeway requirements.
4.5.2.2 Ballasted Track with Restraining Rail

Refer to Article 4.3 herein for determining requirements, locations, and limits for guarding track
with restraining rail. Specific details for various types of restraining rail designs are included in
Chapter 5.
4.5.2.3 Ballasted Track Fastening

Refer to Chapter 5 for requirements concerning cross tie rail fastenings. A key issue for rail
fastenings on ballasted track cross ties for transit use is providing sufficient electrical isolation to
deter the migration of stray traction power currents.
4.5.3 Ballasted Track Structure Types
There are generally two standard designs for track structures on ballasted track:
• Timber cross tie track.
• Concrete cross tie track.

Both plastic and steel cross ties have been used in railway track construction, but they have not
gained wide acceptance. See Chapter 5 for additional discussion on alternative cross tie
materials.
Many transit systems have used both timber and concrete cross ties. Up until about 2000, the
main line tracks on most new LRT installations were usually constructed using concrete cross ties
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with standard rail insulation. The yard maintenance facility tracks were generally built with timber
cross ties either with or without insulated fasteners. The non-insulated construction was
appreciably cheaper to construct. Special trackwork in both main track and yard track was
commonly constructed on timber switch ties, largely because concrete switch tie designs had not
matured and were hence extremely expensive.
With very few exceptions, projects since about 2000 have mostly used concrete cross ties
throughout, including yard tracks and special trackwork. This is largely because the cost of
concrete ties in relation to high-quality timber ties with insulated rail fastenings is now
comparable. Improved designs also show more promise for actually fulfilling the 50-year service
life long claimed for concrete ties. By contrast, LRT systems constructed with timber typically
face a need to replace a huge percentage of their cross ties during a fairly brief period—about 20
to 30 years after original construction. Also, transit yard design has been trending toward full
electrical isolation of yard tracks from ground, separate traction power substations
notwithstanding. Whether this is fully justified is an open question.
Ballasted track design can result in a suitable track structure using either timber or concrete cross
ties. The differential track support or track modulus dictates the quality of the track, the ride, and
future maintenance requirements. Concrete cross tie ballasted track provides a more reliable
track gauge system and tighter gauge construction tolerances. The higher track modulus results
in a smoother ride with less differential track settlement.
Chapter 2 documents the types and magnitudes of loads transferred from the vehicle wheel to the
rail. The rail must support the vehicle and the resulting loads by absorbing some of the impact
and shock and transferring some forces back into the vehicle via the wheels. The initial impact
absorber on the vehicle is the elastomer in the resilient wheels (if used) followed by the primary
suspension springs and then the secondary suspension system. The initial impact absorber on
the track is the rail, particularly the rail head, followed by the fastening or supporting system at the
rail base, and then the remaining track structure. A resilient rail seat pad is used to absorb some
of the force on concrete cross ties. On timber cross ties, the resiliency in the wood itself acts as
the absorber. All components absorb and distribute a portion of the load.
The track structure’s design (degree of resiliency) dictates the amount of load distributed to the
rail and track structure and the magnitude of force returned to the wheels and vehicle.
4.5.3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience

Ballasted track design allows partially controlled rail deflection in both the vertical and horizontal
directions. This phenomenon of rail action contributes to successful track operation by
distributing the load to the surrounding track components and structure.
Specific track design decisions must be made regarding the type of track structure (timber cross
tie/concrete cross tie) and corresponding track structure resiliency or track support stiffness.
Rail supported on timber cross ties and a moderate ballast/subballast section using conventional
rail fastenings consisting of tie plates, cut spikes, and rail anchors results in a track modulus
range of 2000 to 2500 lb/inch per inch of rail [14 to 17 N/mm2].
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Resilient rail base pads are placed on concrete cross ties to protect the concrete tie seat and to
impede the impact and vibration associated with wheel passage from migrating from the rail to
the cross tie. Resilient rail base pads are a determining parameter of track modulus. A reduced
pad height of 1/4 inch [6 millimeters] and a very stiff elastomer or polyethylene pad produce a stiff
track support resulting in an increased rail support modulus.
Rail supported on concrete cross ties and an ample ballast/subballast section has a track
modulus range of 4,500 to 6,500 lb/inch per inch of rail [31 to 45 N/mm2].
4.5.3.2 Timber Cross Tie Ballasted Track

On many light rail transit systems, particularly legacy systems and systems constructed in the
early 1980s, timber cross ties were considered to provide sufficient electrical isolation. Specific
measures to insulate the track were not used because other measures were either taken or
already in place (such as utility bonding and drain cables) to address traction power stray current.
Typically, non-insulated rail fastenings were employed only in yard tracks, where the yard has its
own traction power substation and stray currents are unlikely to leave the immediate site. Non-
insulated, ballasted track was also occasionally used in rights-of-way where there were no
parallel utilities; however, the occurrence of rights-of-way without parallel utilities is an extremely
unlikely circumstance and the practice of using non-insulated track in such a situation ignores the
fact that stray currents can take very circuitous paths quite distant from the track. Non-insulated
track is therefore not recommended, and contemporary designs typically incorporate insulation
systems within the cross tie rail fastening to control stray currents close to their source.
Timber cross tie ballasted track consists of the rail placed on a tie plate or rail fastening system
that is positioned on the cross tie, which is supported by a ballast and subballast trackbed.
Timber cross tie ballasted track is generally similar to the concrete cross tie track shown in
Figures 4.5.1 and 4.5.2.
Figure 4.5.1 Ballasted single track, tangent track (concrete cross ties)
4.5.3.2.1 Timber Cross Tie Rail Fastenings

Conventional tie plates, cut spikes, and rail anchors were considered sufficient for ballasted track
installations using timber cross ties for railroad and legacy rail transit track. However, current
transit track design generally includes insulation in the rail fastening system so as to protect the
negative return rail from stray electrical currents.
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Figure 4.5.2 Ballasted single guarded curve track (concrete cross ties)
Although wood is an insulating material, timber cross ties provide only a limited barrier against
stray current and become less effective in that regard over time. Therefore, timber cross ties
generally utilize rail fastenings that are insulated at the base of the tie plate or fastening plate. A
typical detail places a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pad, -inch [9-millimeters] thick,
between the timber cross tie and the tie plate. The HDPE pad will project a minimum of ½ inch
[12 millimeters] beyond all sides of the steel fastening plate so as to minimize the chance of the
edges being bridged by conductive debris. A special insulating collar/thimble is positioned in the
anchor screw spike hole to isolate the screw spike from the steel fastening plate. The screw
spikes are sometimes epoxy coated for additional electrical isolation. Alternatively, the hole
drilled in the cross tie can be partially filled with a coat tar epoxy or other insulating gel prior to
installing the spike, thereby forcing the insulating material into as many crevices and voids as
possible. For additional design information on timber cross tie fastenings, refer to Chapter 5.
4.5.3.2.2 Timber Cross Ties

Timber cross ties have been standard for light rail transit installations for years and continue to be
the standard for older, established transit agencies. Life cycle cost comparison of timber ties and
concrete ties must be performed using a uniform baseline, including all fastenings and hardware
needed for each type of tie. The tie spacing for timber ties is generally shorter than for concrete
ties, which results in not only more cross ties, but also less ballast per unit of track length. These
considerations must be factored into the analysis. Conventional rail anchors projecting into the
ballast section will create a stray current leakage path, particularly in areas where the ballast is
wet and/or contaminated, which is another issue to be considered. Also, the material cost for
timber cross ties can vary widely over a short period of time. That said, many transit agencies
still continue to use timber ties with satisfactory results. Broad gauge LRT systems (all of which
are legacy operations dating back to the 19th century) generally select timber cross ties. It is
unclear whether the deciding issue is first cost of special design concrete ties or a disinterest in
change.
Timber cross ties (if selected) for a transit system should be hardwood (e.g., oak, maple, or
birch), generally with a cross section of 7 by 9 inches [175 by 230 millimeters]. In the western
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portions of North America, Douglas fir is readily available and considered equivalent to eastern
hardwoods.
For additional information on timber cross ties, refer to Chapter 5. Determining timber cross tie
spacing for transit track is discussed in Article 4.5.4.
4.5.3.3 Concrete Cross Tie Ballasted Track

Concrete cross ties have become nearly universal for new light rail transit installations. They
have been shown to have a longer service life, have lower life cycle costs, provide a higher track
modulus (which equates to better ride quality), and incur lower track surfacing maintenance costs.
When the cost of procuring and installing insulated rail fastenings on high-quality timber cross ties
is considered, concrete cross ties have a very favorable first cost, particularly considering that
they can generally be spaced more widely than timber ties. The only exceptions in recent times
have been extensions or rehabilitation projects on existing systems that have traditionally used
timber cross ties. In some instances, those systems also use broad track gauge, which may have
tipped first cost economics in favor of insulated timber versus concrete cross ties.
The concrete cross tie is typically insulated at the base of the running rail, thereby protecting the
base of the rail from potential stray current leakage. Concrete cross tie ballasted track consists of
the rail placed in the rail seat area and the tie supported by a ballast and subballast trackbed, as
shown in Figures 4.5.3 and 4.5.4.
4.5.3.3.1 Concrete Cross Tie Rail Fastenings

Experimental concrete cross tie designs first appeared around 1920, but they were generally
unsuccessful, largely due to failures in the rail fastening systems. The current success of the
concrete cross tie is partly due to the introduction of elastic (spring) clip fastenings at the rail hold
down location, which replace the spikes and threaded fasteners used in early designs. Fastening
designs have also evolved to meet new requirements for electrical isolation.
The insulating barrier must be at the base of the rail or mounting surface to provide electrical
isolation of the rail from the surrounding track components. The insulating barrier consists of a
base rail pad and clip insulators for the edges of the rail base. As shown in Chapter 5, Figure
5.4.1 of this Handbook, the rail is fully insulated from the mounting surface.
Figure 4.5.3 Ballasted double tangent track (concrete cross ties)
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Figure 4.5.4 Ballasted double curved track (concrete cross ties)
The concrete cross tie design includes the specific type of elastic fastening system (e.g., spring
clip) with insulating rail seat pad and rail base clip insulators. The two elastic clips at each rail
seat provide sufficient toe load to the rail base to act as the longitudinal rail anchor, eliminating
the conventional rail anchors used with timber cross ties.
4.5.3.3.2 Concrete Cross Ties

The typical transit concrete cross tie is made of prestressed, precast concrete produced in a factory
with climate controls for the curing process. The ties are generally 10 inches [255 millimeters] wide
and 8’ 3” [2515 millimeters] long, measured at the base of tie. So as to facilitate removal from the
molds, the tie is vertically tapered, with slightly smaller plan dimensions at the top of the tie. Tie
thickness is generally 7 ½ inches [190 millimeters] at the rail seat and 6 ½ inches [165 millimeters]
at the center of the tie. For additional information on concrete cross ties refer to Chapter 5.
4.5.4 Cross Tie Spacing
The optimal spacing of cross ties in ballasted track is dependent on two issues:
Vertical support, so as to distribute the wheel loads through the ballast and subballast
such that the underlying soils are not overstressed.
Lateral support, so that the track is adequately restrained against lateral movement due
to thermal stresses and loadings in the rails.
4.5.4.1 Cross Tie Spacing—Vertical Support Considerations

Ballasted track structure design is dependent on the vehicle wheel load, a predetermined track
modulus target or standard, the selected rail section, the type and size of tie, and the depths of
ballast and subballast. These are combined to meet the criteria established by AREMA for both
ballast pressure and subgrade pressure.
Ballasted track designs can meet or exceed the AREMA pressure requirements by altering the
variable parameters (track modulus, tie spacing, and ballast depth) as needed. As a guideline,
the following sample calculations—based on the formulae from Talbot[5], Timoshenko and
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Langer[11], and Hay[2]—are provided for design of ballasted track with timber or concrete cross ties
assuming the following typical LRT installation parameters:
Rail Section 115 RE

Vehicle Load per Wheel 12,000 pounds [5,400 kilograms]
Track Modulus
Timber Tie 2,500 lb/inch per inch [17.2 N/mm2]
Concrete Tie 5,000 lb/inch per inch [34.5 N/mm2]
Desired Load Transfer to
Ballast <65 psi [0.45 MPa]
Subgrade <20 psi [0.14 MPa]
Ballast Depth 10 inches [255 millimeters]
Subballast Depth 8 inches [200 millimeters]
Tie Sizes
Timber 7 x 9 x 102 inches [180 x 230 x 2590 millimeters]
Concrete 7.5 x 10 x 99 inches [190 x 250 x 2515 millimeters ]
Design Calculations:
Tie Seat Load = β × a × P (Timoshenko and Langer[11])
where
a = tie spacing (variable)
P = axle load = 107 kN (24 kips)
1/4
⎛ u ⎞
β = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4EI ⎠
Timber Tie: u = track modulus = 2,500 lb/inch per inch [17.2 N/mm2]
Concrete Tie: u = track modulus = 5,000 lb/inch per inch [34.5 N/mm2]
E = modulus of rail steel = 30 x 106 psi [206,800 N/mm2]
I = moment of inertia of 115 RE rail = 65.9 in4 [27.4 x 106 mm4]
Tie Bearing Area = tie width x tie length
Timber = 9 inches x 102 inches [230 x 2590] = 918 sq inches [595700 mm2]
Concrete = 10 inches x 99 inches [250 x 2515] = 990 sq inches [628750 mm2]
Tie Seat Load [2]

Ballast Load = Hay
2 3Tie Bearing Area
Subballast Load at Tie Centerline =
⎛ Seat Load ⎞
⎜ ⎟ × Tie Width
1.23
⎝ Tie Bearing Area ⎠ Talbot
[5]
Ballast Depth
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Subgrade Load at Tie Centerline is similar to subballast load calculation except depth includes
ballast and subballast heights.
Using the above formulas, Table 4.5.1 presents the values according to the parameters. Tie
spacing can be determined from this table. Neither the AREMA recommended maximum ballast
pressure, 65 psi [0.45 MPa], nor the maximum subgrade pressure, 20 psi [0.14 MPa], should be
exceeded.
Table 4.5.1 Ballasted track design parameters
Subgrade Load
Ballast +
Tie-Ballast Load Subballast Load Subballast
Cross Tie Tie Seat Load 9” [230] Tie 10” [250] Tie 10” [255] Ballast Depth 18” [455]
Spacing Kips [kN] psi [MPa] psi [MPa] psi [MPa] [psi] MPa
Track Modulus inches [mm]
2500 lb/in/in 20” [510] 11.4 [50.7] 18.5 0.127 n.a. n.a. 13.7 0.094 7.6 0.096
[17.2 N/mm2]
β = 0.0237/in 24” [610] 13.6 [60.7] 22.1 0.152 n.a. n.a. 16.4 0.113 9.1 0.115
[0.00093/mm]
27” [685] 15.3 [68.2] 24.9 0.171 n.a. n.a. 18.5 0.127 10.3 0.130
30" [760] 17.0 [75.6] 27.6 0.189 n.a. n.a. 20.5 0.141 11.4 0.144
32” [810] 18.1 [80.6] 29.4 0.202 n.a. n.a. 21.8 0.150 12.1 0.153
5000 lb/in/in 20” [510] 13.5 [60.0] n.a. n.a. 20.4 0.142 16.8 0.115 9.3 0.115
[34.5 N/mm2]
β = 0.0282/in 24” [610] 16.1 [71.8] n.a. n.a. 24.3 0.170 20.0 0.138 11.1 0.138
[0.0011 /mm]
27” [685] 18.1 [80.6] n.a. n.a. 27.3 0.191 22.5 0.155 12.5 0.155
30” [760] 20.1 [89.5] n.a. n.a. 30.3 0.212 25.0 0.172 13.9 0.172
32” [810] 21.4 [95.3] n.a. n.a. 32.3 0.226 26.6 0.183 14.8 0.183
Note: 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
The preceding computations are representative of the calculations needed to design the ballasted
track structure. The parameters that alter the actual design are predetermined track modulus,
type of tie (timber or concrete), depth of ballast and subballast, and tie spacing. The challenge
for the track designer is to combine these parameters to achieve the best life cycle costs and
lowest maintenance costs.
4.5.4.2 Cross Tie Spacing—Lateral Stability Considerations

The above calculations determine the cross tie spacing and affect the track modulus or the
vertical track stiffness. Lateral track stability can also affect cross tie spacing.
For the curve radii typically encountered in railroad work, if there are sufficient cross ties to
provide vertical support, lateral restraint is rarely an issue. This is not true in LRT track design.
The horizontal track alignment for a light rail transit system can include curves far more severe
than curves on railway systems such as metro rapid transit, commuter rail, or freight railroads.
Ballasted track alignment is far more difficult to construct and maintain in tight radius curves.
Special consideration should therefore be given to increasing lateral track stability by reducing the
cross tie spacing.
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Lateral track stability is provided by ballast friction contact along the sides and bottom of the tie
and by the end area of the tie. The end area of the tie provides a calculated degree of lateral
stability; however, increasing the ballast shoulder width beyond an 18-inch [450-millimeter] limit
provides no increase in stability. Reducing cross tie spacing, thereby increasing the number of
ties, can increase lateral track stability. Timber cross ties have been proven to provide greater
lateral stability than concrete ties, generally because the ballast’s sharp edges penetrate the tie
surfaces, increasing the friction and locking the cross tie in position. On the other hand, the
concrete tie’s increased weight also provides increased lateral stability. To improve the lateral
stability of concrete cross ties, some tie manufacturers have developed a serrated or “scalloped”
side tie surface, increasing the ballast’s locking capabilities.
As a guideline, the track designer should consider reducing the conventional cross tie spacing
calculated in the previous article by 3 inches [75 millimeters] for curves with radii less than 1000
feet [300 meters] and an additional 3 inches for curves tighter than 500 feet [150 meters].
To improve lateral stability, especially with conventional smooth-sided concrete ties, a tie anchor
can be bolted to the tie. The tie anchor is a vertical blade penetrating below the base of the tie
into the ballast bed. Tie anchors can be attached to all or alternate ties in the curve. Installation
of tie anchors is a manual process that disturbs the ballast consolidation, requiring the track to be
retamped. These devices appreciably complicate track construction and should be considered
only as a last resort.
4.5.5 Special Trackwork Switch Ties
Concrete switch ties have been developed by the railroad industry to reduce installation costs and
long-term maintenance on heavy haul freight lines. Concrete switch ties are initially expensive to
design and fabricate, but now that some standard designs exist, procurement costs are coming
down compared to pricing during the 1990s.
As of this writing (2010), most transit agencies still use standard timber hardwood ties for special
trackwork for both main line and maintenance facility and storage yard installations. Concrete
switch ties are becoming more popular, but have not become universally accepted, even on
projects that otherwise use concrete cross ties. The situation is evolving, and it seems
reasonably certain that concrete will become the switch tie material of choice for most LRT
projects in the near term.
Turnout standards vary among transit agencies. Therefore, various concrete tie geometric
layouts and designs would be required to meet the requirements of each agency.
Standardization and simplicity in turnout tie design is advancing and is required to allow the
transit industry to develop a uniform, economical, standard concrete switch tie set for various
turnout sizes.
4.5.5.1 Timber Switch Ties

The present standard for timber switch ties is domestic hardwoods. In the eastern United States,
oak is the preferred species for switch ties. In the western United States, Douglas fir is the
predominant species for both switch ties and cross ties.
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Tropical hardwood ties, manufactured from species such as Bonzai, Ekki, and Azobe have been
used in North American railway and transit trackage with mixed success. The reader is cautioned
about using these tropical woods. Thorough research on the specific wood of interest and the
origin of the wood is recommended before a procurement is undertaken. Use of the correct
botanical names is critical. Several species of Azobe wood exist, each with significantly different
characteristics, and the inferior species are subject to rapid decay. Obtaining the correct material
cannot be guaranteed without continuous on-site inspection at the saw mill as the species are
nearly impossible to differentiate after the bark has been removed. See Chapter 5 for additional
information on tropical hardwoods.
In North America, the typical timber switch tie is generally a 7 x 9 inch [180 x 230 millimeter]
section in various lengths ranging from 9 to 17 feet [2,750 to 5,182 millimeters]. Overseas, timber
switch ties are typically much thinner and somewhat wider. Such ties are not recommended for
North American use.
Extra long timber switch ties, 22 feet [6,710 millimeters] and longer, may be required to
accommodate special trackwork locations, such as crossovers and double crossovers where the
track centers remain at a standard width. Alternate long-tie designs exist where two shorter ties
are abutted and spliced together by a hinged connection. This design allows one track to be
removed or worked on while the other track remains in service. The abutted tie connections can
sometimes alternate in location (within the track gauge areas) between the two tracks, improving
the installation’s stability. The same articulated configuration can also be used with concrete
crossover ties.
Similar to main line timber cross ties, timber switch ties may require an insulated switch plate
design to protect against stray current leakage. Generally, insulation details for switch and frog
plates are similar to those used on main line timber cross ties. The dual concern for both stray
current control and vibration isolation has occasionally resulted in the installation of special
trackwork direct fixation fasteners on timber switch ties.
4.5.5.2 Concrete Switch Ties

Concrete switch ties for virtually all size turnouts are now available for a price. However, the
design details are generally not published information and readily available as they are
proprietary to each manufacturer.
Concrete switch tie designs and layouts are different from the timber switch tie arrangements.
Tie spacings are increased as the width of the concrete switch ties, approximately 10 inches [250
millimeters], distributes loads over a wider ballast surface area than timber switch ties. For
simplicity and because patterns are readily available, spacings of ties beneath switches and frogs
often follow railroad practice.
The lengths of the concrete switch ties conform to the needs of the special trackwork layout.
Unlike timber switch ties, which usually are supplied in length increments of 1 foot [30 cm],
concrete switch ties are often supplied in specific lengths for each tie location. The switch tie
design includes embedments for mounting rails and fastenings for special trackwork plates. Both
embedded shoulders and single rail fastener plates have been used outside of the areas of
switch and frog plates.
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Similar to timber switch tie installations, insulated special trackwork plates may be required to
control stray current on concrete switch ties. Insulated switch, frog, and guard rail fastening
plates may be similar to conventional timber cross tie installations. Standard concrete tie
insulated rail fastenings can be used where only individual rails are installed on the switch ties.
Generally the rail in special trackwork is installed without any rail cant.
For more information on special trackwork timber and concrete switch ties, refer to Chapter 5 of
this Handbook.
4.5.6 Ballast and Subballast
Ballast is an integral material in the support of the track structure. The quality of the ballast
material has a direct relationship to the overall performance of the track structure.
The quality, size, and type of ballast material used can improve the performance of the track
substructure by providing increased strength to the track system.
Concrete cross tie installations normally require a higher quality ballast, a larger gradation of
ballast, and a more restrictive selection of rock aggregate. For additional information on ballast
material, refer to Chapter 5.
4.5.6.1 Ballast Depth

The variables to be considered in establishing the track structure section are discussed above
and listed in Table 4.5.1. Additional variables include the track gauge, depth of tie, and
superelevation of track curves. Figures 4.5.1 and 4.5.2 illustrate and quantify the general desired
design section for ballasted single track.
For tangent single track, the minimum depth of ballast is generally measured from the underside
of the tie to the top of subballast at the centerline of each rail. For curved superelevated track,
the depth of ballast is measured below the low rail in the curve with respect for the top of
subballast, as shown in Figure 4.5.2.
On tangent multiple track installations, the minimum ballast depth is measured under the rail
nearest to the crown of the subballast section, as shown in Figure 4.5.3. On curved multiple track
installations, minimum ballast depth is usually measured on each track under the inside rail
closest to the radius point, as shown in Figure 4.5.4. Special consideration may be required
when the slope of the subballast is in the same orientation as the track superelevation.
4.5.6.2 Ballast Width

The width of ballast section is determined by the rail installation and tie length. The ballast
shoulder assists in resisting lateral track movement and restrains the track from buckling when
the rail is in compression. Continuous welded rail generally requires a ballast shoulder that is a
minimum of 12 inches [300 millimeters] wide measured from the end of the tie to the top of ballast
shoulder slope. The top slope of the ballast shoulder should be parallel to the top of the tie. The
side slope of the ballast shoulder should have a minimum slope of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical. As
mentioned in Article 4.5.4.2, the ballast shoulder may be increased in sharp radius curved track to
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provide additional lateral stability. The subballast and subgrade sections must be increased to
provide sufficient support width if the ballast shoulders are increased.
4.5.6.3 Subballast Depth and Width

Subballast is the lower or base portion of the ballast bed located between the base of the ballast
section and the top of the roadbed subgrade. Subballast is generally a pit run material with
smaller, well-graded, crushed stone. The subballast acts as a barrier separating the ballast
section from the embankment roadbed materials and provides both separation and support for
the ballast.
The subballast layer also acts as a drainage layer allowing water to flow to the embankment
shoulders. The ideal subballast material would be nearly impervious so that storm water runoff is
quickly shed to the drainage ditches at the sides of the track section and does not have the
opportunity to penetrate and soften the subgrade. Many investigations have been made into
asphalt underlayment for railroad tracks in lieu of conventional subballast as a method of
mitigating weaker subgrades. If the asphalt is sufficiently dense and impervious, it can also add
some degree of electrical isolation.
The depth of the subballast below the ballast can be determined using the calculations in Article
4.5.4.1. The ballast and subballast are integral parts of the track structure. Track design
considers the thickness of both in the calculations to meet AREMA recommendations of 20 psi
[0.14 MPa] uniform pressure transmitted to the subgrade surface.
The width of the subballast section is determined by the width of the roadbed embankment
subgrade. The subballast should extend the full width of the embankment, capping the top
surface.
To allow for an eventual sloughing of the ballast slope and also to provide a relatively flat area for
walking by track inspectors and performance of track maintenance activities, the top of the
subballast section should project beyond the toe of the ballast slope a minimum of 24 inches [60
cm]. Since the end slope of the subballast generally conforms to the slope of the underlying
embankment, this means that the top of the subgrade must be appreciably wider than the top of
the subballast layer. This requirement should be carefully detailed on the typical section
drawings. On at least one LRT project, the subgrade was erroneously constructed to the width
shown for the top of the subballast layer. As a result, the entire roadbed was too narrow by
several feet [about a meter], a condition that was not detected until well into the track construction
process, long after the earthwork construction had been thought to be complete.
To support embankment materials under special trackwork installations and at-grade road
crossings, a geotextile (filter fabric) may be used at selected locations. The track designer should
review supplier information on geotextiles and, working jointly with the project’s geotechnical
engineers, consider the application of geotextiles weighing about 16 ounce/yd2 [0.5 kilogram/m2].
Double layers might be considered under special trackwork locations. Geogrid and geoweb
materials may also be used to stabilize and strengthen the subgrade materials below turnouts
and at-grade crossings. These materials augment but do not replace the function of subballast.
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4.5.6.4 Subgrade
The subgrade is the finished embankment surface of the roadbed below the subballast that
supports the loads transmitted through the rails, ties, ballast, and subballast. The designer
should review the geotechnical engineer’s analysis of the subgrade materials/soils along the
entire route to determine whether all locations have both uniform stability and the strength to
carry the expected track loadings. The geotechnical engineer should be intimately familiar with
local soils, particularly if the subgrade soils consist of clays with a high plasticity index. Also, soils
are unlikely to be completely uniform over the entire length of the route, and different subgrade
preparation treatments may be appropriate at any given location along the project right-of-way.
AREMA recommends that, for most soils, pressure on subgrade be lower than 20 psi [0.14 MPa]
to maintain subgrade integrity. Uniformity is important because differential settlement, rather than
total settlement, leads to unsatisfactory track alignment. The use of geotextiles or geogrids
between the subgrade and subballast can be advantageous under some conditions.
4.5.7 Ballasted Track Drainage
Drainage of the roadbed in embankment or excavated sections is of utmost importance for a

sound track structure. The success of any ballasted track design depends directly on the ability
of the trackbed to drain well and the proper maintenance of the overall drainage system. These
elements include the rapid runoff of storm water from the ballast across the subballast surface
and into a properly designed parallel drainage system so as to carry the runoff away from the
track. The parallel drainage system can consist of open ditches, underdrains, and the piping
necessary to carry water off the right-of-way, all in accordance with storm water management
requirements.
Ballasted track, by the nature of its design and exposure, is susceptible to contamination from
both railway traffic and the surrounding environment. The ballast stone must be kept clean, and
voids must be kept open so that storm water runoff can quickly drain down the subballast layer
and into drainage ditches or underdrains. Dirt, debris, and fines that are either dropped or blown
onto the trackway will “foul” the ballast section. This contamination creates non-porous or slow-
draining ballast shoulders and ballast bed, which can lead to a permanently saturated subgrade.
The end result can be deterioration and breakdown of the track structure with “pumping” track. If
the ballast is not clean when delivered from the quarry, the contaminants, including stone dust,
can impair proper ballast drainage from the very beginning.
Many conventional methods are practiced to maintain and restore a free-draining ballasted track
structure. These include both ballast shoulder cleaning and complete track undercutting, both
with the goal of keeping the ballast clean and free draining.
In yard track areas, it is sometimes proposed to structure the storm water detention system by
holding water in the voids of the ballast section and gradually draining it into underdrains. Unless
the subgrade is extraordinarily firm, this method is not recommended since the saturated
subballast and subgrade would deteriorate and track surface would suffer.
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4.5.8 Retained Ballasted Guideway
Right-of-way constraints and other situations often make it impossible to construct a ballasted
track with open drainage ditches alongside of the roadbed. In such cases, a ballasted guideway
can be constructed between curbs or walls and drainage provided by an underdrain system.
Figure 4.5.5 illustrates a typical curbed ballasted guideway design.
The design must carefully consider locations where the underdrain system will outlet and how it
can be maintained.
Such constrained sections need to be carefully detailed to clearly show the relationships of the
track, curbs, underdrains, and other civil/drainage facilities to systems infrastructure elements
including OCS poles, underground duct banks, and surface cable troughs. Similar details are
used at approaches to elevated structure abutments and at underpasses. Constrained sections
at bridge abutments and between undergrade retaining walls can be particularly problematic,
particularly in the case of mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining walls, where the MSE
walls’ reinforcing strips can effectively make much of the retained embankment “off-limits” for any
other structures, particularly anything that might need to be installed by trenching. Any conflicts
with underground duct banks for LRT electrical systems must be identified and mitigated during
design.
Figure 4.5.5 Ballasted track—curbed section
Curbed ballasted trackways and similar configurations can also make it extremely difficult and
costly for maintenance forces to change out defective cross ties, particularly in areas where the
zone between the tracks is occupied by system elements such as catenary pole foundations, duct
bank manholes, and hand holes and surface cable troughs.
4.5.9 Stray Current Protection Requirements
Because the rails are used for traction power negative return, the track structure design must
include an electrical barrier to insulate the rail. Ballasted track generally provides this electrical
barrier at the rail fastenings. An insulating resilient material with a specified bulk resistivity
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provides the barrier at the base of the fastening plate on timber cross ties. Concrete cross ties
provide the isolation at the base of the rail using a pad on the rail seat and insulating pads
between the base of rail and the rail clips.
Stray current corrosion protection is a subject described more fully in Chapter 8 of this Handbook.
For more information on electrical barriers at rail fastenings, refer to Chapter 5.
4.5.10 Ballasted Special Trackwork
The ballasted special trackwork portion of any transit system will require turnout, crossover,
double crossover, and crossing diamond designs to match the light rail vehicle’s characteristics,
the track spacing configurations, and the real property available for the maintenance facility and
LRV storage yard.
A common form of ballasted special trackwork in contemporary light rail transit systems consists
of four turnouts, two right-hand and two left-hand, paired to act as two single crossovers for
alternate main line track operations. Occasionally, operating requirements and/or alignment
restrictions may dictate the installation of a double, or “scissors,” crossover consisting of four
turnouts and a crossing diamond. Turnouts are used at the ends of transitions from double track
to single-track installations as well as at junction points to alternate transit routes and accesses to
sidings.
Turnouts in the maintenance facility and storage yard areas are generally positioned to develop a
“ladder track” arrangement that provides access to a group of parallel tracks with specific track
centers. For additional information on ballasted special trackwork design, refer to Chapter 6.
4.5.11 Noise and Vibration
The vehicle traveling over ballasted track produces noise and vibration. The impact of this noise
and vibration may become a significant annoyance for alignments through otherwise quiet and
sensitive areas, such as neighborhoods with schools, churches, theatres, recording studios,
laboratories, and hospitals. Ballasted track design has a significant effect on both noise and
vibration, with wheel/rail squeal as a prime contributor. However, to be effective, the vibration
and noise control system must consider both the vehicle and the track as a working unit.
Different geographic portions of the route may require different approaches so as to meet the
goals identified in the project’s environmental clearance documentation. Chapter 9 provides
guidelines with respect to trackwork design for low noise and vibration and introduces various
concepts in noise and vibration control.
4.5.12 Signal/Train Control System
Although the design of the signal control system does not greatly impact overall ballasted track
design, it can affect specific parts of the design. The prime example of this interrelationship is the
need for the insulated joints in the running rails, including associated impedance bonds to
accommodate train control requirements. Such joints are normally required at the extremities of
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interlockings, at each end of station platforms, at-grade crossings, within individual turnouts and
crossovers, and at other locations to be determined by the train control requirements.
For additional information on transit signal work, refer to Chapter 10.
4.5.13 Traction Power
Refer to Chapter 11 for detailed discussion on the interaction between track alignment and
trackwork design and the traction power system.
4.5.14 Grade Crossings
Track designers must develop an acceptable interface wherever streets and roads cross the light
rail tracks at grade.
At-grade crossing panel systems for ballasted track are manufactured as prefabricated units and
made of either rubber, reinforced concrete in a steel frame, or wood. The concrete panels and
the rubber panels, when used over concrete cross ties, are designed to be easily installed and
replaced during maintenance of the track. Timber panels are generally used only with timber ties
and are generally not easily removed. Timber panels are also generally not compatible with track
electrical isolation systems. While the prefabricated concrete and rubber crossing panels are
designed to resist leakage of low-voltage signal current, they are generally less effective at
controlling stray traction power currents, particularly when subjected to harsh conditions such as
brine from salt and other roadway de-icing products.
All grade crossings must create a flangeway between the street paving and the rail. ADAAG
requires that crossings for rail transit systems have flangeways no wider than 2.5 inches [63
millimeters]. Crossings used by freight trains may have flangeways that are 3 inches [76
millimeters] wide. While products are available for filling in the open flangeway with a
compressible material, to date, no such product is sufficiently durable for public highway
crossings that might see hundreds of rail vehicle movements daily. Some grade crossings are
created by using flangeway timbers along both sides of the rails to form the flangeways and
paving the remainder of the area with asphalt. Although this style (or the rubber equivalent) is not
as durable as the prefabricated crossing panels, it may be quite adequate in the maintenance
facility and storage track areas, provided that electrical isolation is not an issue.
Two critical design elements of all grade crossings are adequate drainage for the track and
keeping the debris and dirt from accumulating within and adjacent to the crossing. Storm water
runoff and debris from the street must be directed away from the track section, and the track must
be designed with perforated pipe drains to keep the trackbed dry. Additional stabilization of the
subgrade with geo-synthetic materials may be very cost-effective in reducing track surfacing
costs. Failure to provide good drainage will result in pumping track and broken pavements.
Road crossings tend to accumulate dirt and debris washed off the roadway or blown along the
track. The debris accumulation results in fouled ballast and a path for stray current leakage.
Accumulations of dirt and debris next to the rails and just beyond the ends of the crossing must
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be cleaned out by a continuous maintenance program; otherwise, both stray current leakage and
signal system malfunctions will develop.
Due to the superior subgrade at most at-grade road crossings, the transition from ballasted track
to the ballasted roadway track becomes a factor. There is a differential in track modulus or track
stiffness that affects ride quality. Transition slab design at ballasted track roadways may be a
requirement. Refer to Article 4.4.3.1 for transition information.
The use of embedded track at grade crossings provides a very durable and reliable crossing.
Embedded track provides a virtually maintenance-free and long-lived installation with excellent
electrical isolation properties for the rail and a very smooth road crossing surface for automobile
traffic. However, the higher track modulus of embedded track may dictate the need for a
transition slab track segment. First cost will therefore likely be appreciably higher than an “off-
the-shelf” modular crossing system designed without stray current control in mind. A life cycle
cost analysis of crossing surface alternatives should consider the somewhat intangible impacts
on both transit service and the community of frequent crossing repair and reconstruction.
Coordination with the street design is also necessary to match the normally crowned street
cross section with the profile of the tracks, which are not necessarily either level or even on a
straight gradient. Particularly when the track grade is appreciable, it is extremely important to
contour the approach pavement so as to channel storm water runoff and the associated debris
it carries away from the track crossing structure and into appropriately designed street drainage
systems such as curbside catch basins. To do so may require that the intersecting roadway be
reconstructed/regraded for some appreciable distance from the track.
4.6 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK (BALLASTLESS OPEN TRACK)
Direct fixation (DF) track is the most common LRT trackform for use on aerial structures and in
tunnels. It is also often used in areas where it would be difficult to maintain ballasted track in
proper alignment and surface.
4.6.1 Direct Fixation Track Defined
Direct fixation track is a “ballastless” track structure in which the rail is mounted on direct fixation
fasteners that in turn are anchored to an underlying concrete slab. The slab could be a slab on
grade, an aerial structure deck surface, or a concrete tunnel invert. Direct fixation track is also
used for construction of at-grade track under unusual circumstances, such as when there is a
relatively short segment of at-grade track between two direct fixation track structure decks. Direct
fixation track can require only minimal maintenance if it is installed according to design and with a
high standard of construction quality and precision.
Just as with any other trackform, several vehicle/track-related issues must be resolved prior to
developing a direct fixation track design. These issues relate to the vehicle’s wheel gauge, wheel
profile, and truck axle spacing design; the track gauge and rail section; and satisfactory
operational compatibility of the vehicle with the guideway geometry. Acoustic concerns are also
very important to consider with noise and vibration mitigation measures, as discussed in Article
4.6.8
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4.5 Ballasted Track

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Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

Track Structure Design

Additional suggested design features include the following:

• Using a series of progressively longer concrete ties leading up to the abutment or