PART-II: (MID-II)

Topic Name: Blind Speeds, Double Cancellation, Nth Cancellation Staggered PRFs
1. Explain bind speed and the methods for reducing the effects of blind speed ( February
– 2019,SET-1,8M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
DEFINITION : Blind speed is defined as the radial velocity (or relative velocity) of the target at
which the MTI response is zero. Or
Blind speed is defined as the radial velocity of the target at which no shift appears making the
target appearing stationary and echoes from the target are cancelled.
• The response of the single delay line canceller will be zero whenever the argument πfdTp
in the amplitde factor of eq. (1) is 0, π, 2 π,3 π,…….etc.
• Sin (πfdTp) = 0
• πfdTp = sin-1(0)=n π
• πfdTp = n π
• fdTp = n
fd = n/Tp = nfp
• Where n= 0,1,2,….and fp = Pulse repetition frequency.
The delay line canceller not only eliminates the dc component caused by the clutter (n=0) , but it
also rejects any moving target whose doppler frequency happens to be the same as the PRF
which causes the effect of blind speed and is given by

• Blind speed of the target is given by

vn = nλ/2Tp = fp (nλ/2)
Where vn = nth blind speed.
fp =Pulse repetition frequency (Hz)
n = any integer
λ = Wavelength (m)
Tp=Pulse repetition Interval =1/ prf=1/ fp
• If λ is measured in meters, fp in Hz and the relative velocity in knots, the blind speeds are
given by
• vn = nλ fp /1.02≈ nλ fp
 • If λ is in meters , fp in Hz and radial velocity in knots, the first blind speed can be written
as
• v1(kt)= 0.97 λ(m) fp(Hz)

• The blind speeds are one of the limitations of pulse MTI radar which do not occur with
CW radar . Usually only the first blind speed v1 is considered , since others are integer
multiples of v1 .

METHODS OF REDUCTION OF EFFECTS OF BLIND SPEEDS

• There are four methods to reduce the effect of blind speeds by operating the radar at
1. Long wavelengths (Low frequencies)
2. High pulse repetition frequency
3. More than one PRF and
4. More than one wavelength(or more than one RF frequency)

2. Explain double delay-line canceller with a neat diagram. (OCT./NOV.-2019-SET-2

7M)
ANS
DOUBLE-DELAY LINE CANCELLER:

Fig: (a) Double – delay line canceller

 • Double delay line canceller can be obtained by two single-delay line cancellers are
cascaded with the help of adders.
• The delay is given by Tp (Tp = 1/fp) where fp is pulse repetition frequency and Tp is pulse
repetition period.
• The output of the delay line canceller is given by
• Vo = Vi(t) - Vi(t+ Tp) - Vi(t+ Tp) + Vi(t+ 2Tp)
• The frequency response of a single delay line canceller does not always have as broad a
clutter –rejection null as might be desired in the vicinity of dc.
• The clutter rejection notches may be widened by passing the output of the delay line
canceller through a second delay line canceller as shown in fig.1.
• The output of the two- single delay line cancellers in cascade is the square of that from a
single canceller. Thus the frequency response is 4 sin2πfdTp .
• The configuration of fig.(1) is called a double delay line canceller or simply a double
canceller.
• The relative response of the double canceller compared with that of the single delay-
canceller is shown in fig.(2).
• The finite width of the clutter spectrum is also shown in this fig. so as to illustrate the
additional cancellation of clutter offered by the double canceller.

3. What are the functions of a delay line canceller? Explain the double delay-line
canceller(Understanding-U)
ANS
FUNCTIONS OF A DELAY LINE CANCELLER
 In case of MTI radars, sometimes phase shift effect is not appropriate for display on the
PPI. One method commonly employed to extract doppler information in a form suitable
for display on the PPI scope is with a delay-line canceller
  The delay-line canceller is a time domain filter. It rejects stationary clutter at zero
frequency. Its frequency response function is derived from the signals in the time domain.
 The delay-line canceller acts as a filter to eliminate the d.c component of fixed targets
and to pass the a.c components of moving targets.

DOUBLE-DELAY LINE CANCELLER:

Fig: (a) Double – delay line canceller

• Double delay line canceller can be obtained by two single-delay line cancellers are
cascaded with the help of adders.
• The delay is given by Tp (Tp = 1/fp) where fp is pulse repetition frequency and Tp is pulse
repetition period.
• The output of the delay line canceller is given by
• Vo = Vi(t) - Vi(t+ Tp) - Vi(t+ Tp) + Vi(t+ 2Tp)
• The frequency response of a single delay line canceller does not always have as broad a
clutter –rejection null as might be desired in the vicinity of dc.
• The clutter rejection notches may be widened by passing the output of the delay line
canceller through a second delay line canceller as shown in fig.1.
• The output of the two- single delay line cancellers in cascade is the square of that from a
single canceller. Thus the frequency response is 4 sin2πfdTp .
• The configuration of fig.(1) is called a double delay line canceller or simply a double
canceller.
• The relative response of the double canceller compared with that of the single delay-
canceller is shown in fig.(2).
• The finite width of the clutter spectrum is also shown in this fig. so as to illustrate the
additional cancellation of clutter offered by the double canceller.

4. What is Staggered PRF and Discuss about staggered PRFs(Remembering-R)

ANS

 STAGGERED PRF:Staggered pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is an important

technique used in pulse-Doppler radar to mitigate range eclipsing and blind
speeds. It can also serve as an electronic counter-countermeasure. Staggered PRF
 increases the unambiguous range and Doppler beyond what a single PRF
provides.
 To avoid blind speed phenomena, staggered PRF MTI systems are used in
modern radars for detection of high-speed targets.
 The use of multiple waveforms with different PRFs allows the detection of
moving targets that can be eliminated with a constant PRF waveform if their
radial velocities were at, or in the vicinity of blind speed.
 A simple illustration is shown in above fig. which graphs the frequency response
of a single delay line canceller with two different paths.
 At PRF f1 , blind speeds (nulls) occur when the doppler frequency is f1 or 2 f1
(other integer multiples are not shown).
 With PRF f2 = 2f1/3, blind speeds occurs when the doppler frequency equals f2 , 2
f2 or 3f2 .
 It can be seen in above fig. that targets not detectable because of a blind speed in
the frequency response of one PRF will be detectable with the other PRF.
 A target is lost on both PRFs ,however, when the blind speeds occurs
simultaneously, as when 2f1 = 3f2 .
 The above illustrates the benefit of using more tan one prf to reduce the effects of
blind speeds; but it might be cautioned that it is not usual to use prfs with the
relatively large ratio of 3/2.
 There are several methods for employing multiple prfs to avoid losing target
echoes due to blind speeds.
 The prfs can be changed (1) scan to scan (2) dwell to dwell (3) pulse to
pulse(usually called staggered prf)
 Staggered prfs have been popular for air traffic control radars.

Topic Name: Range Gated Doppler Filters.

5. Draw the block diagram of MTI radar using range gates and filters and explain its
operation.
ANS
 The output the phase detector is sampled sequentially by the range gates.
 Each range gate opens in sequence just long enough to sample the voltage of the video
waveform corresponding to a different range interval in space.
 The range gate acts as a switch or a gate which opens and closes at the proper time.
 The range gates are activated once each pulse repetition interval.
 The output for a stationary target is a serious of pulses of constant of pulses.
 An echo from from a moving target produces a series of pulses which vary in amplitude
according to the doppler frequency.
 The output of the range gates is stretched in a circuit called the boxcar generator, or sample-
and-hold circuit, whose purpose is to aid in the filtering and detection process.
 The clutter rejection filter a bandpass filter whose bandwidth depends upon the extent of the
expected clutter spectrum.
 Following the doppler filter is a full wave linear detector and an integrator(a LPF)
 The purpose of the detector is to convert the bipolar video to unipolar video.
 The output of the integrator is applied to a threshold detection circuit.
  Only those signals which cross the threshold are reported as targets.
 Following the threshold detector , the outputs from each of the range channels must be
properly combined for display on the PPI or A-scope or for any appropriate indicating or data
processing device.

6. Draw and Explain the frequency response characteristics of a MTI Radar using Range
gated Doppler filters. ( November – 2022, SET-1, 7M) (Applying-Ap)
ANS

 The output the phase detector is sampled sequentially by the range gates.
 Each range gate opens in sequence just long enough to sample the voltage of the video
waveform corresponding to a different range interval in space.
 The range gate acts as a switch or a gate which opens and closes at the proper time.
 The range gates are activated once each pulse repetition interval.
 The output for a stationary target is a serious of pulses of constant of pulses.
 An echo from from a moving target produces a series of pulses which vary in amplitude
according to the doppler frequency.
 The output of the range gates is stretched in a circuit called the boxcar generator, or sample-
and-hold circuit, whose purpose is to aid in the filtering and detection process.
 The clutter rejection filter a bandpass filter whose bandwidth depends upon the extent of the
expected clutter spectrum.
 Following the doppler filter is a full wave linear detector and an integrator(a LPF)
 The purpose of the detector is to convert the bipolar video to unipolar video.
 The output of the integrator is applied to a threshold detection circuit.
 Only those signals which cross the threshold are reported as targets.
 Following the threshold detector , the outputs from each of the range channels must be
properly combined for display on the PPI or A-scope or for any appropriate indicating or data
processing device.
Topic Name: MTI Radar Parameters, Limitations to MTI Performance, MTI versus
Pulse Doppler Radar.

7. Explain the limitations in MTI performance. (February – 2019, SET-1, 8M)

(Understanding-U)
ANS

LIMITATIONS TO MTI PERFORMANCE

• The performance of MTI radar degraded because of the following reasons.

1. Equipment instabilities
2. Internal fluctuation of clutter
3. Antenna scanning modulation.
4. Limiting in MTI radar.
EQUIPMENT INSTABILITIES: Pulse-to-pulse changes in the amplitude, frequency, or phase
of the transmitter signal, changes in the stalo or coho oscillators in the receiver, jitter in the
timing of the pulse transmission, variations in the time delay through the delay lines, and
changes in the pulse width can cause the apparent frequency spectrum from perfectly stationary
clutter to broaden and thereby lower the improvement factor of an MTI radar. The stability of the
equipment in an MTI radar must be considerably better than that of an ordinary radar. It can limit
the performance of an MTI radar if sufficient care is not taken in design, construction, and
maintenance.

INTERNAL FLUCTUATION OF CLUTTER: Although clutter targets such

as buildings, water towers, bare hills. or mountains produce echo signals that are constant in both
phase and amplitude as a function of time, there are many types of clutter that cannot be
considered as absolutely stationary. Echoes from trees, vegetation, sea, rain, and chaff fluctuate
with time, and these fluctuations can limit the performance of MTI radar.
Because of its varied nature, it is difficult to describe precisely the clutter echo signal.
However, for purposes of analysis, most fluctuating clutter targets may be represented by a
model consisting of many independent scatterers located within the resolution cell of the radar.
The echo at the radar receiver is the vector sum of the echo signals received from each of the
individual scatters; that is, the relative phase as well as the amplitude from each scatterer
influences the resultant composite signal. If the individual scatters remain fixed from pulse to
pulse, the resultant echo signal will also remain fixed. But any motion of the scatterers relative to
the radar will result in different phase relationships at the radar receiver. Hence the phase and
amplitude of the new resultant echo signal will differ pulse to pulse.

8. Write about MTI radar parameters or List and explain MTI Radar
Parameters(Remembering-R)
ANS
MTI RADAR PARAMETERS:

1. MTI Improvement Factor

2. Subclutter Visibility
3. Clutter Visibility Factor
4. Clutter Attenuation
5. Cancellation Ratio
6. Inter Clutter Visibility
MTI Improvement Factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio at the output of the MTI system
divided by the signal-to-clutter ratio at the input, averaged uniformly over all target radial velocities of
interest.
The improvement factor I) is equal to the subclutter visibility (SCV) times the clutter visibility
factor (Voc).
In decibels, I(dB) = SCV(dB) + Voc(dB).

When the MTI is limited by noiselike system instabilities, the clutter visibility factor should be
chosen as is the signal-to-noise ratio
Subclutter Visibility: The ratio by which the target and echo power may be weaker

than the coincident clutter echo power and still be detected with specified detection and false
alarm probabilities(Pd and Pfa).
 All target radial velocities are assumed equally likely. A subclutter visibility of, for
example, 30 dB implies that a moving target can be detected in the presence of clutter
even though the clutter echo power is 1000 times the target echo power.
 Two radars with the same subclutter visibility might not have the same ability to detect
targets in clutter if the resolution cell of one is greater than the other and accepts a
greater clutter signal power; that is, both radars might reduce the clutter power equally,
but one starts with greater clutter power because its resolution cell is greater and "sees"
more clutter targets.

Clutter visibility factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio, after cancellation or doppler

filtering, that provides stated probabilities of detection and false alarm.

Cltrtter attenuation: The ratio of clutter power at the canceler input to the clutter
residue at the output, normalized to the attenuation of a single pulse passing through the
unprocessed channel of the canceler. (The clutter residue is the clutter power remaining at the
output of an MTI system.)

Cancellation ratio: The ratio of canceler voltage amplification for the fixed-target
echoes received with a fixed antenna, to the gain for a single pulse passing through the
unprocessed channel of the canceler.
Inter Clutter Visibility: This describes the ability of an MTI radar to detect

moving targets which occur in the relatively clear resolution cells between patches of strong
clutter.
 Clutter echo power is usually not uniform, so if a radar has sufficient resolution it can see
targets in the clear areas between clutter patches.
 The higher the radar resolution, the better the inter clutter visibility.
 Radars with "moderate" resolution might require only enough improvement factor to deal
with the median clutter power, which may be 20 dB less than the average clutter power.
 A medium-resolution radar with a 2ps pulse width and a 1.5o beamwidth, is of sufficient
resolution to achieve a 20 dB advantage over low-resolution radars for the detection of
targets in ground clutter.

9. Describe the parameters and limitations of MTI radar. ( November – 2022, SET-2,
7M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
MTI RADAR PARAMETERS:

7. MTI Improvement Factor

8. Subclutter Visibility
9. Clutter Visibility Factor
10. Clutter Attenuation
11. Cancellation Ratio
12. Inter Clutter Visibility

MTI Improvement Factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio at the output of the MTI system
divided by the signal-to-clutter ratio at the input, averaged uniformly over all target radial velocities of
interest.
The improvement factor I) is equal to the subclutter visibility (SCV) times the clutter visibility
factor (Voc).
In decibels, I(dB) = SCV(dB) + Voc(dB).

When the MTI is limited by noiselike system instabilities, the clutter visibility factor should be
chosen as is the signal-to-noise ratio
Subclutter Visibility: The ratio by which the target and echo power may be weaker

than the coincident clutter echo power and still be detected with specified detection and false
alarm probabilities(Pd and Pfa).
 All target radial velocities are assumed equally likely. A subclutter visibility of, for
example, 30 dB implies that a moving target can be detected in the presence of clutter
even though the clutter echo power is 1000 times the target echo power.
 Two radars with the same subclutter visibility might not have the same ability to detect
targets in clutter if the resolution cell of one is greater than the other and accepts a
greater clutter signal power; that is, both radars might reduce the clutter power equally,
but one starts with greater clutter power because its resolution cell is greater and "sees"
more clutter targets.

Clutter visibility factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio, after cancellation or doppler

filtering, that provides stated probabilities of detection and false alarm.

Cltrtter attenuation: The ratio of clutter power at the canceler input to the clutter
residue at the output, normalized to the attenuation of a single pulse passing through the
unprocessed channel of the canceler. (The clutter residue is the clutter power remaining at the
output of an MTI system.)

Cancellation ratio: The ratio of canceler voltage amplification for the fixed-target
echoes received with a fixed antenna, to the gain for a single pulse passing through the
unprocessed channel of the canceler.

Inter Clutter Visibility: This describes the ability of an MTI radar to detect

moving targets which occur in the relatively clear resolution cells between patches of strong
clutter.
 Clutter echo power is usually not uniform, so if a radar has sufficient resolution it can see
targets in the clear areas between clutter patches.
 The higher the radar resolution, the better the inter clutter visibility.
 Radars with "moderate" resolution might require only enough improvement factor to deal
with the median clutter power, which may be 20 dB less than the average clutter power.
  A medium-resolution radar with a 2ps pulse width and a 1.5o beamwidth, is of sufficient
resolution to achieve a 20 dB advantage over low-resolution radars for the detection of
targets in ground clutter.
LIMITATIONS OF MTI RADAR:

• The performance of MTI radar degraded because of the following reasons.

1. Equipment instabilities
2. Internal fluctuation of clutter
3. Antenna scanning modulation.
4. Limiting in MTI radar.

10. Differentiate between MTI and pulse Doppler radar. ?( Oct/Nov - 2018-SET-2 4M)
(Analyzing-A)
ANS

S.NO. MTI RADAR PULSE DOPPLER RADAR

In this, range ambiguities are avoided with In this, doppler frequency ambiguities are
1 low PRFs. avided with high PRFs.

2 It has blind speed effect There is no chance of blind speed effect

3 MTI radar has unambiguous range Pulse doppler radar has ambiguous range
They use delay line cancellers for They use range gate doppler filters for
4 separating the moving targets from separating the moving targets from
stationary clutter. stationary clutter
MTI radars use magnetron oscillatorsPulse doppler radars use klystron
5
oscillators
These are more widely used in radar These are rarely used in radar
6
applications applications
7 It operates at low duty cycle It operates at high duty cycle.
 Unit-IV

Topic Name: Tracking with Radar, Sequential Lobing, Conical Scan

1. Explain the purpose of tracking radar. List out the types of tracking radar. (Oct/Nov –
2018,SET-3,4M) (Understanding-U)

ANS

TRACKING RADAR:A radar which detects a target , determines its location and trajectory in
future is called tracking radar.

TYPES OF TRACKING RADAR:

The following are the types of tracking radar

1. Single Target Tracking (STT)radar

2. Automatic Detection and Tracking(ADT) radar
3. Track-While-Scan (TWS) radar
4. Phased array tracking radar
5. Angle tracking radar
6. Monopulse tracking radar

2. Draw the block diagram and explain the operation of a Conical scan tracking Radar.
(Oct/Nov - 2018-SET-2 7M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
CONICAL SCAN TRACKING RADAR:
 The concept of conical scan is illustrated in above figure.
 In the above figure , the target is present at „A‟ . Due to the squinted beam rotation and
its axis, the echo signal produced due to the target is modulated to a beam rotation
frequency..
 The phase of conical scan modulation is obtained from the target position in two angle
coordinate system.
 In conical scan tracking radar, the tracking of target is accomplished by continuously
rotating an offset antenna beam.

The block diagram of a typical conical scan tracking radar is shown in below figure.
The main blocks of conical scan tracking radar are

1. Duplexer
2. Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
3. Second Detector
4. Range Gate
5. Phase sensitive detectors(Azimuth and Elevation)
6. Servo amplifiers(Azimuth and Elevation)
7. Servo motor(Azimuth and Elevation)
8. Scan motor and reference generator

WORKING(or OPERATION)

 Initially a transmitted signal is applied to the duplexer which protects the receiver from
the damage caused by the high power of transmitter.It isolates transmitter and receiver.,
such that, it sends the obtained signal to the receiver but not to the transmitter.Then the
received signal is passed through AGC section of receiver which will prevent saturation
 by large signals.In conical scan tracking radar, AGC maintains the D.C level constant for
maintaining linearity between angular error and angle-error signal voltage.
 The main function of second detector is to obtain the original transmitted signal by
demodulation and then the received signal is passed through range gate filter, which
eliminates the collapsing loss by quantizing the range into small intervals.
 Then, the error signal which is obtained from range gate filter is compared with the
elevation and azimuth reference signals in the angle-error detectors.The above detectors
are also called as phase sensitive detectors, in which the input signal is mixed with the
reference signal. The frequency of input and reference signals are same. When the input
signal phase changes by 180o , then the D.C output voltage reverses its polarity.The sign
of the output signal indicates the direction of the error.
 The signal which is obtained at the output of the phase sensitive detector is sufficiently
amplified by the servo amplifiers to drive the Azimuth and elevation servo motors.

3. Explain the principle operation and advantages of sequential lobing tracking radar.
?( OCT./NOV.-2010-SET-3 8M) (Analyzing-A)
ANS
4. List the merits and demerits of Mono pulse tracker over conical scan type tracker.
(March – 2021,SET-1,7M)(Remembering-R)

 In sequential lobing the direction of antenna beam is rapidly switched between two
positions so that the strength of echo from target will fluctuate at the switching rate ,
unless the target is exactly midway between the two directions. The strength will be the
same in both antenna positions.
 Sequential lobing is also called lobe switching
 An important feature of sequential lobing is that the target position accuracy can be far
better than that given by the antenna beamwidth.
 The difference between the target position and the reference direction is the angular error.
 The tracking radar attempts to position the antenna to make the angular error zero . When
the angular error is zero , the target is located along the reference direction.
 One method of obtaining the direction and magnitude of the angular error in one
coordinate is by alternatively switching antenna beam between two positions . This is
called lobe switching , sequential switching or sequential lobing.
 Fig.(a) is a polar representation of the antenna beam in the two switched positions . A
plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in fig.(b), and the error signal obtained from a
target not on the switching axis (reference direction) is shown in fig.(c).
 The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two switched positions
is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis.
 The sign of the difference determines the direction the antenna must be moved in order to
align the switching axis with the direction of the target.
 When the voltages in the two switched positions are equal the target is on axis and its
position may be determined from the axis direction.
 Two additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the
orthogonal coordinate.

ADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL LOBING RADAR

1. It requires only one antenna

2. Its operation is simple
 3. It requires less equipment
4. It is cost affective

DISADVANTAGE OF SEQUENTIAL LOBING RADAR

It is not very accurate

Topic Name: Mono pulse Tracking Radar – Amplitude Comparison Mono pulse (one-
and two- coordinates)

5. List out the tracking techniques? Explain anyone of the tracking method in detail?
(Jan/Feb - 2022,SET-1,8M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
• Two most commonly used antenna tracking mechanisms are
1. Sequential lobing
2. Conical Scanning
CONICAL SCAN TRACKING RADAR:

 The concept of conical scan is illustrated in above figure.

  In the above figure , the target is present at „A‟ . Due to the squinted beam rotation and
its axis, the echo signal produced due to the target is modulated to a beam rotation
frequency..
 The phase of conical scan modulation is obtained from the target position in two angle
coordinate system.
 In conical scan tracking radar, the tracking of target is accomplished by continuously
rotating an offset antenna beam.

The block diagram of a typical conical scan tracking radar is shown in below figure.

The main blocks of conical scan tracking radar are

9. Duplexer
10. Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
11. Second Detector
12. Range Gate
13. Phase sensitive detectors(Azimuth and Elevation)
14. Servo amplifiers(Azimuth and Elevation)
15. Servo motor(Azimuth and Elevation)
 16. Scan motor and reference generator

WORKING(or OPERATION)

 Initially a transmitted signal is applied to the duplexer which protects the receiver from
the damage caused by the high power of transmitter.It isolates transmitter and receiver.,
such that, it sends the obtained signal to the receiver but not to the transmitter.Then the
received signal is passed through AGC section of receiver which will prevent saturation
by large signals.In conical scan tracking radar, AGC maintains the D.C level constant for
maintaining linearity between angular error and angle-error signal voltage.
 The main function of second detector is to obtain the original transmitted signal by
demodulation and then the received signal is passed through range gate filter, which
eliminates the collapsing loss by quantizing the range into small intervals.
 Then, the error signal which is obtained from range gate filter is compared with the
elevation and azimuth reference signals in the angle-error detectors.The above detectors
are also called as phase sensitive detectors, in which the input signal is mixed with the
reference signal. The frequency of input and reference signals are same. When the input
signal phase changes by 180o , then the D.C output voltage reverses its polarity.The sign
of the output signal indicates the direction of the error.
 The signal which is obtained at the output of the phase sensitive detector is sufficiently
amplified by the servo amplifiers to drive the Azimuth and elevation servo motors.

6. Explain the working of a monopulse radar with the help of a block diagram.
(Understanding-U)
ANS
MONOPULSE RADAR:
 The monopulse radar system is mainly used for target angle measurement and tracking.
The information on the target angular position is determined by comparison of signals
received in two or more simultaneous beams. The term "monopulse" comes from the
ability of this system to extract the angular position from only one pulse. However, in
practice the angular position of the target is obtained from multiple pulses in order to
improve target detection probability and further improve angle measurement accuracy.
 The main advantage of a monopulse system in comparison to standard angle
measurement methods is that it is not affected by amplitude fluctuations of the target
echo because the angle information is acquired by comparing signals received by several
simultaneous beams and produced by a single echo pulse. If the echo amplitude changes,
it changes in the same way in all receiver channels.
 There are several methods by which a monopulse angle measurement can be made. The
most popularly used methods are
1. Amplitude comparision monopulse
2. Phase comparision monopulse


 The amplitude comparision monopulse employs two ovelapping antenna patterns (fig.(a))
to obtain the angular error in one coordinate.
 Two overlapping antenna patterns with their main beams pointed in slightly different
directions are used (fig.a) . The two beams in this figure are said to be squinted or offset.
 The two overlapping antenna beams may be generated with a single reflector or with a
lens antenna illuminated by two adjacent feeds.
 A cluster of four feeds may be used if both elevation and azimuth error signals are
wanted.
 The sum of the two antenna patterns of fig.(a) is shown in fig.(b) and the difference in
fig.(c).
 The sum patterns are used for transmission , while both the sum pattern and difference
pattern are used on reception.
 The signal received with the difference pattern provides the magnitude of the error signal
 The sum signal provides the range measurement and is also used as a reference to extract
the sign of the error signal.
 Signals received from the sum and the difference patterns are amplified separately and
combined in a phase sensitive detector to produce the error signal characteristic shown in
fig.(d).

 A block diagram of the amplitude comparision monopulse tracking radar for a single
angular co-ordinate is shown in above fig.
 The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two arms of a hybrid junction such
as a “magic T”, a “rat-race”, or a short-slot coupler.
 The sum and difference signals appear at the two other arms of the hybrid.
 On reception, the outputs of the sum arm and the difference arm each heterodyned to an
intermediate frequency and amplified as in any superheterodyne receiver.
 The transmitter is connected to the sum arm.
 Range information is also extracted from the sum channel.
 A duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of receiver.
 The output of the phase sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is
proportional to the angular error and whose sign is proportional to the direction.
 The output of the monopulse radar is used to perform automatic tracking.
 The angular error signal actuates a servo-control system to position the antenna , and the
range output from the sum channel feeds into an automatic –range tracking unit.

3. With a neat block diagram, explain the function of one co-ordinate amplitude
comparision monopulse radar. (Oct/Nov - 2018-SET-2 8M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
AMPLITUDE COMPARISION MONOPULSE RADAR IN ONE ANGLE CO-
ORDINATE

 A block diagram of the amplitude comparision monopulse tracking radar for a single
angular co-ordinate is shown in above fig.
 The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two arms of a hybrid junction such
as a “magic T”, a “rat-race”, or a short-slot coupler.
 The sum and difference signals appear at the two other arms of the hybrid.
 On reception, the outputs of the sum arm and the difference arm each heterodyned to an
intermediate frequency and amplified as in any superheterodyne receiver.
  The transmitter is connected to the sum arm.
 Range information is also extracted from the sum channel.
 A duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of receiver.
 The output of the phase sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is
proportional to the angular error and whose sign is proportional to the direction.
 The output of the monopulse radar is used to perform automatic tracking.
 The angular error signal actuates a servo-control system to position the antenna , and the
range output from the sum channel feeds into an automatic –range tracking unit.

4. Explain the working principle of two angle coordinate monopulse tracking

system (Oct/Nov – 2018,SET-3,8M) (Understanding-U)

ANS

AMPLITUDE COMPARISION MONOPULSE TRACKING RADAR IN TWO ANGLE

CO-ORDINATE(AZIMUTH AND ELEVATION)

 A block diagram of monopulse radar for extracting angle-error signals in both azimuth
and elevation is shown in above fig.
 The cluster of four feed horns generate fourpartially overlapping (squinted) beams.

 The four feeds might be used to illuminate a parabolic reflector , Cassegrain reflector , or
spaced fed phased array antennas.

 The arrangement of four feeds is shown in the upper left hand portion of the figure.

 All four feeds are used to generate the sum pattern on transmission and reception.

 The difference in plane is formed by taking the sum of two adjacent feeds and subtracting
them from the sum of the other two adjacent feeds.

 The difference pattern in the orthogonal plane is obtained similarly.

 For example, based on the arrangement of feeds shown in above fig.

 Sum pattern=A+B+C+D

 Azimuth difference pattern=(A+B)-(C+D)

 Elevation difference pattern=(B+D)-(A+C)

 Note that the upper feeds form the lower beams when radiated by a reflector antenna .

 A total of four hybrid junctions are needed to obtain the sum pattern and the two
difference patterns.

 The three mixers for the sum, elevation difference, and azimuth difference channels use a
common local oscillator to better maintain the phase relationships among the three
channels.

 Two phase sensitive detectors extract the angle-error information; one for azimuth and
the other for elevation.

 Range information is extracted from the output of the sum channel after envelope
detection.

 Since phase comparision is made between the output of the sum channel and each of the
difference channels, it is important that large relative phase differences not occur among
the three channels.

 The phase difference between channels should be maintained to within 25o or better for
reasonably proper performance.
Topic Name: Phase Comparison Mono pulse, Tracking in Range, Acquisition and
Scanning Patterns, Comparison of Trackers

5. Define tracking in range and explain the split gate tracker method(Remembering-R)
ANS

TRACKING IN RANGE: Range tracking is the process of continuously measuring the delay
between the transmission of an RF pulse and the echo signal returned from a target. The range
measurement is the most precise position-coordinate measurement of the radar; typically it can
be within a few yards at hundreds-of-miles range.
 The basic principle of split gate range tracking involves the use of a pair of sequentially
generated, contiguous gating pulses usually referred to as "early gate" and "late gate"
sampling pulses.
 The technique for automatically track in range is based on the split range gate.
 Two range gates are generated as shown in above fig. One is the early gate and the other
the other is the late gate.
  The echo pulse is shown in fig.(a), the relative position of the gates at a particular instant
in fig.(b) and the error signal in fig.(c).
 In this example, the portion of the signal in the early gate is less than that of the late gate.
 The signals in the two gates are integrated and subtracted to produce the difference error
signal.
 The magnitude of the error signal is a measure of the difference between the center of the
pulse and the center of the gates.
 The sign of the error signal determines the direction in which the gates must be
repositioned by a feedback control system. When the error signal is „zero‟ the range gates
are centered on the pulse.
 The position of the two gates indicates the target‟s range.
 If there exists deviation of the pair of the gates from the center, then the echo pulse
increases the signal energy in one of the gates and decreases in the other gate . This
produces an error signal that causes the two pulses to be moved so as to re-establish
equilibrium.

6. Explain the principle of operation of phase comparison monopulse tracking

radar with a block diagram.
ANS
 Phase-comparison monopulse is a technique used in radio frequency (RF) applications
such as radar and direction finding to accurately estimate the direction of arrival of a signal
[1]
from the phase difference of the signal measured on two (or more) separated antennas or
more typically from displaced phase centers of an array antenna. Phase-comparison
monopulse differs from amplitude-comparison monopulse in that the former uses displaced
phase centers with a common beam pointing direction, while the latter uses a common
phase center and displaced beam pointing directions.[
 In phase comparision monopole, two antenna beams are used to obtain an angle
measurement in one co-ordinate.
 The two beams look in the same direction and cover the same region of space rather than
be squinted to look in two slightly different directions.
 The phase comparision is also known as interferometer radar.
 The amplitudes of the signals are same , but their phases are different.
 Consider two antennas spaced a distance „d‟ apart , as shown in fig.
 If the signal arrives from a direction θ with respect to the normal to the base line, the
phase difference in the signals received in the two antennas is
 ∆ϕ=2π(d/λ)sinθ
 Where θ is signal arriving from a direction θ w.r.t the normal to the base line
 D is the distance between the two antennas
 λ is the wavelength
 EXPLANATION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM
 A block diagram of phase comparision monopulse in one angle coordinate is shown in
above fig;2

 Two antennas are shown side by side. These are directive antennas, one of which is
connected to transmitter and receiver as in a conventional radar, while the other antenna
feeds a receiver only.

 The transmitter is shown connected to the antenna via a duplexer. In practice a second
duplexer might be inserted in front of the other receiver, not so much for protection, but
to balance the phase shifts in the two channels.

 The two receiving channels should be identical.

 The RF echo signals are heterodyned to an intermediate frequency with a common local
oscillator. The outputs of the two IF amplifiers are compared in a phase detector whose
output is a voltage proportional to Δφ.

 This voltage is used as error signal input to servo-control loop which positions the
antenna to make the error signal zero.

 One of the receiving channels is enveloped-detected as in the normal radar receiver, to

extract the range information.

 An additional antenna and receiving channel is necessary in order to track in two

orthogonal coordinates.

 In one implementation of the other phase-comparision monopulse radar, four antennas

were arranged in a square to obtain tracking in both elevation and azimuth.
 7. Discuss about acquisition and scanning parameters. (OCT./NOV.-2019-SET-2
7M) (Analyzing-A)
ANS
ACQUISITION AND SCANNING PATTERNS\

 A tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a tracker.
Therefore it is usually necessary for the radar to scan an angular in which the presence of
the target is suspected.
 Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencil beam antenna for accurate tracking in
angle; but it can be difficult to search a large volume for targets when using a narrow
antenna beamwidth.
 Some other radars must first find the target to be tracked and then designate the target‟s
coordinates to the tracker. These radars have been called acquisition radars designation
radars and are surveillance radars that search large volume.
 The various scanning patterns which are employed with pencil-beam antenna are
1. Helical scanning
2. Palmer scanning
3. Spiral scanning
4. Raster scanning or TV scanning
5. Nodding scanning
6. Briefly explain the tracking radar and search radar system(Understanding-U)
ANS
 Unit-V

Topic Name: Detection of Radar Signals in Noise : Introduction, Matched Filter

Receiver – Response Characteristics and Derivation, Correlation detection and Cross-
correlation Receiver

1. What is a matched filter receiver? Derive its frequency response function (March -
2021 SET-1, 7M) (Remembering-R)
ANS
DEF:A linear network which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-noise power ratio of a radar
receiver maximizes the detectability of a target is called a matched filter.

DERIVATION OF THE MATCHED FILTER FREQUENCY RESPONSE

 • The above expression indicates that the output peak signal to mean noise ratio from a
matched filter depends on total energy of received signal and noise power per unit
bandwidth only. It does not depend on shape of the signal, duration and bandwidth .
Therefore these characteristics of signals can be used to achieve radar capabilities.

•
 • An important property of matched filter is that irrespective of shape, time duration or
bandwidth of input signal waveform, the maximum ratio of output peak signal - to - mean
noise power is twice the energy (E) contained in the received signal divided by the noise
power per unit bandwidth (No).

2. What is meant by correlation? Explain cross correlation with the help of neat block
diagram. (February/March - 2018, SET-1, 7M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
CORRELATION: Correlation is a statistical measure that expresses the extent to which two variables
are linearly related

CROSS CORRELATION: Cross-correlation is the comparison of two different time series

to detect if there is a correlation between metrics with the same maximum and minimum values. ross-
correlation functions provide a measure of association between signals.

 The output of the matched filter is the cross-correlation function of the received signal
and the transmitted signal.
 In a correlation receiver, the input signal yi (t) is multiplied by a delayed replica of
transmitted signal s(t-TR) , where TR is an estimate of the time delay of the target echo
signal.
 The product is passed through a low pass filter to perform integration.
 If the output of the integrator (filter) exceeds a pre-determined threshold at a time TR , a
target is said to be at a range R= c TR /2, where c is velocity of propagation.
  The cross-correlation receiver tests for the presence of a target at only a single time delay
TR .
 Targets at time delay other than TR are found by varying TR on successive transmissions,
searching possible values of TR complicates the correlation receiver.
 Mathematically the cross correlation receiver and matched filter receiver are equivalent.
Hence selection as which to use in a particular radar application is determined by ease of
implementation.
 The matched filter receiver is preferred over correlation filter in most radar applications.
 The cross correlation receiver correlates the received signal yi (t) with stored delayed
replica of known signal s(t) .
 The above fig. shows the block diagram of cross-correlation receiver.
 The correlation receiver performs cross correlation between signal yi (t) corrupted by
noise and replica of the transmitted signals s(t).
 The correlation receiver is a linear , time-invariant receiver and linear , time-invariant
filter which maximizes output peak signal to mean noise power ratio for a fixed input
signal to ratio.

Topic Name: Efficiency of Non-matched Filters, Matched Filter with Non-white Noise,
Noise Figure and Noise Temperature.

3. Discuss about Efficiency of Non-matched Filters. (February - 2019 ,SET-

1,7M)(Remembering-R)

ANS

Generally it is not possible always to obtain exact matched filter in practice.Thus it is better to
examine the efficiency of non-matched filters compared with the ideal matched filter. The ratio
of peak signal-to-noise ratio(≈2E/No) from the matched filter, is used to measure the efficiency
of non-matched filter i.e.,

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑁0
∴ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = (𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟)
2𝐸
When the input signal is a rectangular pulse of width τ, the efficiency for a single tuned (RLC)
resonant filter and rectangular shaped filter of half power beamwidth,B is plotted vas shown in
the figure below

Efficiency of filter

w.r.t. matched filter Rectangle shaped pass band

Single tuned(RLC)
resonant passband

Half power bandwidth and times pulse width,Bτ

Figure

For Bτ = 0.4 , the single tuned filter obtained its maximum efficiency and the corresponding loss
in signal to noise ratio is 0.88 dB as compared with a matched filter. The various combinations
of filters and pulse shape and the values of Bτ which maximize the SNR is listed in below table:
Efficifncy of filter with respect to matched filter
4. Describe the operation of matched filter with non white noise(March – 2021,SET-
1,7M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
MATCHED FILTER WITH NON WHITE NOISE:
When the matched filter input noise is non-white noise, then the output SNR maximized
by preceding the matched filter with a particular linear filter known as whitening filter.
The shape of the input noise spectrum is compensated by the frequency response of the
whitening filter. The combination of a whitening filter followed by a matched filter
produces an optimum linear filter that maximizes the outpur SNR in the presence of non-
white noise.
The input to the whitening filter is considered as,
x(t)=si (t) + ni (t) (1)
Where,
ni (t) = Non-white noise
Since, the purpose of the whitening filter is make the noise spectrum white, the noise
PSD at the output is constant i.e.
Sno(f) = Sni(f) │HW(f)│2 = Ga (2)
Where,
Sni(f) = Power density spectrum of ni (t)-[Ni(t)]2
Sno(f)=Output power density spectrum
HW(f)= Whitening filter transfer function
Ga = Constant
Then the output of the whitening filter is given by
Sw(f) = Si(f) HW(f) (3)
Where,
Si(f)= Fourier transform of si (t)
For second filter (i.e. whitening filter ), the non-causal and causal transfer
functions are respectively given by
HWC(f)= S*w(f) (4)
HC(f)= S*w(f) e-j2πf t1 (5)
 Where t1 = pulse width after whitening
Then , the optimum filter overall transfer function is,
H(f)= HW(f) HC(f) (6)
Using the equations (2), (3) and (5) , equation (6) can be written as
Ga Si*  f  e  j 2 ft1
Hf 
Sni  f 
Ga Si*  f  e  j 2 ft1
Hf 
 N i  f  
2

 Sni  f    N i  f  
2

Ga Si*  f  e  j 2 ft1
Hf 
N i  f  N i*  f 
 S  f    j 2 ft1
*
1
H  f    Ga  i  e
Ni  f   N i  f  

Thus, the non-white noise matched filter can be considered as the cascade of filter with
frequency response function 1/Ni(f) and matched filter with white input noise and a signal
whose spectrum is Si(f)/Ni(f).
5. Define noise figure and noise temperature(February – 2020,SET-1,2M)
(Remembering-R)

ANS

NOISE FIGURE: The noise figure of a receiver is defined as the ratio of signal-to-noise ratio at
the input of the receiver to the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the receiver. It is denoted by
Fn and written as

Input signal – to  noise ratio

Noise figure Fn 
Output signal  to  noise ratio

 Sin 
 
 Nin   S / N in
Fn  
 Sout   S / N out
 
 N out 
  Sin 
 
Fn   N in 
 Sout 
 
 N out 

 N  S 
Fn   out   in 
 Nin  Sout 

But Nin  kTo Bn

Sout / Sin  G

N out
Fn 
kTo Bn
• Where Sin= Available input signal power

• Sout= Available output signal power

• Nin= Available input noise power= kToBn

• Nout= Available output noise power

• G=Available gain= Sout / Sin

• K=Boltzmann‟s constant=1.38×10-23 J/deg

• To= Standard temperature of 290o K

• Bn=Noise bandwidth

NOISE TEMPERATURE: The noise temperature of a network is defined as , the temperature

at the input of the network for the noise output ΔN

Where,

∆N = k TeBnG

And Fn =1+(Te / To)= (To + Te )/ To

• To + Te = Fn To

• Te = Fn To - To

Te = (Fn – 1) To
Te = effective noise temperature

6. Derive the equation of noise figure of N-stage cascaded network(OCT./NOV.-2019-

SET-2 7M) (Applying-Ap)

ANS

Fig: Networks are connected in cascade

If N number of networks are cascaded then the noise figure can be written as

Fo  F1 
 F2  1 
 F 3 1 
 F n 1
G1 G1G 2 G1G 2 G N 1

NOISE TEMPERATURE: The noise temperature of a network is defined as , the temperature

at the input of the network for the noise output ΔN

Where,

∆N = k TeBnG

And Fn =1+(Te / To)= (To + Te )/ To

• To + Te = Fn To

• Te = Fn To - To

Te = (Fn – 1) To

Te = effective noise temperature

• The effective noise temperature of a receiver consisting of a number of networks in

cascade is

Te = T1 +(T2 / G1) +(T3 / G1 G2) +….+(TN / G1 G2 ..GN-1)

Where,

T1 , T2 , ….. TN are effective noise temperatures of respective networks

G1 , G2 ,……. GN are gains of respective networks.

SYSTEM NOISE TEMPERATURE(Ts):

DEF : System noise temperature , Ts is defined as the effective noise temperature of the receiver
system including the effects of antenna temperature Ta .

Ts = Ta + Te = To Fs

Where Fs = System noise figure.

• The effective noise temperature of a receiver consisting of a number of networks in

cascade is

Te = T1 +(T2 / G1) +(T3 / G1 G2) +….+TN / (G1 G2 ..GN-1)

Even though both effective noise temperature and noise figure describe the same characteristic of
the network, for low noise devices, effective noise temperature is preferred and for conventional
receivers noise figure is preferred.

Topic Name: Radar Transmitters & Receivers –Displays – types, Duplexers – Branch
type and Balanced type, Circulators as Duplexers.

7. What is display? Discuss various types of displays. (February – 2019, SET-1,8M)

(Remembering-R)
ANS
DISPLAY: Display is an electronic device used to provide information to the operator. Display
is a unit of radar receiver which presents the radar‟s information . It is a coupling link between
the radar information and human operator.

 The purpose of the radar display is to visually present the output of the radar receiver in a
form such that an operator could readily and accurately detect the presence of a target and
extract information about its location.
• The cathode ray tube (CRT) has been almost universally used as the radar display.
TYPES OF RADR DISPLAY:
There are two basic CRT displays
1. Deflection modulated CRT display : Such as A-scope in which a target is indicated by the
deflection of the electron beam . These displays have simple ckts than those of intensity
modulated CRTs.
  The deflection modulated CRTs , such as the A-scope , generally employ electrostatic
deflection.

2. Intensity modulated CRT display, such as the PPI , in which a target is indicated by
intensifying the electron beam and presenting a luminous spot on the face of the CRT.

 Intensity modulated CRTs , such as the PPI , generally employ electromagnetic

deflection.
 The other types of displays are A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,R and RHI(Range-
height indicator)

SALIENT FEATURES OF TYPE A-SCOPE DISPLAY

Fig:A-Scope presentation displaying Amplitude Vs. Range

1. It presents range only.
2. Its vertical axis represents echo strength and horizontal axis represents range.
3. Its circuit is simple
4. It is the most popular display.
5. It is suitable with tracking radar.
It is deflection modulated CRT display.
SALIENT FEATURES OF PPI:

Fig:PPI presentation displaying Range vs. angle

1. It is also called P-scope
2. It displays the map of target area
3. It is intensity modulated CRT display.
4. It provides range information.
5. It is used in search radars.

8. What are different types of duplexers used in radar receivers(March - 2021 ,SET-
1,2M)(Remembering-R)
ANS
TYPES OF DUPLEXERS:
• The common types of duplexers are
1. Branch type duplexer
2. Balanced type duplexer
3. Ferrite circulator
 9. Draw and explain balanced type duplexer. (Oct/Nov – 2018,SET-3,8M)
(Understanding-U)
ANS
BALANCED TYPE DUPLEXER

Balanced duplexers.
 The balanced duplexer, Fig. 9.6, is based on the short-slot hybrid junction which consists
of two sections of waveguides joined along one of their narrow walls with a slot cut in
the common narrow wall to provide coupling between the two the short-slot hybrid may
be considered as a broadband directional coupler with a coupling ratio of 3 dB.
 TRANSMIT CONDITION: In the transmit condition (Fig. a) power is divided equally
into each waveguide by the first short slot hybrid junction.
 Both TR tubes break down and reflect the incident power out the antenna arm as shown.
 The short-slot hybrid has the property that each time the energy passes through the slot in
either direction, its phase is advanced 90".
 Therefore, the energy must travel as indicated by the solid lines. Any energy which leaks
through the TR tubes (shown by the dashed lines) is directed to the arm with the matched
dummy load and not to the receiver,
  In addition to the attenuation provided by the TR tubes, the hybrid junctions provide an
additional 20 to 30 dB of isolation.
 RECEIVE CONDITION: On reception the TR tubes are unfired and the echo signals
pass through the duplexer and into the receiver as shown in Fig. 9.6b. The power splits
equally at the first junction and because of the 90" phase advance on passing through the
slot, the energy recombines in the receiving artn and not in the dummy-load arm.
ADVANTAGES:
1. The power-handling capability of the balanced duplexer is inherently greater than that of
the branch-type duplexer and
2. it has wide bandwidth over 10 percent with proper design.

1. Explain branch type duplexer with a neat diagram. ?( OCT./NOV.-2010-SET-2 8M)

(Understanding-U)
ANS
BRANCH TYPE DUPLEXER

 Branch-type duplexers. The branch-type duplexer, diagrammed in Fig. 9.5 was one of
the earliest duplexer configurations employed.
 It consists of a TR (transmit-receive) switch and an ATR (anti-transmit receive) switch,
both of which are gas-discharge tubes.
 TRANSMIT CONDITION: When the transmitter is turned on, the TR and the ATR
tubes ionize; that is, they break down, or fire.
  The TR in the fired condition acts as a short circuit to prevent transmitter power from
entering the receiver.
 Since the TR is located a quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, it appears
as a short circuit at the receiver but as an open circuit at the transmission line so that it
does not impede the flow of transmitter power.
 Since the ATR is displaced a quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, the
short circuit it produces during the fired condition appears as an open circuit on the
transmission line and thus has no effect on transmission.
 RECEIVE CONDITION: During reception, the transmitter is off and neither the TR nor
the ATR is fired.
 The open circuit of the ATR, being a quarter wave from the transmission line, appears as
a short circuit across the line.
 Since this short circuit is located a quarter wave from the receiver branch-line, the
transmitter is effectively disconnected from the line and the echo signal power is directed
to the receiver.
 The diagram of Fig. 9.5 is a parallel configuration. Series or series-parallel
configurations are possible.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The band is limited to 5 percent only
2. The power handling capability is also limited.
3. The decoupling between transmitter and receiver is lower than at other duplexers
APPLICATION:
It is used in low-cost radars
 4. Explain circulator as a duplexer with a neat diagram. (Understanding-U)
ANS

 Circulator and receiver protector. The ferrite circulator4' is a three- or four-port device
that can, in principle, offer separation of the transmitter and receiver without the need for
the conventional duplexer configurations .
 The circulator does not provide sufficient protection by itself and requires a receiver
protector as in Fig. 9.9. The isolation between the transmitter and receiver ports of a
circulator is seldom sufficient to protect the receiver from damage.
 However, it is not the isolation between transmitter and receiver ports that usually
determines the amount of transmitter power at the receiver, but the impedance mismatch
at the antenna which reflects transmitter power back into the receiver.
 The VSWR is a measure of the amount of power reflected by the antenna. For example, a
VSWR of 1.5 means that about 4 percent of the transmitter power will be reflected by the
antenna mismatch in the direction of the receiver, which corresponds to an isolation of
only 14 dB.
 About 11 percent of the power is reflected when the VSWR is 2.0, corresponding to less
than 10 dB of isolation.
 Thus, a receiver protector is almost always required.
 It also reduces to a safe level radiations from nearby transmitters.
  The receiver protector might use solid-state diodes for an all solid-state configuration or
it might be a passive TR-limiter consisting of a radioactive primed TR-tube followed by a
diode limiter.
 The ferrite circulator with receiver protector is attractive for radar applications because of
its long life, wide bandwidth, and compact design.
 Ferrite circulator provides isolation of about 20 to 30 dB between the transmitter and
receiver.
 Small size circulator along with the receiver protector can be used as duplexer in solid
state TR modules for active aperture phase arrays.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Long life
2. Wide bandwidth
3. Compact design

5. Write a notes on (i) series and parallel feeds (ii) Branch type Duplexer(Jan/Feb - 2022
,SET-1,14M)(Remembering-R)
ANS
SERIES AND PARALLEL FEEDS
SERIES FED ARRAY:

Fig:1 Series fed linear array.

 In series fed linear array each phase shifter has the same phase and only one steering
command is to be generated. The above figure shows a series fed linear array.
 One major disadvantage of series fed array is its high loss
  The total loss in series fedv array network is given by
Total loss= (N-1) Lps .
Where, Lps is loss in each phase shifter.

PARALLEL FED ARRAY:

Fig:2 Parallel fed linear array

 Variable phase shifters at each element of a linear array to steer the beam is called
parallel-fed array.
 The above figure shows four element array.
 For N element array (N-1) phase commands are to be generated.
 The phase difference between the elements is given by ϕ=2π(d/λ) sinθo
BRANCH TYPE DUPLEXER

 Branch-type duplexers. The branch-type duplexer, diagrammed in Fig. 9.5 was one of
the earliest duplexer configurations employed.
 It consists of a TR (transmit-receive) switch and an ATR (anti-transmit receive) switch,
both of which are gas-discharge tubes.
 TRANSMIT CONDITION: When the transmitter is turned on, the TR and the ATR
tubes ionize; that is, they break down, or fire.
 The TR in the fired condition acts as a short circuit to prevent transmitter power from
entering the receiver.
  Since the TR is located a quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, it appears
as a short circuit at the receiver but as an open circuit at the transmission line so that it
does not impede the flow of transmitter power.
 Since the ATR is displaced a quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, the
short circuit it produces during the fired condition appears as an open circuit on the
transmission line and thus has no effect on transmission.
 RECEIVE CONDITION: During reception, the transmitter is off and neither the TR nor
the ATR is fired.
 The open circuit of the ATR, being a quarter wave from the transmission line, appears as
a short circuit across the line.
 Since this short circuit is located a quarter wave from the receiver branch-line, the
transmitter is effectively disconnected from the line and the echo signal power is directed
to the receiver.
 The diagram of Fig. 9.5 is a parallel configuration. Series or series-parallel
configurations are possible.

Topic Name: Introduction to Phased Array Antennas – Basic Concepts, Radiation

Pattern, Beam Steering and Beam Width changes

6. List and explain the applications, advantages and limitations of phased array
antennas(Understanding-U)
ANS
ADVANTAGES OF PHASED ARRAY RADARS
1. The primary advantage is that phased array radar eliminates the need for mechanically
rotating antenna elements.
2. The radiation pattern is capable of changing rapidly to follow the moving target.
3. The array has the ability to generate simultaneously many independent beams from then
same antenna aperture. The array might generate fixed beams, scanning beams or both at
the same time.
4. Large peak or large average powers may be obtained with separate transmitters at each of
he elements of the array.
5. The spillover loss is almost absent in phased array.
 6. The efficiency of phased array radar is higher compared to all other systems.
LIMITATIONS OF PHASED ARRAY
1. Limited coverage available from a single plane array . Theoretically , a single plane array
should be able to cover hemisphere but practically it is difficult.
2. The phase array radars are the costliest and complexity is the biggest disadvantage.
APPLICATIONS OF PHASE ARRAY ANTENNAS
1. Phased array antennas are electrically steerable.
2. A phased array may be used to point a fixed radiation pattern or to scan rapidly in
azimuth or elevation.
3. It is used in optical communication as a wavelength selective splitter.
4. AM broadcasting:Used in many AM broadcast radio stations to enhance signal strength
and therefore coverage in the city of license while minimizing interference to other areas
5. FM broadcasting: Which greatly increase the antenna gain magnifying the emitted RF
energy toward the horizon which greatly increases the stations broadcast range.
6. Naval usage: Phased array radars allow a warship to use one radar system for surface
detection and tracking , air detection and tracking and missile uplink capabilities.
7. Weather research usage: For better understanding of thunder storms and tornados,
eventually leading to increased warning times and enhanced prediction of tornados.
8. Radio frequency identification: Phased arrays have been included in RFID systems in
order to significantly boost the reading capability of passive UHF tags passing from 30
feet to 300 feet.

7. What is phased array antenna? Explain the radiation pattern of phased array antenna?(
Oct/Nov - 2018-SET-2 8M) (Understanding-U)
ANS
DEFINITION OF PHASED ARRAY: A phased array is a directive antenna made up of
individual radiating elements or antennas which generate a radiation pattern whose shape and
direction is determined by the relative phases and amplitudes of the currents at the individual
elements . By properly varying the relative phases it is possible to steer the direction of the
radiation
A phased array antenna is an array antenna whose single radiators can be
fed with different phase shifts. As a result, the common antenna pattern can
be steered electronically. The electronic steering is much more flexible and
requires less maintenance than the mechanical steering of the antenna.
RADIATION PATTERN OF N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY or RADIATION
PATTERN OF PHASED ARRAYS

 Consider a linear array made up of N elements equally spaced a distance „d‟ apart. The
elements assumed to be isotropic point sources with equal amplitude and phase.
 Element 1 will be taken as reference signal with 0 phase.
 θ is the direction of incoming radiation.
 It is assumed that the amplitudes an phases of the signals at each element are weighted
uniformly.
 Therefore, the amplitudes of the voltages in each element are the same, and for
convenience, will be taken to be unity.
 The above array is a parallel feed, linear array.
 Cos(90-θ)=Path difference(pd)/d
 sin θ=pd/d
 Pd=d sin θ (m)
  Pd in wavelenghs=(d/λ) sin θ(wavelengths)
 The phase difference in the phase of the signals in adjacent elements
 Phase difference(Ψ)=2π×Path difference
 Ψ=2π×(d/λ) sin θ
 λ is the wavelength of the received signal
 θ is direction of incoming radiation
 The output from N receiving elements are summed to produce output voltage Ea
 The sum of the voltages from the individual elements can be written as
 Ea=sin(ωt)+sin(ωt+Ψ)+sin(ωt+2Ψ)+….+ sin[ωt+(N-1)Ψ]
 Where ω is the angular frequency of the signal.
 The sum can be written as

 N 
sin  
  2 
E a  sin[t   N  1 ] (1)
2 
sin  
2
Frequency and Amplitude Factor
phase shift
 The field intensity pattern is the magnitude of eq.(1)
 d 
sin 2  N   sin
G()  G e ()     G ()G ()
2  d  
a e
N sin     sin
2

  
 The field intensity pattern has zeros(nulls) when numerator is zero . It occurs if
 Nπ(d/λ)sinθ=0,±π,±2π,……±Nπ
 Where N is an integer
 Also the field intensity pattern has zeros when denominator is zero. It occurs if
 π(d/λ)sinθ=0,±π,±2π,……±Nπ
 When the denominator is zero, numerator also becomes zero and the value of │Ea
(θ)│=0/0 is indeterminate.
 By applying the L-hospital rule, we get
│Ea (θ)│max=N when sinθ=±N(λ/d).
ARRAY FACTOR(AF):
The normalized radiation pattern of an array of isotropic elements is called array factor and is
expressed as
Ga(θ)= │Ea│2 / │Ea│2max
 d 
sin  N   sin
Ea    
 d 
sin     sin
  
 When non-isotropic radiators(directive antennas) are used, the resultant array antenna
radiation pattern is M2 e

 d 
2 sin 2  N   sin
G a () 
Ea
   
N2  d 
N 2sin 2     sin
  

 Where Ge(θ) is the radiation pattern of an individual element.

 The resultant radiation pattern is the product of the element factor G e(θ) and the array
factor Ga(θ) .
 The array factor has also been called the space factor.
 TWO DIMENSIONAL RADIATION PATTERN
 If the radiation pattern in the two principle planes are G1(θe) and G2(θa) , the two
dimensional antenna pattern is
 G(θe , θa) = G1(θe)G2(θa)
 Note that the angles θe and θa are not necessarily the elevation and azimuth angles
normally associated with the radar.
 The normalized radiation pattern of a uniformly illuminated rectangular array is

 d   d 
sin 2  N   sina  sin 2  M   sine 
G(e, a)       
 d   d 
N 2sin 2     sina  M 2sin 2     sine 
     
8. Write about: i) beam steering ii) beamwidth of phased array antennas. (Remembering-R)
ANS
BEAM STEERING:

 The beam of linear array can be steered in angle by adjusting relative time delays
between the elements. Consider two array elements spaced at a distance d apart with
received signal arriving at angle θo with respect to broadside directionas shown in Fig:(a)
 The signal is delayed at element 2 for a time delay ΔT=(d/c) sinθ , this signal is added
with signal at element 1 , making a main beam as if two elements pointed in the direction
θo .As both signals are coincident beam steering occurs by changing the time delay.
 Beam steering is also possible by using a phase shifter which provides a phase shift equal
to
d
  2f 0 T  2   sin 0

as shown in Fig:(b)
 The signals from elements 1 and 2 are in-phase rather than coincident in time.
 The phase shift that needs to be inserted at each of the elements to have all signals with
same phase phase is mφ, where m is an integer from 0 to N-1(Number of element relative
to reference element). The phase difference between element is φ.
 The normalized radiation pattern of linear array of isotropic elements is expressed as
 

 d 
sin 2  N    sin  sino  
G()    
 d 
N 2sin 2      sin  sino  
  
 Maximum of this pattern occurs when sinθ=sinθ0 , θ0 is the direction at which main beam
points
 The element pattern must be multiplied to this expression to get the antenna radiation
pattern . Therefore the beam can be steered in array by changing the phase shift at each
element.

9. Write short notes on i) antenna parameters (Remembering-R)

ANS
ANTENNA PARAMETERS: For analyzing and defining the performance of any
antenna various parameters are defined.
Some important antenna parameters are:
1. Radiation pattern
2. Directive gain
3. Power gain
4. Directivity
5. Antenna Efficiency
6. Effective Aperture
7. Sidelobe radiation
8. Aperture Efficiency
9. Front-to-Back Ratio
10 .Antenna Bandwidth
11 Polarization
12 Beamwidth of an antenna
RADIATION PATTERN: An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “ a
mathematical function or graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a
function of space co-ordinates.” Or
  The radiation patterns are three dimensional quantities involving the variation of field or
power as a function of the spherical co-ordinates θ and φ.
 The radiation pattern consists of a main lobe and a number of side lobes.
 The patterns are presented in two forms namely field strength and power patterns

Directive Gain(Gd): The directive gain in a given direction is defined as the ratio of
the radiation intensity in that direction to the average radiated power.
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑑 =
𝐴𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑈 𝜃, 𝜑
𝐺𝑑 =
𝑈𝑎𝑣

4𝜋𝑈 𝜃, 𝜑
𝐺𝑑 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

Power Gain(Gp): The power gain in a given direction is defined as the ratio of the
radiation intensity in that direction to the average total input power
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑑 =
𝐴𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑈 𝜃, 𝜑 4𝜋𝑈 𝜃, 𝜑
𝐺𝑝 = =
𝑃𝑎𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Directiviry(D): The maximum directive gain is called as directivity of an antenna.

𝐷 = 𝐺𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Or
The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity to its average
radiation intensity
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎
ANTENNA EFFICIENCY:

10. With suitable expressions explain series-fed, frequency-scan linear array

ANS
SERIES FED ARRAY: The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio of power radiated to
the total input powerapplied to the antenna
 Radiated power
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(ɳ) =
Total input power
𝑃𝑟𝑎 𝑑
ɳ=
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Fig:1 Series fed linear array.

 In series fed linear array each phase shifter has the same phase and only one steering
command is to be generated. The above figure shows a series fed linear array.
 One major disadvantage of series fed array is its high loss
 The total loss in series fedv array network is given by
Total loss= (N-1) Lps .
Where, Lps is loss in each phase shifter.
FREQUENCY-SCAN ARRAYS:

Fig: Series-fed frequency-scan linear array

 Because of its relative simplicity, the frequency-scan array was at one time the most
popular form of phased array and was widely used.
 Its beam was steered by simply changing the radar frequency.
 It was especially popular for scanning a beam in one angular co-ordinate, such as with 3D
air-surveillance radars.
 In the scanning array , phase change is accomplished by varying the frequency.
 These frequency scanning arrays are among the simplest phased arrays since no phase
control is required at each element.
 LIMITATIONS OF FREQUENCY-SCAN ARRAYS
 The use of frequency for beam steering prevents the frequency domain from being used
for other important purposes in radar, such as high range-resolution, electronic counter-
countermeasures, and pulse to pulse frequency agility.

11. Write a short note on architecture for phased arrays(Understanding-U)

ANS
 CONSTRAINED FEED:

Fig: Planar array for scanning in two angular coordinates.

 The above figure shows a two-dimensional-scanning array which is sometimes known as
a parallel-.series feed. Each element has its own phase shifter. A separate command must
be computed by the beam-steering computer and distributed to each phase shifter.
 The power distribution to the columns is by parallel feed. The power in each column is
shown being distributed by a series feed to the vertical elements. If this were a parallel
feed it would be called a parallel-to-parallel feed. (Series feeds are shown here so as not
to overly complicate the figure. Series-pnrallel or series-sereirs arrangements are also
possible.)
 All the elements which lie in the same column utilize the same phase shift to steer the
beam in azimuth. Likewise all the elements which lie in the same row utilize the same
phase shift to steer the beam in elevation.
 The phase shift at the mnth element therefore is the sum of the phases required at the mth
column for steering in azimuth and at the 11th row for steering in elevation.
 This summation can be m6de at the computer and distributed to the MN elements of the

array. Alternatively. M + N control signals can be transmitted to the array if an adder is

provided at each phase shifter to combine the azimuth and elevation phases.
 SPACE FEEDS:

Fig:Space fed arrays (a) Lens array (b) Reflectarray

 There are two basic types of space feeds depending on whether they are analogous to a
lens or to a reflector.
 The lens array, Fig. (a), is fed from a primary feed just as a lens antenna. An array of
antenna elements collects the radiated energy and passes i t through the phase shifters
which provide a correction for the spherical wavefront, as well as a linear phase shift
across the aperture to steer the beam in angle. Another set of elements on the opposite
side of the structure radiate the beam into space. The primary pattern of the feed
illuminating the space-fed array provides a natural amplitude taper. Spillover radiation
from the feed, however, can result in higher side lobes than from an array with a
conventional constrained feed. The space-fed array can readily generate a cluster of
multiple beams, as for non no pulse angle measurement, by use of multiple horns or a
multimode feed, rather than with a complicated feed network as in the conventional
array.
 A SPACE-FED REFLECTARRAY with an offset feed is shown in Fig. (b). The energy
enters the antenna elements, passes through the phase shifters, is reflected, and again
passes back through the phase shifters to be radiated. Like the lens array, the phase
shifters apply a linear phase distribution for beam steering and a correction for the
curvature of the primary wavefront from the horn. Because the energy passes through the
phase shifters twice, they need only half the phase-shift capability of a lens array or a
conventional array; i.e., 180" of one-way phase hift is adequate, rather than 360". The
 pliase shifters, however, must be reciprocal. As with the lens array, multiple bearns can
be generated with additional feed horns.
 The lens array allows more freedom than the reflectarray in designing the feed assembly
since there is no aperture blocking, but the back surface of the reflectarray makes it easier
to provide the phase shifter control and drive assemblies, structural members, and heat
removal. Space-fed arrays are generally cheaper than conventional arrays because of the
omission of the transmission-line feed networks and the use of a single transmitter and
receiver rather than a distributed transmitter and receiver at each element. A space-fed
array may be simpler that; an array with a constrained feed, but a sacrifice is made in the
control of the aperture il1urnination"and in the maximum power capability of the array.
Thus the ability to radiate large power by using a transmitter at each element is lost in
this configuration

Topic Name: Series versus parallel feeds, Applications, Advantages and Limitations.
Radomes Modulators, solid state

12. With neat sketches explain series versus parallel feeds?( February - 2019-SET-1 8M)
(Applying-Ap)
ANS
SERIES AND PARALLEL FEEDS
SERIES FED ARRAY:

Fig:1 Series fed linear array.

 In series fed linear array each phase shifter has the same phase and only one steering
command is to be generated. The above figure shows a series fed linear array.
 One major disadvantage of series fed array is its high loss
 The total loss in series fedv array network is given by
 Total loss= (N-1) Lps .
Where, Lps is loss in each phase shifter.

PARALLEL FED ARRAY:

Fig:2 Parallel fed linear array

 Variable phase shifters at each element of a linear array to steer the beam is called
parallel-fed array.
 The above figure shows four element array.
 For N element array (N-1) phase commands are to be generated.
 The phase difference between the elements is given by ϕ=2π(d/λ) sinθo

13. Describe the technique of series feed and corporate feed with advantages &
disadvantages. (Understanding-U)
ANS
SERIES AND PARALLEL FEEDS
SERIES FED ARRAY:

Fig:1 Series fed linear array.

 In series fed linear array each phase shifter has the same phase and only one steering
command is to be generated. The above figure shows a series fed linear array.
 One major disadvantage of series fed array is its high loss
 The total loss in series fedv array network is given by
Total loss= (N-1) Lps .
Where, Lps is loss in each phase shifter.

PARALLEL FED ARRAY:

Fig:2 Parallel fed linear array

 Variable phase shifters at each element of a linear array to steer the beam is called
parallel-fed array.
 The above figure shows four element array.
  For N element array (N-1) phase commands are to be generated.
 The phase difference between the elements is given by ϕ=2π(d/λ) sinθo
14. Discuss in detail about(February - 2020-SET-1 7M) (Understanding-U)
(i) Radomes (ii) Displays

RADOMES

Fig: Radome

 DEFINITION:The protective enclosure which is transparent to

EM waves and used to protect antenna from harsh atmosphere is
known as antenna radome. or
 DEFINITION:Antennas which must be operated in severe
weather are usually enclosed for protection in a sheltering structure
called a radome.
 The principal purpose of a radome is to shield the antenna from the environment. This
improves system availability since the antenna is not affected by winds, rain, or ice. It can
also improve antenna performance since high winds or temperature variations can distort
the shape and pointing direction of the reflector or phased array.

 The design of radomes for antennas may be divided into two separate and relatively
distinct classes
1. Airborne radomes
2.Ground-based radomes
  The air borne radome is chacterized by smaller size than ground-based radomes
since the antennas that can be carried in an aircraft are generally smaller.

DISPLAYS
DISPLAY: Display is an electronic device used to provide information to the operator. Display
is a unit of radar receiver which presents the radar‟s information. It is a coupling link between
the radar information and human operator.

 The purpose of the radar display is to visually present the output of the radar receiver in a
form such that an operator could readily and accurately detect the presence of a target and
extract information about its location.
• The cathode ray tube (CRT) has been almost universally used as the radar display.
TYPES OF RADR DISPLAY:
There are two basic CRT displays
3. Deflection modulated CRT display : Such as A-scope in which a target is indicated by the
deflection of the electron beam . These displays have simple ckts than those of intensity
modulated CRTs.
 The deflection modulated CRTs , such as the A-scope , generally employ electrostatic
deflection.
4. Intensity modulated CRT display, such as the PPI , in which a target is indicated by
intensifying the electron beam and presenting a luminous spot on the face of the CRT.
 Intensity modulated CRTs , such as the PPI , generally employ electromagnetic
deflection.
The other types of displays are A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,R and RHI(Range-height
indicator
15. Write the advantages and limitations of Radomes?( OCT./NOV.-2010-SET-4 4M)
(Understanding-U)
ANS
ADVANTAGES OF RADOMES
• Following are the benefits or advantages of Antenna Radome:
1.It protects antenna system from impact of rain, wind, sand, snow and solar radiation.
2.It maintains antenna performance to be stable and reliable.
3.It reduces wear and corrosion of the antenna system. Hence extends life of the
antenna.
4.It reduces weight of the mechanical structure and reduces inertia and improves natural
frequency.
5.Test and maintance persons can work inside radome and hence they are protected from
external environment.
6.In high speed aircraft, it solves problems caused due to high temperature and
aerodynamic load on microwave antenna system.
LIMITATIONS OF RADOMES:
Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages of Antenna Radome:
1.It affects electrical performance of antenna at microwave frequencies.
2.It absorbs and reflects radiation wave in microwave or radar antenna. This causes
transmission losses.
3.Radome causes distortion of antenna main lobe.
4.Overall construction cost of antenna system increases.
5.A reduction in signal strength and phase differences can occur by insertion losses and
phase delays through the radome wall.
6.Radome losses not only reduce the main beam gain of the antenna through
transmission loss but also increase noise.