‭Fluid Dynamics‬

‭M.Sc in Mathematics - II year[4th Sem]‬

‭ mair Tanveer‬
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‭RH 210198267006‬
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‭Fluid Dynamics‬
‭Fluid‬ ‭dynamics‬ ‭is‬ ‭"the‬ ‭branch‬ ‭of‬ ‭applied‬ ‭science‬ ‭that‬ ‭is‬ ‭concerned‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬
‭movement‬ ‭of‬ ‭liquids‬ ‭and‬ ‭gases,"‬ ‭according‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭American‬ ‭Heritage‬ ‭Dictionary.‬
‭Fluid‬ ‭dynamics‬ ‭is‬ ‭one‬ ‭of‬ ‭two‬ ‭branches‬ ‭of‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭mechanics,‬ ‭which‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭study‬ ‭of‬
‭fluids‬ ‭and‬ ‭how‬ ‭forces‬ ‭affect‬ ‭them.‬ ‭(The‬ ‭other‬ ‭branch‬ ‭is‬‭fluid‬‭statics,‬‭which‬‭deals‬
‭with fluids at rest.)‬

‭Scientists‬ ‭across‬ ‭several‬ ‭fields‬ ‭study‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭dynamics.‬ ‭Fluid‬ ‭dynamics‬ ‭provides‬
‭methods‬ ‭for‬ ‭studying‬ ‭the‬ ‭evolution‬ ‭of‬ ‭stars,‬ ‭ocean‬ ‭currents,‬ ‭weather‬ ‭patterns,‬
‭plate‬‭tectonics‬‭and‬‭even‬‭blood‬‭circulation.‬‭Some‬‭important‬‭technological‬‭applications‬
‭of‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭dynamics‬ ‭include‬ ‭rocket‬ ‭engines,‬ ‭wind‬ ‭turbines,‬ ‭oil‬ ‭pipelines‬ ‭and‬ ‭air‬
‭conditioning systems.‬

‭What is flow?‬

‭The‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭liquids‬‭and‬‭gases‬‭is‬‭generally‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭"flow,"‬‭a‬‭concept‬‭that‬
‭describes‬ ‭how‬ ‭fluids‬ ‭behave‬ ‭and‬ ‭how‬ ‭they‬ ‭interact‬ ‭with‬ ‭their‬ ‭surrounding‬
‭environment‬ ‭—‬ ‭for‬ ‭example,‬ ‭water‬ ‭moving‬ ‭through‬ ‭a‬ ‭channel‬ ‭or‬ ‭pipe,‬ ‭or‬ ‭over‬ ‭a‬
‭surface.‬ ‭Flow‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭either‬ ‭steady‬ ‭or‬ ‭unsteady.‬ ‭In‬ ‭his‬ ‭lecture‬ ‭notes,‬ ‭"Lectures‬ ‭in‬
‭Elementary‬ ‭Fluid‬ ‭Dynamics"‬ ‭(University‬ ‭of‬ ‭Kentucky,‬ ‭2009)‬ ‭J.‬ ‭M.‬ ‭McDonough,‬ ‭a‬
‭professor‬‭of‬‭engineering‬‭at‬‭the‬‭University‬‭of‬‭Kentucky,‬‭writes,‬‭"If‬‭all‬‭properties‬‭of‬
‭a‬ ‭flow‬ ‭are‬ ‭independent‬ ‭of‬‭time,‬‭then‬‭the‬‭flow‬‭is‬‭steady;‬‭otherwise,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭unsteady."‬
‭That‬ ‭is,‬ ‭steady‬‭flows‬‭do‬‭not‬‭change‬‭over‬‭time.‬‭An‬‭example‬‭of‬‭steady‬‭flow‬‭would‬‭be‬
‭water‬‭flowing‬‭through‬‭a‬‭pipe‬‭at‬‭a‬‭constant‬‭rate.‬‭On‬‭the‬‭other‬‭hand,‬‭a‬‭flood‬‭or‬‭water‬
‭pouring from an old-fashioned hand pump are examples of unsteady flow.‬
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‭Flow‬ ‭can‬ ‭also‬ ‭be‬ ‭either‬ ‭laminar‬ ‭or‬ ‭turbulent.‬ ‭Laminar‬ ‭flows‬ ‭are‬ ‭smoother,‬ ‭while‬
‭turbulent‬‭flows‬‭are‬‭more‬‭chaotic.‬‭One‬‭important‬‭factor‬‭in‬‭determining‬‭the‬‭state‬‭of‬
‭a‬ ‭fluid’s‬ ‭flow‬ ‭is‬ ‭its‬ ‭viscosity,‬ ‭or‬ ‭thickness,‬ ‭where‬ ‭higher‬ ‭viscosity‬ ‭increases‬ ‭the‬
‭tendency‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬‭laminar.‬‭Patrick‬‭McMurtry,‬‭an‬‭engineering‬‭professor‬‭at‬
‭the‬ ‭University‬ ‭of‬ ‭Utah,‬ ‭describes‬ ‭the‬ ‭difference‬ ‭in‬ ‭his‬ ‭online‬ ‭class‬ ‭notes,‬
‭"Observations‬ ‭About‬ ‭Turbulent‬ ‭Flows"‬ ‭(University‬ ‭of‬ ‭Utah,‬ ‭2000),‬ ‭stating,‬ ‭"By‬
‭laminar‬ ‭flow‬ ‭we‬ ‭are‬ ‭generally‬ ‭referring‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭smooth,‬ ‭steady‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭motion,‬ ‭in‬ ‭which‬
‭any‬ ‭induced‬ ‭perturbations‬ ‭are‬ ‭damped‬ ‭out‬ ‭due‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭relatively‬ ‭strong‬ ‭viscous‬
‭forces.‬‭In‬‭turbulent‬‭flows,‬‭other‬‭forces‬‭may‬‭be‬‭acting‬‭the‬‭counteract‬‭the‬‭action‬‭of‬
‭viscosity."‬

‭Laminar‬ ‭flow‬ ‭is‬ ‭desirable‬ ‭in‬ ‭many‬ ‭situations,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭in‬ ‭drainage‬ ‭systems‬ ‭or‬
‭aeroplane‬‭wings,‬‭because‬‭it‬‭is‬‭more‬‭efficient‬‭and‬‭less‬‭energy‬‭is‬‭lost.‬‭Turbulent‬‭flow‬
‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭useful‬ ‭for‬ ‭causing‬ ‭different‬ ‭fluids‬ ‭to‬ ‭mix‬ ‭together‬ ‭or‬ ‭for‬ ‭equalising‬
‭temperature.‬ ‭According‬ ‭to‬ ‭McDonough,‬ ‭most‬ ‭flows‬ ‭of‬ ‭interest‬ ‭are‬ ‭turbulent;‬
‭however,‬ ‭such‬ ‭flows‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭very‬ ‭difficult‬ ‭to‬ ‭predict‬ ‭in‬ ‭detail,‬ ‭and‬ ‭distinguishing‬
‭between these two types of flow is largely intuitive.‬

‭An‬‭important‬‭factor‬‭in‬‭fluid‬‭flow‬‭is‬‭the‬‭fluid's‬‭Reynolds‬‭number‬‭(Re),‬‭which‬‭is‬‭named‬
‭after‬ ‭19th‬ ‭century‬ ‭scientist‬ ‭Osborne‬ ‭Reynolds,‬ ‭although‬ ‭it‬ ‭was‬ ‭first‬ ‭described‬ ‭in‬
‭1851‬ ‭by‬ ‭physicist‬ ‭George‬ ‭Gabriel‬ ‭Stokes.‬ ‭McDonough‬‭gives‬‭the‬‭definition‬‭of‬‭Re‬‭as,‬
‭"the‬ ‭ratio‬ ‭of‬‭inertial‬‭to‬‭viscous‬‭forces."‬‭The‬‭inertial‬‭force‬‭is‬‭the‬‭fluid's‬‭resistance‬
‭to‬ ‭change‬ ‭of‬ ‭motion,‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭viscous‬ ‭force‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭amount‬ ‭of‬ ‭friction‬ ‭due‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
‭viscosity‬‭or‬‭thickness‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fluid.‬‭Note‬‭that‬‭Re‬‭is‬‭not‬‭only‬‭a‬‭property‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fluid;‬
‭it‬‭also‬‭includes‬‭the‬‭conditions‬‭of‬‭its‬‭flow‬‭such‬‭as‬‭its‬‭speed‬‭and‬‭the‬‭size‬‭and‬‭shape‬‭of‬
‭the conduit or any obstructions.‬
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‭At‬‭low‬‭Re,‬‭the‬‭flow‬‭tends‬‭to‬‭be‬‭smooth,‬‭or‬‭laminar,‬‭while‬‭at‬‭high‬‭Re,‬‭the‬‭flow‬‭tends‬
‭to‬‭be‬‭turbulent,‬‭forming‬‭eddies‬‭and‬‭vortices.‬‭Re‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭predict‬‭how‬‭a‬‭gas‬‭or‬
‭liquid‬ ‭will‬ ‭flow‬ ‭around‬ ‭an‬‭obstacle‬‭in‬‭a‬‭stream,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭water‬‭around‬‭a‬‭bridge‬‭piling‬
‭or‬‭wind‬‭over‬‭an‬‭aircraft‬‭wing.‬‭The‬‭number‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭predict‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭at‬
‭which flow transitions from laminar to turbulent.‬

‭Liquid flow‬

‭The‬ ‭study‬ ‭of‬ ‭liquid‬ ‭flow‬ ‭is‬ ‭called‬ ‭hydrodynamics.‬ ‭While‬ ‭liquids‬ ‭include‬ ‭all‬ ‭sorts‬ ‭of‬
‭substances,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭oil‬ ‭and‬ ‭chemical‬ ‭solutions,‬ ‭by‬ ‭far‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭common‬ ‭liquid‬ ‭is‬
‭water,‬ ‭and‬ ‭most‬ ‭applications‬ ‭for‬ ‭hydrodynamics‬ ‭involve‬ ‭managing‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow‬ ‭of‬ ‭this‬
‭liquid.‬ ‭That‬ ‭includes‬ ‭flood‬ ‭control,‬ ‭operation‬ ‭of‬ ‭city‬ ‭water‬ ‭and‬‭sewer‬‭systems,‬‭and‬
‭management‬ ‭of‬ ‭navigable‬ ‭waterways.‬ ‭[Gallery:‬ ‭Dreamy‬ ‭Images‬ ‭Reveal‬ ‭Beauty‬ ‭in‬
‭Physics]‬

‭Hydrodynamics‬ ‭deals‬ ‭primarily‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow‬ ‭of‬ ‭water‬ ‭in‬ ‭pipes‬ ‭or‬ ‭open‬ ‭channels.‬
‭Geology‬ ‭professor‬ ‭John‬ ‭Southard's‬ ‭lecture‬ ‭notes‬ ‭from‬ ‭an‬ ‭online‬ ‭course,‬
‭"Introduction‬ ‭to‬ ‭Fluid‬ ‭Motions"‬ ‭(Massachusetts‬ ‭Institute‬ ‭of‬ ‭Technology,‬ ‭2006),‬
‭outline‬ ‭the‬ ‭main‬ ‭difference‬ ‭between‬ ‭pipe‬ ‭flow‬ ‭and‬ ‭open-channel‬ ‭flow:‬ ‭"flows‬ ‭in‬
‭closed‬‭conduits‬‭or‬‭channels,‬‭like‬‭pipes‬‭or‬‭air‬‭ducts,‬‭are‬‭entirely‬‭in‬‭contact‬‭with‬‭rigid‬
‭boundaries,"‬ ‭while‬ ‭"open-channel‬ ‭flows,‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭other‬ ‭hand,‬ ‭are‬ ‭those‬ ‭whose‬
‭boundaries‬ ‭are‬ ‭not‬ ‭entirely‬ ‭a‬ ‭solid‬ ‭and‬ ‭rigid‬ ‭material."‬ ‭He‬ ‭states,‬ ‭"important‬
‭open-channel‬ ‭flows‬ ‭are‬ ‭rivers,‬ ‭tidal‬ ‭currents,‬ ‭irrigation‬ ‭canals,‬ ‭or‬ ‭sheets‬ ‭of‬ ‭water‬
‭running across the ground surface after a rain."‬
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‭Due‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬‭differences‬‭in‬‭those‬‭boundaries,‬‭different‬‭forces‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭two‬‭types‬

‭of‬ ‭flows.‬ ‭According‬ ‭to‬ ‭Scott‬ ‭Post‬ ‭in‬ ‭his‬ ‭book,‬ ‭"Applied‬ ‭and‬ ‭Computational‬ ‭Fluid‬
‭Mechanics,"‬ ‭(Jones‬ ‭&‬ ‭Bartlett,‬ ‭2009),‬ ‭"While‬ ‭flows‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭closed‬ ‭pipe‬ ‭may‬‭be‬‭driven‬
‭either‬ ‭by‬ ‭pressure‬ ‭or‬ ‭gravity,‬ ‭flows‬ ‭in‬ ‭open‬ ‭channels‬ ‭are‬ ‭driven‬ ‭by‬ ‭gravity‬ ‭alone."‬
‭The‬ ‭pressure‬ ‭is‬ ‭determined‬‭primarily‬‭by‬‭the‬‭height‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fluid‬‭above‬‭the‬‭point‬‭of‬
‭measurement.‬ ‭For‬ ‭instance,‬ ‭most‬ ‭city‬ ‭water‬ ‭systems‬ ‭use‬ ‭water‬‭towers‬‭to‬‭maintain‬
‭constant‬ ‭pressure‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭system.‬ ‭This‬ ‭difference‬ ‭in‬ ‭elevation‬ ‭is‬ ‭called‬ ‭the‬
‭hydrodynamic‬‭head.‬‭Liquid‬‭in‬‭a‬‭pipe‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭made‬‭to‬‭flow‬‭faster‬‭or‬‭with‬‭greater‬
‭pressure using mechanical pumps.‬

‭Streaklines‬ ‭appear‬ ‭during‬ ‭a‬ ‭smoke‬ ‭test‬ ‭of‬ ‭semi-trailer‬ ‭aerodynamics‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭wind‬
‭tunnel.‬

‭Streaklines‬ ‭appear‬ ‭during‬ ‭a‬ ‭smoke‬ ‭test‬ ‭of‬ ‭semi-trailer‬ ‭aerodynamics‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭wind‬
‭tunnel. (Image credit: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory )‬

‭Gas flow‬

‭The‬ ‭flow‬ ‭of‬ ‭gas‬ ‭has‬ ‭many‬ ‭similarities‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow‬ ‭of‬ ‭liquid,‬ ‭but‬ ‭it‬ ‭also‬ ‭has‬ ‭some‬
‭important‬ ‭differences.‬ ‭First,‬ ‭gas‬ ‭is‬ ‭compressible,‬ ‭whereas‬ ‭liquids‬ ‭are‬ ‭generally‬
‭considered‬‭to‬‭be‬‭incompressible.‬‭In‬‭"Fundamentals‬‭of‬‭Compressible‬‭Fluid‬‭Dynamics"‬
‭(Prentice-Hall,‬ ‭2006),‬ ‭author‬ ‭P.‬‭Balachandran‬‭describes‬‭compressible‬‭fluid,‬‭stating,‬
‭"If‬‭the‬‭density‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fluid‬‭changes‬‭appreciably‬‭throughout‬‭the‬‭flow‬‭field,‬‭the‬‭flow‬
‭may‬ ‭be‬ ‭treated‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭compressible‬ ‭flow."‬ ‭Otherwise,‬ ‭the‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭is‬ ‭considered‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬
‭incompressible. Second, gas flow is hardly affected by gravity.‬
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‭The‬ ‭gas‬ ‭most‬ ‭commonly‬ ‭encountered‬ ‭in‬ ‭everyday‬ ‭life‬ ‭is‬ ‭air;‬ ‭therefore,‬ ‭scientists‬
‭have‬ ‭paid‬ ‭much‬ ‭attention‬ ‭to‬ ‭its‬ ‭flow‬ ‭conditions.‬ ‭Wind‬ ‭causes‬ ‭air‬ ‭to‬ ‭move‬ ‭around‬
‭buildings and other structures, and it can also be made to move by pumps and fans.‬

‭One‬‭area‬‭of‬‭particular‬‭interest‬‭is‬‭the‬‭movement‬‭of‬‭objects‬‭through‬‭the‬‭atmosphere.‬
‭This‬ ‭branch‬ ‭of‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭dynamics‬ ‭is‬ ‭called‬ ‭aerodynamics,‬ ‭which‬ ‭is‬ ‭"the‬ ‭dynamics‬ ‭of‬
‭bodies‬ ‭moving‬ ‭relative‬ ‭to‬ ‭gases,‬ ‭especially‬ ‭the‬ ‭interaction‬ ‭of‬ ‭moving‬ ‭objects‬ ‭with‬
‭the‬ ‭atmosphere,"‬ ‭according‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭American‬ ‭Heritage‬ ‭Dictionary.‬ ‭Problems‬ ‭in‬ ‭this‬
‭field‬ ‭involve‬ ‭reducing‬ ‭drag‬ ‭on‬ ‭automobile‬ ‭bodies,‬ ‭designing‬ ‭more‬ ‭efficient‬‭aircraft‬
‭and wind turbines, and studying how birds and insects fly.‬

‭Bernoulli's principle‬

‭Generally,‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭moving‬ ‭at‬ ‭a‬ ‭higher‬‭speed‬‭has‬‭lower‬‭pressure‬‭than‬‭fluid‬‭moving‬‭at‬‭a‬

‭lower‬‭speed.‬‭This‬‭phenomenon‬‭was‬‭first‬‭described‬‭by‬‭Daniel‬‭Bernoulli‬‭in‬‭1738‬‭in‬‭his‬
‭book‬ ‭"Hydrodynamica,"‬ ‭and‬ ‭is‬ ‭commonly‬ ‭known‬ ‭as‬ ‭Bernoulli's‬ ‭principle.‬ ‭It‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬
‭applied‬‭to‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭a‬‭liquid‬‭or‬‭gas‬‭moving‬‭in‬‭a‬‭pipe‬‭or‬‭channel‬‭or‬‭over‬‭a‬
‭surface.‬

‭This‬ ‭principle‬ ‭is‬ ‭also‬ ‭responsible‬ ‭for‬ ‭lift‬‭in‬‭an‬‭aircraft‬‭wing,‬‭which‬‭is‬‭why‬‭airplanes‬

‭can‬‭fly.‬‭Because‬‭the‬‭wing‬‭is‬‭flat‬‭on‬‭the‬‭bottom‬‭and‬‭curved‬‭on‬‭the‬‭top,‬‭the‬‭air‬‭has‬‭to‬
‭travel‬‭a‬‭greater‬‭distance‬‭along‬‭the‬‭top‬‭surface‬‭than‬‭along‬‭the‬‭bottom.‬‭To‬‭do‬‭this,‬‭it‬
‭must‬ ‭go‬ ‭faster‬ ‭over‬ ‭the‬ ‭top,‬ ‭causing‬ ‭its‬ ‭pressure‬ ‭to‬ ‭decrease.‬ ‭This‬ ‭makes‬ ‭the‬
‭higher-pressure air on the bottom lift up on the wing.‬
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‭Problems in fluid dynamics‬

‭Scientists‬ ‭often‬ ‭try‬ ‭to‬ ‭visualise‬ ‭flow‬ ‭using‬ ‭figures‬ ‭called‬ ‭streamlines,‬ ‭streaklines‬
‭and‬ ‭pathlines.‬ ‭McDonough‬ ‭defines‬ ‭a‬ ‭streamline‬ ‭as‬ ‭"a‬ ‭continuous‬ ‭line‬ ‭within‬ ‭a‬ ‭fluid‬
‭such‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭tangent‬ ‭at‬ ‭each‬ ‭point‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭the‬‭velocity‬‭vector‬‭at‬‭that‬
‭point."‬ ‭In‬ ‭other‬ ‭words,‬ ‭a‬ ‭streamline‬ ‭shows‬ ‭the‬ ‭direction‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow‬ ‭at‬ ‭any‬
‭particular‬ ‭point‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow.‬ ‭A‬ ‭streakline,‬ ‭according‬ ‭to‬ ‭McDonough,‬ ‭is‬ ‭"the‬ ‭locus‬
‭[location]‬‭of‬‭all‬‭fluid‬‭elements‬‭that‬‭have‬‭previously‬‭passed‬‭through‬‭a‬‭given‬‭point."‬‭A‬
‭pathline‬ ‭(or‬ ‭particle‬ ‭path),‬‭he‬‭writes,‬‭is‬‭"the‬‭trajectory‬‭of‬‭an‬‭individual‬‭element‬‭of‬
‭fluid."‬ ‭If‬ ‭the‬ ‭flow‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬ ‭change‬ ‭over‬ ‭time,‬‭the‬‭pathline‬‭will‬‭be‬‭the‬‭same‬‭as‬‭the‬
‭streamline.‬ ‭However,‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭case‬ ‭of‬ ‭turbulent‬ ‭or‬ ‭unsteady‬ ‭flow,‬‭these‬‭lines‬‭can‬‭be‬
‭quite different.‬

‭Most‬ ‭problems‬‭in‬‭fluid‬‭dynamics‬‭are‬‭too‬‭complex‬‭to‬‭be‬‭solved‬‭by‬‭direct‬‭calculation.‬
‭In‬ ‭these‬ ‭cases,‬ ‭problems‬ ‭must‬ ‭be‬ ‭solved‬ ‭by‬ ‭numeric‬ ‭methods‬ ‭using‬ ‭computer‬
‭simulations.‬ ‭This‬ ‭area‬ ‭of‬ ‭study‬ ‭is‬ ‭called‬ ‭numerical‬ ‭or‬ ‭computational‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭dynamics‬
‭(CFD),‬ ‭which‬ ‭Southard‬ ‭defines‬ ‭as‬ ‭"a‬ ‭branch‬ ‭of‬ ‭computer-based‬ ‭science‬ ‭that‬
‭provides‬ ‭numerical‬ ‭predictions‬ ‭of‬ ‭fluid‬ ‭flows."‬ ‭However,‬ ‭because‬ ‭turbulent‬ ‭flow‬
‭tends‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭nonlinear‬ ‭and‬ ‭chaotic,‬ ‭particular‬ ‭care‬ ‭must‬ ‭be‬ ‭taken‬ ‭in‬ ‭setting‬ ‭up‬ ‭the‬
‭rules‬‭and‬‭initial‬‭conditions‬‭for‬‭these‬‭simulations.‬‭Small‬‭changes‬‭at‬‭the‬‭beginning‬‭can‬
‭result in large differences in the results.‬

‭The‬ ‭accuracy‬ ‭of‬ ‭simulations‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭improved‬ ‭by‬ ‭dividing‬ ‭the‬ ‭volume‬ ‭into‬ ‭smaller‬
‭regions‬ ‭and‬ ‭using‬ ‭smaller‬ ‭time‬ ‭steps,‬ ‭but‬ ‭this‬ ‭increases‬ ‭computing‬ ‭time.‬ ‭For‬ ‭this‬
‭reason, CFD should advance as computing power increases.‬
 ‭7‬

‭Jim‬ ‭Lucas‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭freelance‬ ‭writer‬ ‭and‬ ‭editor‬ ‭specializing‬ ‭in‬ ‭physics,‬ ‭astronomy‬ ‭and‬
‭engineering. He is general manager of Lucas Technologies.‬