Note: Red boxes indicate past information

Origin of Biopotentials
Biopotential: An electric
potential that is measured
Between points in living cells,
tissues, and organisms, and
which accompanies all
biochemical processes. Also
describes the transfer of
information between and
within cells

Biopotentials:
- Electrocardiogram(ECG)// heart
-Electroencephalogram(EEG)// brain
-Electroneurogram(ENG)// neurons
-Electromyogram(EMG)// muscles
-Electroretinogram(ERG)// retina
-Others
Electrical Activity of Excitable cells:
- Bioelectric potentials are produced as a result of electro-chemical activity of a certain
class of cells, known as excitable cells, that are components of nervous, muscular, or
glandular tissue.Electrically they exhibit a resting potential and, when appropriately
stimulated, an action potential
-
Resting potential:
- A steady electrical potential difference between its internal and external environments.
- This resting potential of the internal medium lies in the range −40 to −90 mV, relative
to the external medium
Important: Electrically, the cell membrane can be described as a leaky capacitor, since
structurally it is comprised of a thin dielectric material (the lipoprotein complex), which acts as
a charge separator, and yet it has transmembrane ion.

Biopotential Electrodes
Definition: A biopotential electrode is a transducer ( sensor)that senses ion distribution on
the surface of tissue, and converts the ion current to electron current.// the electrode is electronic
so the current is by electrons but in out body the current is ionic , its because of the flow of ions
Key information:
–Electrodes represent an interface between the body and the electronic measuring apparatus.
–Current flows in the measuring circuit for at least a fraction of time over which the measurement is
made.// we want it to be small but it never equals to zero
–Biopotential measurements must be carried out using high-quality electrodes to minimize motion
artifacts and ensure that the measured signal is accurate, stable, and undistorted.

Electrode-Electrolyte Interface:
-Takes place when we keep electrode inside electrolyte
-The transducing function ( converting ionic to electronic current) is carried out by electrodes that
consist of electrical conductors in contact with the aqueous ionic solutions in the body.

- A net current (I) that crosses the interface passing

from the electrode to electrolyte consists of :
1. Electrons e- moving in opposite to current
in electrode
2. Cations C+ moving in the same direction
of current
3. Anions A- moving in opposite direction to
current

-The electrolyte: is an aqueous solution

(representing the body fluid) containing cations of the electrode metal C+ and anions A-.
- electrode consists of metallic atom C
 Oxidation reaction: causes atom to lose electrons
Reduction reaction: causes atom to gain electrons

-At the interface redox (oxidation “→” –reduction “←”), reactions need to occur for a charge to be transferred
between the electrode and the solution.
-These reactions can be represented in general by the following equations:
Eq 1:

-One atom C of the metal is oxidized to form one cation C+ and giving off one free electron e- to the metal.
-The electron remains as a charge carrier in the electrode, the cation is discharged in the electrolyte
- n is the valence of C.
Eq 2:

-An anion coming to the electrode-electrolyte interface can be oxidized to neutral atom, giving off one or more
free electrons to the electrode.
- m is the valence of A

States of the interface

“→” = “←” ⇒ dynamic equilibrium ⇒ zero net current
“→” > “←” ⇒ oxidation dominates ⇒ nonzero net current from electrode to electrolyte
“→” < “←” ⇒ reduction dominates ⇒ nonzero net current from electrolyte to electrode

Half-cell potential
-Simply: When a metal is placed in an electrolyte (i.e., an ionizable) solution, a charge
distribution is created next to the metal/electrolyte interface.//its when a single electrode in an
electrolyte.
- Details:
● When the metal comes in contact with the solution, the reaction represented by Eq 1 begins
immediately.
● Initially, the reaction goes predominantly either to the left or to the right, depending on the
concentration of cations in solution and the equilibrium conditions for that particular reaction.
● The local concentration of cations in the solution at the interface changes, which affects the anion
concentration at this point as well.
● The net result is that neutrality of charge is not maintained in this region.
● This localized charge distribution causes an electric potential,called a half-cell potential, to be
developed across the interface between the metal and the electrolyte solution.
● Some separation of charges at the metal–electrolyte interface results in an electric double layer, wherein
one type of charge is dominant on the surface of the metal and the opposite charge is distributed in
excess in the immediately adjacent electrolyte// discussed later

Half cell depends on:

- The metal
- Concentration of ions in solution
- Temperature
- as well as other second-order factors.
The half-cell potentials of several important metals at 25 C:
-Better to have lower half cell potential because disturbes the signal , especially large half cell potential
with small signals
-The hydrogen electrode is considered to be the standard electrode against which the half-cell potentials of
other metal electrodes are measured

Measuring the Half-cell potential

-It is not possible to measure the half-cell potential of an electrode unless we use a second electrode, the
hydrogen electrode (zero half-cell potential)
-Note: Electrode material is metal + salt or polymer selective membrane

-where H2 gas bubbled over a platinum electrode is the source of hydrogen molecules.
-The platinum serves as a catalyst for the reaction on the left hand side of the equation and as an acceptor of the
generated electrons.
Important Note:
- Typically, biopotential measurements are made by utilizing two similar electrodes composed of
the same metal (e.g. ECG).
- The two half-cell potentials for these electrodes would be equal in magnitude.
- The differential amplifier attached to these two electrodes would amplify the Biopotential
(ECG) signal.But the half-cell potentials would be cancelled out
Polarization
• Zero net current ⇒ Half cell potential (HCP) is observed
• Nonzero net current ⇒ polarization of the electrode ⇒ overpotential
• Overpotential = HCP (at nonzero net current) - equilibrium HCP( Ehc)
• Overpotential is the result of an alteration in the charge distribution in the solution in contact
with the electrodes.
• This effect is known as polarization and can result in diminished electrode performance,
especially under conditions of motion

There are three basic components to the polarization overpotential:

1. Ohmic overpotential, Vr: results from the resistance of the electrolyte solution
Explanation ( msh 7foz):When a current passes between two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, there is a
resistive voltage drop along the path of the current in the electrolyte. This drop in voltage is proportional to the
current and the resistivity of the electrolyte.Thus its not linear and the voltage drop doesnt follow ohms law
2. Concentration overpotential, Vc: results from the changes in the distribution of ions in the
electrolyte in the vicinity of the electrode-electrolyte interface
Explanation only( msh 7foz) : 3dtan eza ma fe current bkon 3na equal rates lal redox reactions ( equilibrium)
bs yser fe current byt8yr hal shi w bser 3na change bl ion concentration → different half cell potential.
3. Activation overpotential, Va: corresponds to the energetic barrier to be overcome to begin any
oxy–redox reaction.
Explanation only(msh 7foz):
- for metal atoms to be oxidized to metal ions that are capable of going into solution, the atoms must
overcome an energy barrier.
- The reduction reaction also involves a different activation energy
- When there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte either oxidation or reduction
predominates,
hence the height of the energy barrier depends on the direction of the current. -
- This difference in energy appears as a difference in voltage between the electrode and the electrolyte,
which is known as the activation overpotential.
4. Total overpotential or polarization potential:Vp =Vr +Vc +Va
Half Cell Potential and Nernst Equation

When two ionic solutions of different concentration are separated by semipermeable membrane, an electric
potential E exists across the membrane, based upon the relative activity of the permeable ions in each of these
solutions.

This relationship is known as the Nernst equation:

- R:universal gas constant

- T:absolute temperature
- n:valence of the ions
- F:Faraday constant.
Ionic activity is the availability of an ionic species in solution to enter into a reaction.
- ionic activity of pure solid and liquid is equal to 1 i.e metal because it enters in one piece
- —- the activity of metal ion can be approximated by their molar concentration. <1
- In dilute solutions, ionic activity is approximately equal to ionic concentration. When intermolecular
effects become significant, which happens at higher concentrations, the activity of the ions is less than
their concentration.
A1: activity of ions on the inside
A2:activity of ions on the outside
A specific application of the Nernst equation to the reaction of an electrode is:
Explanation:The standard half-cell potential is determined at a standard temperature; the electrode is placed in
an electrolyte containing cations of the electrode material having unity activity. As the activity changes from
unity (as a result of changing concentration), the half-cell potential varies according to the Nernst equation

This Equation represents a specific application of the Nernst equation to the reaction of

For the general oxidation reduction reaction, the Nernst equation for half cell potential is :

-An electrode–electrolyte interface is not required for a potential difference to exist. If two electrolytic solutions
are in contact and have different concentrations of ions with different ionic mobilities, a potential difference,
known as a liquid-junction potential
where μ+ and μ− are the mobilities of the positive and negative ions, and a and a are the
activities of the two solutions. T
Essential Background/ Hole fhem:
Formation of the Electric Double Layer:
● When a metal or electrode is immersed in an electrolyte solution, an electric double layer
forms at the interface between the electrode and the electrolyte.
● The electric double layer consists of two layers of charges: one layer associated with the
charged surface of the electrode and the other with the oppositely charged ions in the
solution.
The capacitance of the double layer is influenced by the surface area of the electrode, the dielectric
constant of the electrolyte, and the distance between charges in the double layer.

Hone bs awal definition lal 7foz be2e fhem

Displacement Current in polarizable electrodes:
- The current between the electrode and the electrolytic solution due to the displacement or
rearrangement of charges in the solution near the electrode
-When a voltage is applied to the electrode, it induces a redistribution of ions in the adjacent
electrolyte.
-This redistribution creates a capacitive-like behavior, where charge is stored in the electric double
layer formed at the electrode-electrolyte interface.
-The process is analogous to charging and discharging a capacitor in an electrical circuit.
- The displacement current does not involve the physical movement of ions to and from the
electrode but rather the change in their distribution in response to an applied voltage

Polarizable and Nonpolarizable Electrodes

Perfectly polarizable electrodes: Perfectly Nonpolarized electrodes

- Behaves like a capacitor - Behaves like a resistor

- No actual charge crosses the interface when current
is applied
- Only displacement current
- Concentration overpotential dominates
- Example:Electrode made of noble metals such as
platinum
- No overpotential
- Current passes freely (allow the current to pass
freely across the electrode-electrolyte interface
without changing the charge distribution in the
electrolytic solution adjacent to the electrode.)
- No energy is required for this transition
- Ag/AgCl electrode and calomel electrode

Side notes:
-None of these types exits 100% in life
-If recording is needed and the person is moving, noise could come up , in normal cases we
would perform fourier series/ transform and get frequency of noise. However for an ECG:
frequency ranges from 1—> 1.5 Hz its too low we cant add a filter . Instead we change the
electrode type.
-Thats why Ag-AgCl is used in recording while Pt is used in simulation
- when using electrodes we start off with the minimally invasive , when its needed we increase the
invasiveness by changing the electrode
-Disposable electrodes: to avoid contamination and low stability
- non polarizable are resistor like thats why when a person moves there is no noise
- Usually equipments have a lifespan of 5-10 years , we perform calibration to make them stay
functional closest to their optimal lifespan ( in the data sheet)

Silver-Silver Chloride (Ag-AgCl) Electrode

- most common type of biopotential electrode

- Has characteristics similar to a perfectly Nonpolarizable electrode.
- Consists of a silver base structure that is coated with a layer of the ionic compound silver chloride.
Minimal polarization ⇒
- Motion artifact is reduced.
- Smaller effect of frequency on electrode impedance( because the behavior is resistor like
so it has no frequency component)especially at low frequencies.
(Since as f decreases Zc increases )
Ag-AgCl Electrode stability:

- The silver chloride is relatively insoluble in aqueous solutions → does not dissociate into its constituent
ions (silver ions, Ag⁺, and chloride ions, Cl⁻) in water.⇒ this surface remains stable
- The behavior of the Ag/AgCI electrode is governed by two chemical reactions.

- Silver chloride's rate of precipitation and of returning to solution is a constant Ks known as the solubility product.

- The half-cell potential of this electrode is quite stable when it is placed in an electrolyte containing Cl-
as the principal anion, provided the activity of the Cl remains stable..For biological fluids aCl-=1.
 - The 1st two terms are constants and the third is determined by ionic activity. In this case, it is the
activity of the Cl− ion =~1
- The half-cell potential of this electrode is consequently quite stable when it is placed in an electrolyte
containing Cl− as the principal anion, provided the activity of the Cl− remains stable.
Fabrication of Ag-AgCl Electrode:

A. Electrolytic process
1. The electrode is immersed in an electrolyte bath in which the
principal anion of the electrolyte is Cl−
2. Silver–silver chloride electrodes of this type can be fabricated
by starting with a silver base and electrolytically growing the silver
chloride layer on its surface.:
- Current circulate , pushes Cl- by Ag+ ( by oxidation)
- Cl- deposits on Ag
3. Although an electrode produced in this way can be used for
most biomedical measurements
4. It is not a robust structure, and pieces of the silver chloride film
can be chipped away after repeated use of the structure(fene 7efa b ede )
→ which can cause the electrode half cell potential to be unstable and
noisy
- Ag-AgCl is more than the Ag equivalent electrode
- An electrochemical cell is made up: in which the Ag electrode on which the AgCl layer is to be
deposited serves as anode and another piece of Ag—having a surface area much greater than that of the
anode— serves as cathode
- a series resistance limits the peak current, thereby controlling the maximal rate of reaction
- .As the thickness of the deposited AgCl layer increases, the rate of reaction decreases and the current
drops.
- This situation continues, and the current approaches zero asymptotically. ( bs bl 7a2e2a bdl fe current
5fefe)
-when an Ag/ AgCl electrode is in contact with biological fluids, the activity of the Ag+ ion must be very low
and of the same order of magnitude as the solubility product
B. Sintering process

- The electrode consists of an Ag lead wire surrounded by a sintered Ag/AgCl cylinder.

- It is formed by placing the cleaned lead wire in a die that is then filled with a mixture of
powdered Ag and AgCI. AgCl is not conductive so Ag is included for conductivity
- The die is compressed in an arbor press to form the powdered components into a pellet
 - Which is then removed from the die and baked at 400 °C for several hours. ⇒ to increase its
strength
- These electrodes tend to have a greater endurance than the electrolytically deposited AgCI
electrodes, and they are best applied when repeated usage is necessary and mechanical pressure
is required ( i.e 3m n3ml fa7es jehed ; treadmill)

Biopotential Electrode Electric Characteristics: Lumped Model

- Rd and Cd
→ the impedance associated with the electrode-electrolyte interface and
polarization at this interface.
→ Cd is the capacitance of the electric double layer
⇒Rd is the resistance to current to flow across the
electrode-electrolyte interface The leakage resistance across this
double layer.
- Rs is the series resistance associated with interface effects and due to resistance
in the electrolyte→ associated with the conductivity of the electrolyte.
-The battery Ehc : the half-cell potential.
- All the components of this equivalent circuit have values
determined by the electrode material and its geometry, and- to
a lesser extent- by the material of the electrolyte and its
concentration.

Experimentally determined magnitude of impedance as a function of frequency for electrodes :

● At low frequencies the impedance is dominated

by the series combination of Rs andRd since Cd is
open.
 • At higher frequencies Cd bypasses the effect of Rd // its short so it cancels Rd //so that the
impedance is now close to Rs.
• Thus, by measuring the impedance of an electrode at high and low frequencies( its impedance is
constant ), it is possible to determine the component values for the equivalent circuit for that
electrode.
• The impedance decreases with frequency for different electrode
The characteristic of electrode:
- Sensitive to current density
- Waveform and frequency dependent

For Ag/AgCl, amount of AgCl also affects the impedance

Impedance as a function of frequency for Ag electrodes coated with an electrolytically deposited AgCl layer. The
electrode area is 0.25 cm^2. Numbers attached to curves indicate number of mA⋅s for each deposit.( adesh AgCl
deposited)

Observations:( ele bl aswad ele mhmen)

- Curve A: A metallic silver electrode At a frequency of 10 Hz, the magnitude of its impedance was
almost three times the value at 300 Hz.--> there is a strong capacitive component to the equivalent
circuit.
- The impedance of Ag/AgCl electrodes varies significantly from that of a pure silver electrode
at frequencies under 100 Hz..
- Curve B:Electrolytically depositing 2.5 mA s of AgCl greatly reduced the low-frequency impedance.
- Depositing thicker AgCl layers had minimal effects until the charge deposited exceeded
approximately 100 mA s. The curves shifted to higher impedances in a parallel fashion as the amount
of AgCl deposited increased.
- Thus, depositing an AgCl layer using a charge of between 100 and 500 mA s/cm2 provides the
lowest value of electrode impedance.
-Increase in area → decrease in impedance , ma fena n8yr Rs
The Electrode-Skin Interface and Motion Artifact:

- When biopotentials are recorded from the surface of the skin, we must consider the interface between
the electrode-electrolyte and the skin
- Transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl- is used to maintain good contact between the electrode and
the skin.// gel electrolyte → resistor with zero half cell
Epidermis is constantly renewing itself
- Stratum corneum: outermost layer of dead cells, constantly removed
- Stratum granulosum: cells begin to die and loose nuclear material //increase capacitance
- Stratum germinativum: cells divide ( mitosis) and grow and displaced outward

Motion artifact:
• When polarizable electrode is in contact with an electrolyte, a double layer of charge forms at the
interface.
• Movement of the electrode will disturb the distribution of the charge and results in a momentary
change in the half cell potential until equilibrium is reached again.
• Motion artifact is less minimum for nonpolarizable electrodes.
• Signal due to motion has low frequency so it can be filtered out when measuring a biological signal of
high frequency component such as EMG or axon action potential.
• However, for ECG, EEG and EOG whose frequencies are low it is recommended to use nonpolarizable
electrode to avoid signals due to motion artifact.// it cant be filtered.
Full Circuit Model of Electrode skin interface:
-The deeper layers of the skin contain: the vascular and nervous components of the skin as well as the sweat
glands, sweat ducts, and hair follicles.
-These layers are similar to other tissues in the body and, with the exception of the sweat glands(Dermis w
subcutaneous ) do not bestow any unique electrical characteristics on the skin
-Dotted(sweat glands): can be neglected especially in hospitals bkon klo mkyaf

- Alter skin transport or deliver drugs by : pores produced by laser ,ultrasound or by iontophoresis
- If the effect of the stratum corneum can be reduced, a more stable electrode results. effect of the stratum
corneum by removing it, or at least a part of it, from under the electrode.
- from vigorous rubbing with a pad soaked in acetone to abrading the stratum corneum with sandpaper
to puncture it. this tends to short out Ese, Ce, and Re, thereby improving the stability of the signal, but
the stratum corneum can regenerate in as short a time as 24 h.
- They also point out that removal of the body’s outer protective barrier makes that region of skin more
susceptible to irritation from the electrolyte gel. Therefore, the choice of a gel material is important.
- Psychogenic electrodermal response or the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) is the contribution of the sweat
glands and sweat ducts.
- The fluid secreted by sweat glands contains Na+ , K+ , and Cl− ions, the concentrations of which differ
from those in the extracellular fluid. Thus, there is a potential difference between the lumen of the sweat
duct and the dermis and subcutaneous layers. → Ep
- These components are often neglected when we consider biopotential electrodes unless the electrodes
are used to measure the electrodermal response or GSR
—-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Practical Electrodes for Biomedical Measurements
1.Body surface 2.Percutaneous 3.implantable 4.Arrays 5.Microelectrodes
Body surface: 1. Metal plate : limb , disk , foam pad 2. Floating 3. Flexible
Percutaneous: percutaneous , suction , helical
Implantable: wire loop, platinum sphere, multielement depth
Arrays microfabrictaed: one, 2, 3 dimensional
Microelectrodes: metal, glass pipet, glass pipet coated with metal film.
A. Metal Plate Electrodes:
• Consists of a metallic conductor in contact with the skin with a thin layer of an electrolyte gel between
the metal and the skin to establish this contact.
- limb electrode:

• Made of a nickel-silver alloy

• Used for ECG recording
• Consists of a flat metal plate that is bent
into a cylindrical segment.
• Conformal ; takes the shape of the hand
limb etc…
• A terminal is placed outside on its surface
near one end. this terminal is used to attach the
lead wire to the electrocardiograph.
• Before it is attached to the body with a
rubber strap or tape, its concave surface is covered with electrolyte gel.
- Tendency to lose its adhesive ability , don't totally seal, sensitive , prone to error
- Metal disk Electrodes:
• The lead wire is soldered to the back surface.
• Used as a chest electrode for recording the ECG
• Used for long-term recordings.
• How to apply it:
○ Electrode Is often fabricated from a disk of Ag that may have an electrolytically deposited layer
of AgCl on its contacting surface.
○ It is coated with electrolyte gel and then pressed against the patient’s chest wall.
○ It is maintained in place by a strip of surgical tape or a plastic foam disk with a layer of adhesive
tack on one surface.
→ tape could cause irritations
• Sometimes the connection between lead wire and electrode is protected by a layer of insulating material,
such as epoxy or polyvinylchloride
- This style of electrode is also popular for surface recordings of EMG or EEG.
 - In recording EMGs, investigators use stainless steel, platinum, or gold-plated disks to minimize
the chance that the electrode will enter into chemical reactions with perspiration or the gel.
These materials produce polarizable electrodes, and motion artifact can be a problem with
active patients .
- Electrodes used in monitoring EMGs or EEGs are generally smaller in diameter than those
used in recording ECGs

- Disposable foam-pad electrodes:

• It consists of a relatively large disk of plastic foam material with a silver plated disk on one side attached
to a silver-plated snap.
• A lead wire with the female portion of the snap is then snapped onto the electrode and used to connect
the assembly to the monitoring apparatus.
• May be coated with an AgCl layer.
• The electrode side of the foam is covered with an adhesive material.

12 Lead ECG Placement of Electrodes | EKG Sticker Lead Procedure

To apply the electrode to the patient:
- eza fe sh3r e7l2o abl ma ndf el area
- the clinician has only to clean the area of skin to remove oils on which the electrode is to be
placed. You can use soap and water for sensitive skin
- Rubb dead skin off.
 - open the electrode packet, snap the lead wire on to the electrode, remove the release paper
from the tack, and press the electrode against the patient’s skin. Eza b7ota b3d ma elz2a
btdye2 el mareed
Suction electrodes/Welsh cup electrodes:
https://youtu.be/wHlrr2-iIZg?feature=shared

How to apply it:

• the bulb is squeezed, and the electrode is then placed on the chest wall. The bulb is released and applies
suction against the skin, holding the electrode assembly in place.
• Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting surface of the electrode.
Key info:
• This electrode can be used only for short periods of time; the suction and the pressure of the contact
surface against the skin can cause irritation.
• Takes negative pressure from the skin
• Requires no straps or adhesives for holding it in place
• Frequently used in ECG as the chest electrodes.
• They consist of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode, an appropriate terminal for the lead wire, and a
rubber suction bulb.
• The actual contacting area is relatively small., el area enclosed ma 5sa bs el contact surface.Thus tends to
have a higher source impedance than the relatively large-surface-area metal-plate electrodes

Floating electrodes:

• Stable against motion artifact and reusable after proper

cleaning.
• The metal disk is recessed in a cavity and does not come in
contact with the skin.
 • The cavity does not move with respect to the metal disk, so it does not produce any mechanical
disturbance of the double layer of charge.

However Figure (c) shows a cross section of disposable modification of the floating electrode.
Its structure is basically the same as that of the disposable metal-plate electrode but it has one added
component—a disk of thin, open-cell foam saturated with electrolyte gel.
-The foam is firmly affixed to the metal-disk electrode, thereby providing an intermediate electrolyte-gel layer
between the electrode and the skin.
- Because the foam is fixed to the metal disk, the gel contained within it at the disk interface is mechanically
stable.
- The other surface of the foam that is placed against the skin is able to move with the skin, thereby diminishing
the motion artifact that sometimes results from differential movement between the skin and the electrolyte gel
Flexible electrodes:// el material tkon flexible and its thin
• We use it since thick layer would come up in the imaging and ruin the image
• Figure (a) shows a carbon-filled silicone rubber compound in the form of a thin strip or disk is used as
the active element of an electrode.
• The carbon particles in the silicone make it an electric conductor.
• The electrode is used in the same way as a similar type of metal plate electrode.
• A pin connector is pushed into the lead connector hole, and the electrode is used in the same way as a
similar type of metal-plate electrode

• Consists of a Mylar film on which an Ag and AgCl film

have been deposited (Figure (b)).
• The flexible lead wire is attached to the Mylar substrate
by means of a conducting adhesive.
• The Ag film approximately 1 µm thick is deposited over
this and the Mylar.
• AgCl layer is then grown on the surface of the silver
film via the electrolytic process.
• Flexible and conform to the shape of the body
(especially newborn’s chest)//can cause skin ulceration
 • Contains a thin layer of silver enough to be X-ray transparent
• Infant skin is protected from the irritation caused from removing and reapplying the adhesive tape that
holds the electrode
Cross-sectional view of the thin-film electrode

INTERNAL ELECTRODES:
1. percutaneous electrodes, in which the electrode itself or the lead wire crosses the skin,
2. entirely internal electrodes, in which the connection is to an implanted electronic circuit
such as a radiotelemetry transmitter
Needle EMG demonstration
Percutaneous:
Percutaneous electrode
Background:
- Thick needles can damage the muscles
• Smaller than skin surface electrodes and do not require special electrolytic coupling fluid, since natural
body fluids serve this function.
• A The insulated needle electrode
—(figure a) consists of a solid needle, usually made of stainless steel, with a sharp point.
—An insulating material coats the shank of the needle and leave the tip of the needle exposed.
 -b and c Coaxial needle electrodes:
—needle electrodes with running one or more insulated wires down the lumen of a standard
hypodermic needle and filling the remainder of the lumen with an insulating material such as an epoxy
resin
—Used to pick up very localized signals in tissue.
—-The oblique cross section of the central wire serves as the active electrode
—-The needle itself is connected to ground through the shield of a coaxial cable, thereby extending the
coaxial structure to its very tip
C: –- two wires are placed within the lumen of the needle and can be connected differentially so as to
be sensitive to electrical activity only in the immediate vicinity of the electrode tip.
– does the bipolar contain both active and reference electrode
-d Fine wire electrodes:
- Fine wires introduced into tissue using a hypodermic needle, which is then withdrawn. This wire can
remain in tissue for acute or chronic measurements.
- its insulated wire but its tip isnt insulated which is bent back on itself to form J shape; this serves as a
barb holding the wire in place in the muscle.
-To remove the wire, the technician applies a mild uniform force to straighten out the barb
and pulls it out through the wire’s track
- mnst3ml el needle mnshn ma yt3aj el wire
- coiled: implanted in active muscles , because fine wires could break, cause irritation or infection as
mucle moves or slip.
However, it can damage the muscle( fibrosis)
Usage:
it is placed in a particular muscle, it obtains an EMG from that muscle acutely and can then be removed

Suction electrode:
• A sharp-pointed probe in the center of a suction cup can be applied to the fetal presenting part.
 • On the back of the suction electrode is a reference electrode that contacts the fluid, and the signal seen
between these two electrodes is the voltage drop across the resistance of the stratum corneum
• The potentials beneath the stratum corneum allows recording fetal ECGs that have peak amplitudes of
the order of 50 to 700 µV.

Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram( heartbeats) during labor, by means of intracutaneous
needles

Helical electrodes:
• It consists of a stainless steel needle, shaped like one turn of a helix.
• This electrode can be attached to the fetal presenting part by rotating it so that the needle twists just
beneath the surface of the skin.
• The electrode remains firmly attached, and because of the shortness of the helical needle, it does not
penetrate deep enough into the skin to cause significant risk to the fetus.

(Implantable):
when implantable wireless transmission is used, we want to implant electrodes
within the body and not penetrate the skin with any wires. In this case, the radio
transmitter is implanted in the body

Wire - loop electrode:

• Insulated multistranded stainless steel or platinum wire suitable for implantation.
• Fene lef el steel la yser 3nde loop
• The eyelet can then be sutured to the point in the body at which electric contact is to be established.
• Silver should not be used for this type of electrode due to the toxicity of this metal and its effects on
surrounding tissue.
Platinum-sphere cortical-surface potential electrode:
• Used for the radiotelemetry of subdural EEGs.); obtaining cortical surface potentials from the brain.
• Consists of a 2 mm-diameter metallic sphere located at the tip of the cylindrical Teflon insulator
through which the electrode lead wire passes.
• The calvarium is exposed through an incision in the scalp, and a burr hole is drilled.
• A small slit is made in the exposed dura, and the silver sphere is introduced through this opening so
that it rests on the surface of the cerebral cortex. The assembly is then cemented in place onto the
calvarium by means of a dental acrylic material

The calvaria (or calvarium) is the cranium without the face.

Multielement depth electrode

• Allows recording deep cortical potentials from multiple points.( or stimulation to reset)
• Consists of a cluster of fine insulated wires held together by a varnish binder.
• Each wire has a tip that serves as an active electrode surface.
• Thus electrodes located at known differences in depth in an array.
 • Can cause damage
• The other ends of the electrodes can be attached to appropriate implantable electronic devices or to a
connector cemented on the skull to allow connection to an external recording apparatus

(Arrays): since fabricating implantable electrode arrays one at a time using clusters of fine
insulated wires is time-consuming and expensive and somewhat the clusters are different.

Microfabricated electrode arrays:

One-dimensional linear array of six pairs of electrodes

• Microfabrication technology
• Ag/AgCl electrode, square shape, 40 x 40 µm
• Probe ( that holds the contacts/bonding pads) dimension: 10 mm (L) x 0.5 mm (W) x 125 µm (D)
• Usages: measurement of transmural potential distribution in the beating myocardium
• Electrodes flexibility was important to minimize tissue damage as the muscle contracts and relaxes.
• Chizel shape to allow easy access to brain
• Multireading
• Recording plus stimulation

Two-dimensional electrode array

• Microfabrication technology
 • Two-dimensional extension of one-dimensional array
• Usage: mapping of electrical potentials on the surface of the heart
• Ask if the leads hne ele bwslo 3l instrumentation aw el electrodes mwslen using conductors mn 8er jha

Three-dimensional electrode array

• Silicon microfabrication technology
• Two-dimensional comb with about 1.5 mm long tines . It only measures from a two-dimensional array
of electrodes because all of the tines are the same length
• Usage: two-dimensional potential mapping;
• Recording.
• Each comb is insulated ela 3l traf its exposed, this exposed tip serves as the electrode
• A truly three-dimensional electrode array can be fabricated by taking a set of one-dimensional electrode
array probes such as seen in Figure (a) or a microelectrode probe as seen in Figure (b) and assembling
them in an array of tines similar in appearance to that of Figure (c)but can be expensive
• Malkin and Pendley fabricated electrode arrays for cardiac ECG mapping in small rodents using ribbon
cable. They produced arrays of from 4 to 400 regularly spaced electrodes in their cardiac physiology
laboratory without special equipment
(Microelectrodes)
In studying the electrophysiology of excitable cells, it is often important to measure potential differences across
the cell membrane. To do this, we must have an electrode within the cell. Such electrodes must be small with
respect to the cell dimensions to avoid causing serious cellular injury and thereby changing the cell’s behavior. In
addition to being small, the electrode used for measuring intracellular potential must also be strong so that it can
penetrate the cell membrane and remain mechanically stable
- Used to measure potential within a single cell (Resting potential)
- Very small in diameter and during insertion into the cell there is no damage.
- Usually placed inside the cell ( active)
- These are electrodes with tips suitably small to penetrate a single cell and obtain readings from them
- The tip will penetrate without damaging the cell
- High impedences in the range of mega ohms because of their small size
Criteria for microelectrodes:
- Small and strong
Metal microelectrodes
• The metal microelectrode is essentially a subminiature version of the needle electrode.
• A strong metal such as tungsten is used.
• Electropointing:One end of this wire is etched electrolytically to give tip diameters on the order of a
few micrometers.
• Only the extreme tip of the electrode remains uninsulated
• The advantage of these electrodes is that they are both small and robust and can be used for
neurophysiologic studies.
• Their principal disadvantage is the difficulty encountered in their fabrication
• Chloriding the tip reduces the impedance.
• How its made :
- Often this type of microelectrode is prepared by first filling a glass tube with a metal that has a melting
point near the softening point of the glass.
 - The tube is then heated to the softening point and pulled to form a narrow constriction.
- It is broken at the constriction, forming two micropipets filled with metal.
- The glass not only provides the mechanical support but also serves as the insulation.
- The active tip is the only metallic area exposed in cross section where the pipet was broken away.
• How its made:

SUPPORTED-METAL MICROELECTRODES :
• The etched metal needle is supported in a larger metallic shaft that can be insulated. This shaft serves as
a sturdy mechanical support for the microelectrode and as a means of connecting it to its lead wire.

Glass-pipet microelectrode
• Consists of a fine glass capillary drawn to a very narrow point and filled with
an electrolytic solution ( KCL)
• The electrolytic solution serves as the contact between the interior of the cell
and a larger electrode located in the shank of the pipette.
• These electrodes also suffer from fabrication difficulty.
• Only the metal tip is exposed
-
Glass micropipet or probe, coated with metal film

• Is achieved by depositing a metal film over the outside surface of a glass micropipette.
• The metal are insulated by an additional film up to a point very close to the tip of the electrode
structure.
• Advantage: flexibility due to the capability of being able to make films of different metals on the
micropipette surface without having to worry about the strength of the metal.
How its made:
- A solid glass rod or glass tube is drawn to form the micropipet.
- A metal film is deposited uniformly on this surface to a thickness of the order of tenths of a micrometer.
- A polymeric insulation is then coated over this, leaving just the tip, with the metal film exposed