W03 Y12 Lecture 3 v5

AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
PHYSICS OF FLIGHT I
RAUL C. LLAMAS-SANDIN
24 FEB 2012
Issue 1
Private & Confidential

AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY
PHYSICS OF FLIGHT I
Week 3
Part I:
- The Universe
- Earth’s Atmosphere
Part II:
- Fluid-statics
- Altitude
Part III:
- Meteorology
- Aerostatics
Private & Confidential

THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE – “BIG-BANG” THEORY
Private & Confidential – RCL2012

THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE – “BIG-BANG” THEORY
On March 17, 2014 scientists announced the first direct detection of the cosmic
inflation behind the rapid expansion of the universe just a tiny fraction of a
second after the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago. A key piece of the discovery
is the evidence of gravitational waves, a long-sought cosmic phenomenon that has
eluded astronomers until now
http://www.space.com/25092-cosmic-inflation-gravitational-waves-complete-coverage-of-
major-discovery.html

THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE
The Universe (space and time) started at the “Big-bang” event about 13.75 ±0.17
billion years ago.
The diameter of the observable universe is at least 93 billion light years or
8.80×1026 metres.
According to general relativity, space can expand faster than the speed of light,
although we can view only a small portion of the universe due to the limitation
imposed by light speed. Since we cannot observe space beyond the limitations of
light (or any electromagnetic radiation), it is uncertain whether the size of the universe
is finite or infinite.
Current astronomers put the number of particles in the universe at somewhere
between 1072 and 1087
There are four types of force in our universe;

THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE
The Universe (space and time) started at the “Big-bang” event about 13.75 ±0.17
billion years ago.
The diameter of the observable universe is at least 93 billion light years or
8.80×1026 metres.
According to general relativity, space can expand faster than the speed of light,
although we can view only a small portion of the universe due to the limitation
imposed by light speed. Since we cannot observe space beyond the limitations of
light (or any electromagnetic radiation), it is uncertain whether the size of the universe
is finite or infinite.
Current astronomers put the number of particles in the universe at somewhere
between 1072 and 1087
There are four types of force in our universe;
- Strong and Weak (responsible for nuclear interactions)
- Electromagnetic (light, radio waves, infrared, etc...)
- Gravitation, the weakest of all forces but important for the formation of stars,
planets and atmospheres. This is the main force that Aeronautical Engineers
have to overcome in their practice.

,h>d>^KW
Hubble Captures Spectacular "Landscape" in the Carina Nebula

NASA's Hubble Space Telescope was carried into orbit by a Space Shuttle in 1990 and remains in
operation. Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile.
Hubble´s observations contributed to the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through
observations of distant supernovae that was awarded with the physics nobel prize in 2011.
Dark energy is the most accepted hypothesis to explain the universe iexpanding at an accelerating
rate
Private .& Confidential – RCL2012
FORMATION OF STARS
Hubble Captures Spectacular "Landscape" in the Carina Nebula

NASA's Hubble Space Telescope captured this billowing cloud of cold interstellar gas and dust rising
from a tempestuous stellar nursery located in the Carina Nebula, 7,500 light-years away in the
southern constellation Carina. This pillar of dust and gas serves as an incubator for new stars and is
teeming with new star-forming activity.

FORMATION OF STARS and PLANETS
This high-resolution image of the Hubble A Hubble Space Telescope view of a small
shows a diverse range of galaxies, each portion of the Orion Nebula, reveals five young
consisting of billions of stars. The equivalent area stars. Four of the stars are surrounded by gas
of sky that the picture occupies is shown in the and dust trapped as the stars formed, but were
lower left corner. The smallest, reddest galaxies, left in orbit about the star. These are possibly
about 100, are some of the most distant galaxies protoplanetary disks, or proplyds, that might
to have been imaged by an optical telescope, evolve on to agglomerate planets. The field of
existing at the time shortly after the Big Bang. view is only 0.14 light-years across.

THE PLANETS http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~jpstimac/1400/solar_origin.html
The inner planets. From left to

right: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars (sizes are to scale,
interplanetary distances are not)
THE EARTH
The Blue Planet
This view from orbit

shows the full Moon
partially obscured and
deformed by the
Earth's atmosphere.
Why is the sky blue?
The figure below shows the relative sizes of Earth and Moon and their
distance to the same scale

THE EARTH
The Blue Planet
Why is the sky blue?

THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
The Earth’s atmosphere has no outer boundary, just fades into space.
The dense part of atmosphere (99% of mass) lies within 30 km of the Earth
(so about same thickness as continental crust).

COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Principal gases of dry Air in the lower Atmosphere
The atmosphere
can be assumed
to be :
80% Nitrogen
20% Oxigen
Gas Molecular Weight

•Air 28.966
•Carbon Dioxide, CO2 44.01
•Carbon Monoxide, CO 28.011
•Helium, He 4.02
•Hydrogen, H2 2.016
OXIGEN IN THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
The Earth’s atmosphere is particularly rich in Oxygen when compared to its

neighbour planets
The initial atmosphere contained H2 and He which escaped into space
The “second” atmosphere contained mainly volcanic gases (H 2O, CO2, SO2 etc, but
no Oxygen
The atmospheric Oxygen was produced by living organisms like algae through the
process of photosynthesis
BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID STATICS
A quick review of mechanics
Pressure (P): is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the
surface of an object.
Section of column of
area A (m2)
Consider a column of liquid of total mass
(amount of matter) = M (Kilograms or Kg)
Mass of the fluid
The Weight of the fluid is a force; = M (Kg)
W = mass · g (Newton or N)
Where g is the acceleration of gravity

g = 9.81 ms-2
Weight = W (Kgf)
The pressure at the base of the container is;

P = Weight/Area = M·g/A (Pascals or Pa)

Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases
Pressure is caused by particle collisions (kinetic theory)
-Consider a particle of mass m moving towards a rigid wall
-The collision is elastic, this means that the normal velocity changes sign during the
collision and there is no energy transfer (the kinetic energy of the particle remains
constant)
At the collision the wall exerts a force F to
m stop the particle and (due to elastic forces)
vx change the direction of motion of the
particle
m
vy F
v
m
Before the v
collision After the
collision
v
The total change of the particle’s momentum normal vy
to the wall due to the collision is;
vx
∆ p = 2mv x
The particle moves inside a box and since there is no energy transfer to the walls, its
kinetic energy remains constant
The particle’s horizontal velocity component remains constant in modulus (only changes
direction at every collision) so the particle hits the same wall at time intervals;
∆t= ff
f
f
2Lf
ff
f
vx
m
vx The average force at each wall is then;
∆f
ff
f
ff
ff
f f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
xf
f
ff
f
ff
f
fff
xf
f
f fff
f
ff
f
ff
xff
ff
vy 2
p 2mv ·v mv
v
F= = =
∆t 2L L
Note this is the “average force” when considering a
finite time where many collisions occur, as it would
L be the case for a gas

The average pressure over a wall is the average force divided by the surface area;
f
ff
f
ff
f f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
fff
f f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
fff
f
2 2
F mv mv
m
vx
x x V = volume of
P= 2 = 3 =
L
the box = L3
V
vy
v
vz L L
L
L
If there are N particles in the box it can be assumed that their velocity vectors are
distributed randomly and that the average kinetic energy in each component (x, y and z)
are the same.
ff
fff
f
f
Under this “chaotic” motion assumption the velocity components of the particles are
f
ff
fff
f f f
ff
ff
f f ff
fff
f 2
related to the modulus of the average velocity as;
ff
ff
ff
f
vf
2
x
2
y v = v = v =
2
z
3
So, if there are N particles in the box of volume V and the particles are assumed to move
with an average velocity v;
f
ff
f
mf
f
ff
f
fvf
f
ff
f
ff
ff
m V = volume of the box
vx
L 2
v
vy
P= N N=number of particles
vz
3V v = average speed of
the particles
L
L
From this equation it is clear that the pressure in the box increases;
-When the number of particles inside the box is increased (keeping the same average velocity)
-If the particles are heavier and they move with the same average speed
-When the velocity of the particles increases
-When the volume of the box is reduced while keeping the same number of particles and their
average velocity

A quick review of Thermodynamics
Temperature of a gas (T): is a measure of the average kinetic energy of each of its
particles.
- For each degree of freedom of the particle (for example, translation in the x direction
with an average velocity vx) we define;
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
1f
ff 1f
ff ff
fff
ff
K xtranslatio n = κ ·T = m Av x 2
2 2
Kxtranslation = Average kinetic energy associated to the average velocity of the particles in
the x direction
T = temperature of the gas
k = Boltzmann constant
The Boltzmann constant is just a proportionality constant between temperature

and average kinetic energy of the particles

A quick review of Thermodynamics
The total average kinetic energy per particle is the sum of the kinetic energy of its
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f f
f
ff
f
ff
motion in each of the three directions;
= κ ·T = f
3f
ff 1ff 2
K particle = K xtran sla tion + K y tra n sla tio n + K z tra nsla tio n mv
f
ff
f 2 2
mf
f
ff
f
fvf
f
ff
f
f
2
f
ff
- susbtituting the above in P= N
3V
P= f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
NκT
we obtain;
V
Now, defining R as; R= κA Na
Na = Avogadro’s constant; number of particles in a mole of the substance, Na = 6.023·1023 mol-1
R = gas constant = 8.314 J/(K mol) Note this is the value for R is referred to moles!!!
n = number of moles in the volume of the gas ; n= N/Na (where N is the number of particles in V)
PV = nRT
we obtain; State Equation for Ideal
Gases, VERY
IMPORTANT!!!
KINETIC THEORY SIMULATION OF GAS
The ideal gas equation in practice
This simulation shows the relationships between pressure, temperature, volumen and
heat transfer. The effect of gravity can also be included.
Lighter particles can be introduced and if the top door is open these will escape first,
even in the presence of gravity. This explains why there is not much Hydrogen or Helium
in the Earth’s atmosphere
Note that the lighter

particles move faster
even though the
temperature is the
same for all of them,
why?
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/gas-properties

IDEAL GAS EQUATION
State equation in Physical form
Pressure Volume Temperature;

measure of the
average kinetic
PV = nRT energy per particle
Kinetic energy in a
mol of gas
Total kinetic energy Total kinetic energy

in the volume of in the volume of
gas gas
Therefore; PV = “Kinetic_Energy_of_the_Gas_Particles” ->

Pressure = Kinetic_Energy / Volume
The pressure of a gas is a measure of its kinetic energy density!!
IDEAL GAS EQUATION – ENGINEERING FORM
“Pressure is energy density”
PV = nRT
In the equation above n is the number of moles of gas in a volume V
n= f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
N with N=number of particles and Na=Avogadro’s constant (number of particles in a mol)
Na
n can also be defined using the total gas mass and the molar mass
n= f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
M with M=mass of the gas in volume V and Mw=the “molecular weight” or molar mass of the gas
Mw
f g
P= ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
= ρ f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
remember … ρ = f
f
ff
ff
f
f
MRT RT M
VM w Mw V
redefining the value of R as R = R/Mw we obtain the state equation in a form used
commonly in engineering, where the known quantity is the mass or the density of
the gas (and not the number of moles)
P = ρ RT R = 287 J/(Kg · K) for air
Note that R and R are normally written simply as R in textbooks so you need to get used to
knowing the value based on the context (moles or mass in the equation)
Hydrostatic equation for a liquid (incompressible fluid)
Consider a column of liquid of base area = A
The density ρ (mass per unit volume) of the liquid is constant* in z
Dividing the column into horizontal layers of thickness = h, the mass of each layer is m
ρ
= h A, where V= h A is the volume of one layer
The weight of each layer is;

z
A wlayer = ρ ghA
h
ρ h
The base of each layer supports its own weight
ρ h plus the weight of all the layers above, therefore
ρ h the pressure at the base of the column (below the
ρ h
6 layers) is;
ρ
ρ
h
P 0 = ρ g6h
y
x *In fact real liquids are compressible but, for example, in the case of water at 4 km depth, where pressure is 40 MPa,
there is only a 1.8% increase in water density.
Hydrostatic equation for a liquid (incompressible fluid)
The pressure at the base of each layer decreases with the height above the base as;
P n = P 0 @ ρ gnh
where n is the layer number
z Pressure variation with height in a liquid
A 6
h 5
5 ρ h
ρ
Layer number 4
4 h
Layer number
ρ
3
3 h
ρ
2
2 h
ρ
1
1 h
ρ
0
0 y 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pre s s ur e
x P0

Hydrostatic equation FOR LIQUIDS (OR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS)
From the previous example it is clear that for a liquid (which is an incompressible
fluid, i.e., it has constant* density) the pressure decreases linearly with height,
starting from the maximum pressure at the base of the column;
` a
P z = P 0 @ ρ gz
* in fact liquids are slightly
compressible but much
less than gases
Pressure variation with height in a liquid
7
z
6
4
z
ρ 3
y 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x Pressure

Hydrostatic equation FOR GASES (OR COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS)
If the fluid in the column is a gas, the lower layers will be subjected to more pressure
Assuming that the gas is at the same temperature through the height of the column (an
“isothermal layer”) and using the state equation in Engineering form;
P = ρ RT
z
-> In an isothermal
h column, the lower
5 ρ5 h
layers, where the
4
ρ4 h
pressure is higher,
must have greater
Layer number
3 ρ3 h density
2 ρ2 h
1 ρ1 h
0 ρ0 y
x

Hydrostatic equation in differential form
The hydrostatic equation for compressible fluids is obtained by writing the force
equilibrium equation for a layer of fluid of infinitesimal thickness dh and area dA
The weight of the layer is mg = ρ(h) · g ·dh·dA
The pressures at the top and bottom of the layer are different by dP
Thus, the equilibrium equation of forces in the vertical direction is;
The sum of all forces acting in the vertical direction = 0, since the layer is at rest:
(P+dP)dA ` a
dA
mg PdA @ P + dP dA @ mg = 0
h+
` a ` a
PdA @ P + dP dA @ ρ h g·dh·dA = 0
` a ` a
ρ h
dh
dP = @ ρ h g dh
PdA
Hydrostatic equation in differential form
If the temperature profile (variation of the temperature of the column of gas with
altitude) is known, the pressure and density variations can be calculated using the
two equations;
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
=@ ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
` a dP gdh
dividing dP = @ ρ h g dh by P = ρ RT ->
P RT
ISOTHERMAL LAYER; The temperature T is constant with altitude
In this case, integrating from h1 to an arbitrary altitude h;
f g
ff
f
ff
ff f
fgf
f
ff
f
ff
f P
P b c
ln
P1
=@
RT
h @ h1 = e − ( g / RT )( h − h1)
P1
using the state equation; P = ρ RT
P ρ RT ρ ρ
= = = e − ( g / RT )( h − h1)
P1 ρ 1 RT ρ 1 ρ1
Isothermal layer – Temperature is constant with altitude
In an ISOTHERMAL LAYER: The pressure and the density decay

exponentially with altitude
P − ( g / RT )( h − h1)
= e
P1
ρ − ( g / RT )( h − h 1)
= e
ρ1

Linear Gradient layer – Temperature changes linearly with altitude
LINEAR GRADIENT LAYER; The temperature T(h) varies linearly with altitude
` a
The temperature at an altitude h, T(h) varies linearly at a lapse rate λ=dT/dh as; T h = T 1 + λ ·h
where T1 is the temperature at the “base” level from which h is measured.
` a f
ff
dTff
f
ff
f
f
Using the hydrostatic equation; dP = @ ρ h g dh with dh =
λ
and introducing the state equation; P = ρ RT
f
f
gf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
d e
h ` ai h ` ai ` a h ` ai@
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
=@ f
gf
f
ff
f
ff
fdT
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
integrating; @ > lnj f
Pf
ff
f
ff
f
hf
f
ff
f
ff
f
=@ f
gf
f
ff
f
ff
f jTf
ln ff
f
ff
f
f
hf
f
ff
f
ff
@> f
Pf
f
ff
ff
f
hf
f
ff
f
ff
fjTf
= f
ff
f
ff
f
hf
f
ff
f
ff
λR
dP k k k
P λR T P1 λR T1 P1 T1
f
f
gf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f f
fgf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
d e
` a ` a ` a h ` ai@ λR ` a h ` ai @ λR + 1
Pf
f
ff
f
ff
f
hf
f
ff
f
ff
f ρf
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
hf
f
ff
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
RTf
f
ff
f
f ρf
f
f
Tf
f
ff
f
ff
f
fhf
f
ff
f
ffjTf
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
hf
f
ff
f
f ρf
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
hf
f
ff
f
fjTf
f
ff
f
ff
f
f
hf
f
ff
f
f
= = k = @> = k
P1 ρ 1 RT 1 ρ 1T1 T1 ρ1 T1
` a
And introducing now the temperature variation equation; T h = T 1 + λ ·h
f
f
gf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f f
f
gf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
d e
f g@ + 1
P h = P1 1 + f
λf
f
fhf
ff
f
f g
ρ h = ρ1 1 + f
λf
f
fhf
ff
f
@
λR λR
` a ` a
T1 T1
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere’s Energy Balance
The Earth’s atmosphere is a complex system which is in dynamic equilibrium
It receives thermal energy from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation
Part of the energy is absorbed by the atmosphere and part is radiated to space (albedo
effect)
Solar constant:
electromagnetic radiation
flux just outside of the
atmosphere = 1366 W/m2

TEMPERATURE VARIATION AND LAYERS
Cosmic and
Ultraviolet radiation
ionises the atoms
increasing the No chemical activity,
temperature temperature decreases
(Thermosphere) linearly with height
(Mesosphere)
Ultraviolet radiation
dissociates Ozone
increasing the Temperature
temperature decreases linearly
(Stratosphere) with altitude near the
ground (Troposphere)
Depending on the chemical composition of the layers of the atmosphere

radiation can interact with the gas increasing the temperature with altitude
(closer to the radiation source)

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Definition
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a simplified mathematical model
representative of the Earth’s atmosphere
It is used to calibrate aircraft instruments (particularly important for altimetry, based on air
pressure, so that all aircraft have a common altitude reference)
It assumes that the value of the acceleration of gravity is constant with altitude so the
altitudes are geopotential
The Mean Sea Level (MSL) conditions used to define the base level (h=0) of the ISA
troposphere are:
- Pressure P0 = 101325 Pa
- Density ρ0 = 1.225 Kg/m3
- Temperature T0 = 288.15 K
- Speed of Sound a0 = 340.294 m/s
- Acceleration of gravity g0 = 9.80665 m/s2
- Lapse rate (troposphere) λ0 = -6.5·10-3 K/m
You must learn these values by heart!!!
Definition
The layers in the ISA atmosphere are defined in the table below
All layers are either isothermal or have a linear temperature gradient
In the troposphere, the “lapse rate”, rate of variation of temperature with altitude, is;
λ = -6.5 ºC/km
The ISA definition assumes a mean sea level temperature of T0 = 15ºC (288.15K)
To model non-standard days (hot or cold), for example a day where the sea level temperature is
30ºC, the equations are calculated taking this base temperature into account and the atmospheric
conditions are called ISA+15 (15º above the standard value of T0=15ºC)

TROPOSPHERE ISA+0
The equations for a linear gradient layer (case of the Troposphere) are;
f
f
gf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f f
f
gf
f
f
ff
f
ff
f
d e
` a f
λf
g@ λR g @ λR +
f
fhf
f
ff
f
f
λf
f
fhf
f
ff
f
1
T h = T 1 + λ ·h ` a
P h = P1 1 +
` a
ρ h = ρ1 1 +
T1 T1
Using the ISA+0 MSL (Mean Sea Level) values for the Troposphere, with h being
geopotential altitude above Sea Level in metres;
` a f
f
ff
f
f
6.5f
ff
f
ff
f
f
·hf
ff` a
T h = 288.15 @ K
1000
` a ` a5.256 ` a
P h = 101325 1 @ 0.0000226h Pa
f g
` a ` a4.256 f
ff
f
f
Kgf
f
ff
f
ρ h = 1.225 1 @ 0.0000226h
m3
MAGNITUDE DIMENSIONS SI UNITS
PRESSURE ML-1T-2 Pa
Pressure is defined as a force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to a
surface
- Pressure has dimensions of energy per unit volume or energy density and this
interpretation is useful to understand certain concepts like dynamic pressure
International System: Pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N / m2

MegaPascal MPa 1 MPa = 106 Pa
1 MPa = 1N/mm2
Imperial System: pound-per-square-inch psi 1 psi = 6894.757 Pa
Other Units: bar bar 1 bar = 100000 Pa
Atmosphere atm 1 atm = 101325 Pa
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 atm = 29.92126 inHg
1 atm = 14.69595 psi

At the level of the free surface of mercury the
MEASURING PRESSURE external pressure is the atmospheric pressure
Mercury manometer to be measured; PAtm
P vacuum = 0 The pressure at that level in the glass tube is
PHg and for equilibrium Patm = PHg
air Thus, the atmospheric pressure is equal to the

pressure at the free surface level in the
Column of atmospheric air
mercury column and so it is proportional to the

height of the mercury between free surfaces;
hHg
Atmospheric pressure at a certain altitude is
often given in mm or inches of mercury
The standard value at sea level in ISA+0
h Hg conditions is;
P0 = 101325Pa = 760mmHg = 29.92 inHg
f
f
f
Pf
ff
f
fff
ff
f
fff
f
ff
f
h Hg = Atm
P Atm ρ Hg
·g
Liquid Mercury (rho = 13534 Kg/m3) P Hg = ρ Hg

· g · h Hg

MEASURING PRESSURE
Aneroid Manometers
Most manometers use the deformation of an elastic
metallic chamber to measure pressure
The internal pressure in the chamber is close to 0 (there
“is” vacuum inside). This is called an “aneroid” chamber
or cell.
Variations of external pressure deform the chamber and
the displacement is picked and amplified to an indication
pointer.
The deformation caused by varying external pressure on
a closed elastic recipient is shown in pictures below
14000 ft 9000 ft 1000ft

ALTITUDE
Definitions
Altitude is vertical distance above some point or level used as a reference. Different
references may be used in each case in order to have a consistent altitude reading in
all aircraft flying in the same geographical area.
Pilots are mainly concerned with five types of altitudes:

1- Indicated Altitude—That altitude read directly from the altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the current
altimeter setting.
2- True Altitude—The vertical distance of the airplane above sea level—the actual altitude. It is often
expressed as feet above mean sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations on aeronautical charts
are true altitudes.
3- Absolute Altitude—The vertical distance of an airplane above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL).
4- Pressure Altitude—The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window (barometric scale) is adjusted
to 29.92. This is the altitude above the standard datum plane, which is a theoretical plane where air pressure
(corrected to 15°C) equals 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure altitude is used to compute density altitude, true altitude,
true airspeed, and other performance data.
5- Density Altitude—This altitude is pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature.
When conditions are standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the same. If the temperature is above
standard, the density altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temperature is below standard, the density
altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This is an important altitude because it is directly related to the
airplane’s performance.

ALTITUDE
Absolute Altitude
True Altitude Pressure Altitude

AIR DATA SYSTEM
ALTIMETER
The altimeter measures the

height of the airplane above a
given pressure level.
Since it is the only of the flight

instruments that gives altitude
information, the altimeter is one
of the most vital flight
instruments in the airplane.
The wafers of the aneroid

chamber expand and contract
with changes in atmospheric
pressure from the static source.
The mechanical linkage
translates these changes into
pointer movements on the
indicator.

ALTITUDE
Effect of atmospheric temperature variation on pressure altitude
The figure shows how variations in air temperature affect the altimeter. On a warm day, a given mass of air
expands to a larger volume than on a cold day, raising the pressure levels.
- For example, the pressure level where the altimeter indicates 5,000 feet is HIGHER on a warm day than under
standard conditions.
- On a cold day, the reverse is true, and the pressure level where the altimeter indicates 5,000 feet is LOWER.

AIR DATA SYSTEM
ALTIMETER SETTINGS – KOLLSMAN WINDOW – QFE & QNH
Kollsman window. The setting displayed here is a

reference atmospheric pressure which can be
adjusted using the know bottom-left.
Adjusting the reference pressure is necessary to
compensate for local variations in atmospheric
pressure and temperature so that all aircraft flying
in the same area read the same pressure altitude
in their instruments
QNH: The barometric altimeter setting which will cause the altimeter to read airfield
elevation when on the airfield. In ISA temperature conditions the altimeter will read altitude
above mean sea level in the vicinity of the airfield
QFE: The barometric altimeter setting which will cause an altimeter to read zero when at
the reference datum of a particular airfield (generally a runway threshold). In ISA
temperature conditions the altimeter will read height above the datum in the vicinity of the
airfield.

ALTITUDE
FLIGHT LEVEL
A Flight Level (FL) is a standard nominal altitude of an aircraft, in hundreds of feet, when the Kollsman window
at (29.92 inHg) -the standard sea-level pressure-, and therefore is not necessarily the same as the aircraft's true
altitude either above mean sea level (MSL) or above ground level (AGL).
FL is useful to guarantee vertical separation between aircraft flying long range, where local altimeter settings are
of little value due to large geographical variation of atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Example: FL350 means pressure altitude corresponding to 35000 feet, 10668 m

ALTITUDE
dp = − ρ gdz
All calculations of pressure in the atmosphere
Geopotential Altitude use the hydrostatic equation:
Since the gravitational acceleration depends on altitude a new altitude function

z may be defined. This is the geopotential altitude, h, and it is related to the
geometric altitude by the relation
g E dh = gdz
Here gE=9.087m/s2 is the gravitational acceleration at the surface of the Earth,
z=0. The gravitational acceleration varies with altitude according to Newton’s law
of gravitation may be written as
RE g E RE2 1
g= = gE
( RE + z )
2 2
 z 
 1 + ÷
 RE 
The radius of the Earth is taken to be RE=6357 km so that for low altitudes the
ratio z/RE ~ 0.06, and therefore the difference between h and z is relatively small.
Integrating the relation between h and z yields the geopotential altitude
1
h= z
z
1+
RE
Thus the difference between the geometric and geopotential altitudes for a
LEO of up to 400 km is less than 6.3%
Example; for H=41000ft -> Z = 41081ft

ALTITUDE – ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE

METEOROLOGY
TEMPERATURE ON EARTH
The solar radiation reaches the earth at different angles which depend on the latitude
This causes irregular heating and a thermal disequilibrium between the equator and
the poles
The irregular heating of the Earth causes

a circulation of warm air from the equator
towards the poles which forms complex air
circulation patterns (cells) •Extremes of recorded temperature
-Highest temperature: (57.8°C) at El Azizia, Libya
-Lowest temperature: (-87.8°C) at Vostok
Station, Antarctica
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Circulation Cells and Coriolis effect
Coriolis effect causes an apparent deviation of the

wind as it moves towards or away from the axis of
rotation (the Earth’s poles)
This effect is called geostrophic wind and is just a
consequence of the rotation of the Earth
CORIOLIS EFFECT – GEOSTROPHIC WIND IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
HIGH PRESSURE AREAS
High pressure areas are usually caused by air masses
being cooled, either from below (for instance, the subtropical
high pressure zones that form over relatively cool ocean
waters to the west of California, Africa, and South America),
or from above as infrared cooling of winter air masses over
land exceeds the warming of those air masses by sunlight.
As the air mass cools, it shrinks, allowing air from the

surroundings to fill in above it, thus increasing the total mass
of atmosphere above the surface, which then results in
higher surface barometric pressures.
An area of High pressure (anticyclon) causes winds that

should move away from its centre: The Coriolis effect
“bends” the wind towards its left creating a clockwise vortex
flow (in the northern hemisphere)
The Coriolis effect is exactly the opposite in the lower
hemisphere!
The world record for highest surface pressure (adjusted to sea level) was at Agata Lake in Siberia on
December 31, 1968 at 32.01 inches (1083.8 mb) 7% over normal pressure

CORIOLIS EFFECT – GEOSTROPHIC WIND IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
LOW PRESSURE AREAS - CYCLONS
An area of Low pressure (cyclon) causes winds that

should move toward its centre: The Coriolis effect
“bends” the wind towards its right creating an
anticlockwise vortex flow in the northern hemisphere
The effect is exactly the opposite in the lower hemisphere!
Low pressure areas can grow in certain conditions

to become Hurricanes (Atlantic ocean) or Typhoons
(Pacific ocean)
The world record for lowest surface pressure (adjusted to sea level) is 870 mb (15% below normal) measured in
a Pacific Typhoon
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Prevailing winds
Columbus return
route
Note that the

true tropopause is
at higher height
over the equator
due to the
Columbus route
centrifugal force to America using
caused by the the “Alisios”
rotation of the (Spanish for
earth trade winds)

WEATHER
COLD FRONTS
A Cold Front is characterized by a cold (more dense, heavier) air mass is moving
into a warmer (less dense) air mass.
Characterized by an abrupt uplift along the frontal boundary.
Cumulus (flat based or anvil-shaped ->Cumulonimbus) development.
Short duration heavy rain & thunderstorms.
Shown as a line of blue, triangles on surface weather maps.

WEATHER
WARM FRONTS
A Warm Front is characterized by a

warm (less dense) air mass moving into
a cold air mass.
Characterized by gentle uplift.
Stratiform (stratified) cloud cover.
The leading clouds, cirrus, are a
good indicator of an impending change
in the weather.
Long duration moderate rainfall.
Shown as a line of red, semicircles
on surface weather maps.

WEATHER
OCCLUDED FRONTS
An occluded front is formed during the

process of cyclogenesis when a cold
front overtakes a warm front.
When this occurs, the warm air is

separated (occluded) from the cyclone
center at the Earth's surface.
A wide variety of weather can be

found along an occluded front, with
thunderstorms possible, but usually their
passage is associated with a drying of
the air mass.

THE TEN MAIN CLOUD TYPES http://cloudappreciationsociety.org

http://www.srh.weather.gov/srh/jetstream/synoptic/clouds_max.htm
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/cloudchart.pdf

IMPORTANT CLOUD TYPES
CUMULUS

CUMULUS
Cumulus often form

when thermal
currents (vertical
currents of warm air)
reach a critical
altitude and are a
good hint for gliders
which use these
currents to stay aloft
Cumulus formation is often preceded by hazy spots out of which the clouds evolve. When
completely formed, the clouds have clear cut horizontal bases and flattened or slightly rounded
tops. At this stage of development they are known as fair weather cumulus.
Over land, on clear mornings, cumulus may form as the sun rapidly heats the ground. Near
coasts, cumulus may form over the land by day in a sea breeze and over the sea during the night
in a land breeze.

CIRRUS

CUMULONIMBUS

ALTOCUMULUS LENTICULARIS
These formations are caused by

wave motions in the atmosphere and
are frequently seen in mountainous or
hilly areas. They may be triggered off by
hills only a few thousand feet high and
may extend down wind for over 60
miles (100 km).

CLOUDS IN PAINTINGS and NEW CLOUDS
The painting has captured a wave of

lenticular clouds caused by a northerly wind
blowing over Madrid’s northern sierra
The photo below shows the same spot on
a clear day showing a new type of cloud :
Contrails
“Ascensión_de_un_Montgolfier_en_Aranjuez”, 1784, Prado Contrails in Aranjuez, 6 Feb 2011

CONTRAILS
Contrails = CONdensation TRAIL
These are artificial clouds formed by the

visible trails of condensed or iced water
generated in the engine combustion
process
Contrails are just water
Notice in the pictures how the contrail

does not form immediately at the engine
exhaust but requires some time to cool
down
Check for “chemtrails” in the Internet

CONTRAILS
Contrails may remain visible for a long time and

diffuse into cirrus clouds
These artificial cirrus may have an impact in the
energy balance of the atmosphere due to the change in
the Albedo reflection and the trapping of long wave
radiation

LIGHTER THAN AIR (LTA) AIRCRAFT
HOT AIR BALLOONS
Hot air balloons are the oldest and simplest way
to fly
The first manned flight took place in a paper

balloon built by the Montgolfier brothers in Paris in
1783
Balloons of all kinds use the Archimedes’

principle of buoyancy to generate lift by having a
lighter gas inside the envelope than that of the
surrounding atmosphere
Hot air balloons heat the air using propane

burners and since the pressure is equalised with
the outside atmosphere, the density of the hot air is
lower thus generating buoyancy

BUOYANCY and ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
Let us consider an homogeneus block of density ρint submerged in an incompressible

fluid of density ρext
The pressure gradient in the fluid is therefore linear
ρ ext A
z
H P
ρgH

For the block to be in equilibrium the sum of all vertical forces must be 0:
Σ F z = 0 @ > P bot ·A @ P top ·A @ m g = 0
- Note that the pressures on opposite lateral sides are in equilibrium and do not contribute to buoyancy.
b c
ρ ext g h 1 + L A @ ρ ext g h 1 A @ ρ int g A L = 0 @ > ρ int = ρ ext This is the trivial
condition for
equilibrium of any
volume of fluid
Ptop A
h1 Note that buoyancy
requires a pressure
ρint h2
gradient in the fluid:
it is the
L mg consequence of the
H different pressures
on the top and
bottom faces of the
object.
ρext Pbot
ρextgH
For the block to be in equilibrium the sum of all vertical forces must be 0:
ρ ext g L A = ρ ext g V = Buoyancy Force

“The buoyancy force (vertical force acting upwards on the submerged object) equals
the weight of the fluid displaced by the object”. This is the Archimedes principle
The net vertical force is the sum of the buoyancy (which acts upwards) and
the object’s weight (acting downwards) F = ρ g V@ mgz ext
A
h1
h2
Buoyancy
L
H
mg
ρ ext
ρ extgH
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/density-and-buoyancy/buoyancy_en.html
BUOYANCY of Arbitrary Shapes This is the equation for pressure
using “depth” = 0 at the surface
` a x
dF y = @ P·dl·b cosα
P y = ρgy h1
d
1f
e y
f
ff
f
B α
f
f
f2f
f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
f dx
ff
f
ff
ff cosα
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff f
f
ff
f
dyf
f
ff
ff
f
ff
= = , dl =
L dy sinα sinα
dx
Two sides h1 + L
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f L
Buoyancy force = F v = @ 2 · Z P y b
` a cosα
dy
sinα
h1 dl dy
h1 + L dF = P dl b
f g f g
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f 1f
f
ff f
Bf
f
ff
ff
f
Fv = @2· Z ρ gyb
cosα 2
dy = @ 2ρ g b L
sinα 2 2L
h1
α
f g
1f
f
ff ` a
Fv = = @ρ g L B b = @ ρ g V = weight of displaced volum e
2
Ptop A
h1
B ρ int h2
mg
L
H
b
Pbot Pbot
L ρ ext
A = 1/2BL
ρ extgH

BUOYANCY
Summary of the physical principles
In an incompressible fluid (linear pressure distribution), the buoyancy force does not depend on
the shape of the object and is always equal to the weight of the displaced volume (Archimedes
principle)
Buoyancy requires a pressure gradient, not necessarily linear, and therefore gravity. There is no
buoyancy force inside a space station!.
For “small” objects (like a balloon) the local atmospheric pressure can be assumed to vary
linearly so the Archimedes principle applies directly
If the object is “large” (like a very large airship), where the exponential variation of density in the
troposphere cannot be ignored, the buoyancy must be calculated integrating the density distribution
through the height
Pressure variation with height in a liquid

7
For small height

6
4 variations it can be
z
3
assumed that the
2
atmospheric pressure
and density vary
1
linearly!!!!
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pressure

HOT AIR BALLOONS Fire resistant Nomex
envelope
Propane burners

http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/balloons-and-buoyancy
HOT AIR BALLOONS
Thermal image of a balloon

WEATHER BALLOONS
Weather balloons are made of flexible latex and filled

with Hydrogen or Helium
The envelope is flexible to accomodate the
expansion of the gas as it gains altitude
These balloons carry instrumentation to measure
atmosphere parameters and are tracked by radio, radar
or GPS
- Ground track
of weather
balloons
launched in
Antarctica

WEATHER BALLOONS (AMATEUR)
Balloons with cameras built and

launched by amateurs into the
stratosphere are becoming a relatively
common (and possibly dangerous)
occurrence

AIRSHIPS
Airships are lighter than air aircraft that can be propelled in a
controlled manner through air
In order to minimise drag their external shape is streamlined

AIRSHIPS - RIGID
Rigid Airships : The rigid airship contained an internal framework constructed of a lightweight
but strong material providing a rigid structure within which were the lifting gas cells; machinery;
fuel and living/working space. A separate cover went over the outside of the framework to
provide streamlining and weatherproofing. The last rigid airship was the second Graf Zeppelin,
dismantled in 1940.
LZ 129 Hindenburg
The location of the initial fire, the source of
ignition, and the initial source of fuel remain
subjects of debate. The cause of the accident has
never been determined. Escaping hydrogen gas
will burn after mixing with air. The covering also
contained material (such as cellulose nitrate and
aluminium flakes) which some experts claim are
highly flammable

AIRSHIPS – SEMI-RIGID
Semi-Rigid Airships: The semi-rigid airship consists of a rigid keel, sometimes running the whole
length of the ship, suspended below an envelope containing the lifting gas. The keel provides the
prime attachment of the Gondola(s), engines etc. The semi-rigid airship maintains its shape mainly
by the pressure of the lifting gas in the envelope
http://www.carnetdevol.org/zeppelin/Technical.html

AIRSHIPS – NON-RIGID
Non-rigid Airships: The non-rigid

airship in its simplest form is a
streamlined envelope, containing the
lifting gas, with a gondola suspended
below it, containing the crew
accommodation, propulsion and fuel.
Most gas airships today are non-

rigids, because of their comparative
simplicity and sturdiness.
The modern non-rigid or pressure

airship maintains its shape solely by the
pressure of the helium in the envelope,
supplemented by an adjustable volume
of air within internal ballonets.

FUTURE OF AIRSHIPS
There are currently several proposals

for large passenger and cargo airships
Various commercial attempts in the

late 90s failed, but with rising fuel prices
Airships are likely to become an
interesting option for air freight soon
http://www.livevideo.com/video/embedLink/319FF8444A694029A026F44366497447/420138/lockheed-martin-turbo-super-bl.aspx

Additional Resources
http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/1400index.html
http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~jpstimac/1400/optical_phenomena.htm
http://science.howstuffworks.com/nature/climate-weather/atmospheric/weather3.
htm
http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/
http://www.ucar.edu/learn/1_1_1.htm
http://www.grida.no/
http://cloudappreciationsociety.org/
http://www.theairlinepilots.com/met/clouds.htm
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/
http://www.airship-association.org/cms/

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AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

Private & Confidential

Private & Confidential

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Hubble Captures Spectacular "Landscape" in the Carina Nebula

Hubble Captures Spectacular "Landscape" in the Carina Nebula

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

The inner planets. From left to

This view from orbit

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Why is the sky blue?

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Gas Molecular Weight

The Earth’s atmosphere is particularly rich in Oxygen when compared to its

The Weight of the fluid is a force; = M (Kg)

Where g is the acceleration of gravity

The pressure at the base of the container is;

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

The Boltzmann constant is just a proportionality constant between temperature

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Note that the lighter

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Pressure Volume Temperature;

PV = nRT energy per particle

Total kinetic energy Total kinetic energy

Therefore; PV = “Kinetic_Energy_of_the_Gas_Particles” ->

P = ρ RT R = 287 J/(Kg · K) for air

The weight of each layer is;

z Pressure variation with height in a liquid

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

In this case, integrating from h1 to an arbitrary altitude h;

In an ISOTHERMAL LAYER: The pressure and the density decay

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Depending on the chemical composition of the layers of the atmosphere

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

International System: Pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N / m2

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

air Thus, the atmospheric pressure is equal to the

mercury column and so it is proportional to the

Liquid Mercury (rho = 13534 Kg/m3) P Hg = ρ Hg

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

14000 ft 9000 ft 1000ft

Pilots are mainly concerned with five types of altitudes:

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

True Altitude Pressure Altitude

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

The altimeter measures the

Since it is the only of the flight

The wafers of the aneroid

Private & Confidential – RCL2012

Private & Confidential – RCL2012