CELLULAR

PHYSIOLOGY
 ODESSA D. BAYANI, MD
 Department of Physiology
 OBJECTIVES
 To review the organization of the cell
 To discuss the functions of cell membrane

 To explain the establishment of homeostasis

 To discuss the different transport process

 To discuss the types of passive transport process

 To differentiate the types of active transport

process
 To correlate concepts of cellular physiology in
common clinical conditions
CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
 CELL

 is the basic structural and functional unit of

every living organism

Cell
Tissue
Organ
Systems
Human body
 Allcells share common
elements and functions
 Cells are organized into 3
main regions:
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Plasma membrane
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL
 WATER
 70-85%
 Principal fluid medium of the cell
 Where chemical reactions take place

 PROTEINS
 10-20%
 Structural proteins- form the cytoskeleton of
the cellular organelles
 Functional proteins- act as enzymes to
control metabolic functions
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL

 LIPIDS
 2% of cell mass
 Forms the cell membrane and intracellular
membrane barriers that separate the cell
components
 Fats stored in cells are the main storehouse of
energy giving nutrients
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL
 CARBOHYDRATES
 1% of cell mass
 Major role in nutrition of the cell
 Little structural function as part of
glycoproteins

 IONS
 Provides inorganic chemicals for cellular reaction
 Na, K, Cl, Ca, Mg, PO4, SO4, HCO3,
 CYTOPLASM
 aqueous solution that contains organic molecules,
organelles and inclusions
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

A network of tubular
and flat vesicular
structures in the
cytoplasm
 Connected to the
nuclear membrane
 Highway of the
cell
 ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
 Ribosomes are
attached to the
cytoplasmic side of the
membrane
 Site of the translation
of mRNA and
postranslational
modification of
proteins to be secreted
from the cells
 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

 No attached ribosomes
 Functions for the
synthesis of lipids
 Site of steroid synthesis

 Site of detoxification
process in other cells
 RIBOSOMES

 Complex structure
containing mixture of
proteins and RNA
 Sites of protein
synthesis
 Found either attached
to ER or floating free
in the cytosol
 GOLGI APPARATUS
 A stack of flattened
membrane sac
 Provides processing
and forms secretory
vesicles containing
proteins to be secreted
through the cell
membrane
 Packaging of the
cell
 MITOCHONDRIA
 Powerhouse of the
cell
 Site where ATP is
generated through
oxidative
phosphorylation
 Bounded by a two-
lipid bilayer
membrane
 Contains DNA
controlling replication
 LYSOSOMES

 Vesicular organelles
formed from Golgi
apparatus
 Contains hydrolytic
enzymes
 Digestive system
of the cell
 LYSOSOMES

Contain bactericidal agents:

a. lysozyme – dissolves bacterial
cell membrane

b. lysoferrin –binds iron before

they can promote bacterial
cell growth
 TAY-SACHS DISORDER
 Genetic disorder caused by absence of single
lysosomal enzyme
 enzyme normally breaks down glycolipid commonly
found in nerve cells
 as glycolipid accumulates, nerve cells lose
functionality
 seizures, muscle rigidity, blind, demented and dead
before the age of 5
 PEROXISOMES
 Similar to lysosomes
except:
 Bud off from the
endoplasmic reticulum
 Contains oxidative
enzymes
 microbodies
 CYTOSKELETON
 Microfilaments
 Contractile elements in
muscle cells
 Intermediate
filaments
 Structural support
 Microtubules
 intracellular transport
of vesicles
(neurotransmitter)
 Chromosome movement
during mitosis
 Movement of cilia and
flagella
 CILIA
 For locomotion
 Dynein- responsible for the whiplike
movement of the cilia (e.g. fallopian tube
and respiratory airways)
 KARTAGENER’S SYNDROME
 an autosomal recessive disorder in which
dynein is missing in cilia and, in males, the
flagella of sperm
- infertile males
 impaired mucociliary transport, becomes
susceptible to repeated lung infections.
 NUCLEUS
 Control center of the cell
 Enveloped by a nuclear membrane

 Contains large quantities of DNA---genes

 Control and promote reproduction of cell

 NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
 An envelope that
surrounds the nucleus
 Double membrane
with spaces between
called perinuclear
cisterns
 Contains nuclear
pores through which
transport of proteins
and mRNA occurs
 NUCLEOLUS
 Staining structure inside the nucleus
 A patchwork of granules rich in RNA

 Site of ribosome synthesis

 Most prominent and numerous in growing

cells
 CHROMATIN
 Basophilic material
composed of DNA and
associated
proteins(histones)
 Scattered throughout
the nucleoplasm
 Condenses to form
chromosomes when
the cell divides
CELL MEMBRANE
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Separates intracellular contents from
extracellular environment
 A lipid bilayer with associated proteins
 PLASMA MEMBRANE

 Regulates transport
of molecules into and
out of the cell
(selective
permeability)
 Gatekeeper- restricts
passages of some
substances while
permitting the
passage of others
(semipermeable)
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Maintains differences
in ionic composition
and establishes ionic
gradients between the
extracellular and
intracellular
compartments
(permeability
barrier)
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Cell communication through
neurotransmitters and hormone receptors
and signal transduction pathways
 Tissue organization through cell junctions

 Enzymatic activity

 Determination of cell shape linking the

cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane
PLASMA MEMBRANE
MEMBRANE COMPOSITION

Protein ---------------------------- 55%

Phospholipids ------------------- 25%
Cholesterol ---------------------- 13%
Other lipids ---------------------- 4%
Carbohydrates ------------------ 3%
MEMBRANE LIPIDS
 MEMBRANE PROTEINS
I. Integral proteins -
embedded in lipid bilayer
 transmembrane proteins
 Channel or carrier protein
II. Peripheral proteins-
 bind to integral proteins
 easily removed
 Enzyme or signal transducer
 MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
 cells are surrounded
by extracellular fluid
or matrix.
 some cells float freely
(e.g. red cells in blood)
 most cells are
organized and
packaged together
 cells must be able to
 communicate with each
other
 stay bound to other cells
and the extracellular
matrix
 TYPES OF MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS

 Membrane
junctions
 Tight junctions
 Desmosomes

 Gap junctions
 TIGHT JUNCTIONS( Zona occludens)
- attachments between cells
- Allows selective diffusion of ions or water or both
between cells

 DESMOSOMES- intercellular junctions

containing intermediate filaments that provide
strong adhesions between cells

 GAP JUNCTIONS- provide low resistance

connections between cells
- Functional unit is the connexon
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
PROTEINS
 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS:
A.Water channels
Aquaporins
Main route for movement of water
into and out of cells
B.Ion channels
Open channels
Gated channels
 OPEN CHANNELS GATED CHANNELS

 Pores
 Ligand –gated
 Leak channels channels
 Controlled by messenger
molecule or ligand
 Voltage-gated
channels
 Controlled by the
electrical state of the cell
 Mechanically-gated
channels
 Controlled by the
physical state of the cell
 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
C. Solute carriers – bind molecules and cause
conformational changes
3 Major Functional groups:
 Uniporter
 Transports a single molecule across the membrane
 GLUT2
 Symporter/cotransport
 Couples the movement of 2
or more molecules across
the membrane
 Same direction

 NaKCCl2 found in the

kidney
 Antiporter/
countertransport
 Couples the movement of 2
or more molecules across the
membrane
 Opposite direction

 E.g Na-H antiporter

D. ATP-dependent transporter
Uses energy from ATP to move ions
across the membrane
ex. NaK ATPase
HOMEOSTASIS
 HOMEOSTASIS

From the Greek homeo – meaning “same”

Latin –stasis – meaning “standing”

maintaing a steady state

 HOMEOSTASIS

 To maintain homeostasis:
 Set point
 Mechanisms monitoring deviations from a set point

3 parts:
 Receptor
 Control center
 Effector
 CONTROL MECHANISMS

Evolve around a feedback system

1. negative feedback system
2. positive feedback system
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

 Effects are negative with respect to the

initiating stimulus
 Allows maintenance of homeostasis since
it keeps the condition constant
 How most control systems of the body act
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 Intensifythe initial stimulus leading to
enhancement of the response
 Better known as viscious cycle

 May have destabilizing effect and can be

harmful
 Positive
Feedback
Loop
HOMEOSTASIS OF BODY FLUIDS
 TRANSPORT PROCESS
I. PASSIVE
III. ENDOCYTOSIS/
PROCESSES
EXOCYTOSIS
 OSMOSIS  Phagocytosis
 DIFFUSION  Pinocytosis
 FILTRATION  Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
II. ACTIVE IV. EPITHELIAL
PROCESSES TRANSPORT
 Transcellular

 PRIMARY  Paracellular

 SECONDARY
 TRANSPORT PROCESS
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Transport substances along
an electrochemical gradient
(concentration, pressure or
electrical gradient)
downhill transport
(-) energy
(-) carrier except facilitated
diffusion
(-) net movement once
equilibrium is reached
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Transport substances
against an electrochemical
gradient(concentrationpress
ure or electrical gradient)
Uphill transport
(+) enrergy
(+) carrier
Exhibits saturation kinetics
Exhibits stereospecificity
Exhibits competitive
inhibition
 OSMOSIS
 Passive movement of water across a
semi-permeable membrane from a low
solute concentration to a high solute
concentration via channel proteins called
aquaporins
 Driven by differences in osmotic pressure
OSMOSIS
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 Determined solely by the
number of molecules in
solution
 Pressure exerted by solute
particles in the solution or
pressure applied by NaCl
sol. The movment of H20 to
the right side is slowed or
stopped and the exact amt
of pressure required to stop
osmosis is called Osmotic
pressure
 VAN’T HOFF’S LAW
 Osmotic pressure is measured as osmolarity and
is calculated by Vant Hoff’s Law

 Regardless of type of molecule, a solution

containing 1 mmol/L of solute exerts an osmotic
pressure of 1 mOsm/L.
 OSMOLARITY VS OSMOLALITY
 Osmolarity- osmotic pressure generated by the
dissolved solute molecules in IL of solvent
- mOsm/L

 A solution that dissociate eg. A 150mmol/L

solution of NaCl(conc of solution) has an
osmolarity of 300 mOsm/L, NaCl dissociates into
2, 150 x 2=300
 OSMOLARITY VS OSMOLALITY

 Osmolality- osmotic pressure generated by

solute molecules dissolved in 1kg of solvent
- mOsm/kgH20 or osmole

 Osmolality-use in ECF & ICF, It is based on

mass of solvent
 It is express the conc of a solute in terms of
number of particles,

 Ex 180g glucose=1 osmole of glucose. 58.5g

NaCl(2 ions)= 2 osmoles
 TONICITY
• Related to the effect of the solution to the
volume of the cell
– The solution with the higher
concentration of solutes is hypertonic.

– The solution with the lower

concentration of solutes is hypotonic.

– Solutions with equal solute

concentrations are isotonic.
 GIBBS-DONNAN EFFECT

 Occurs when a
membrane separating
2 solutions is
permeable to some but
not all the molecules
in solution
 It increases the
number of osmotically
active particles in the
cell result in cell
swelling
NONISOTONIC CELL VOLUME REGULATION
 HYPOTONIC MEDIA:
cells swell
 REGULATORY
VOLUME
DECREASE(RVD)-
transports osmotically
active
particles(osmolytes) out
of cell --- decrease
osmotic pressure and
restore cell volume to
normal
NONISOTONIC CELL VOLUME REGULATION
 HYPERTONIC
MEDIA: cells shrink
 REGULATORY
VOLUME
INCREASE(RVI)-
transports osmolytes
into cell --- increase
intracellular osmotic
pressure – restore cell
volume to normal
 DIFFUSION
 A spontaneous process by which a substance
moves from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration driven by thermal
motion of molecules
FICKS LAW OF DIFFUSION
 Diffusion is quantified
by this Law
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION

 Rate of diffusion faster:

 Smaller molecules
 At elevated temperature
 In large concentration gradient
 Low viscosity medium
 Lipid solubility
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 Transport of substances down their concentration
or electrochemical gradient using carrier proteins
 Does not require energy

 Carrier mediated diffusion

 Ex. Glucose transporter

 FILTRATION
 substances and solvent move across the
membrane driven by a hydrostatic pressure
gradient.
 Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high
pressure area to a lower pressure area
• INCREASES NET FILTRATION PRESSURE
capillary hydrostatic pressure
interstitial oncotic pressure
• DECREASES NET FILTRATION PRESSURE
interstitial hydrostatic pressure
plasma oncotic pressure
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Transport substance
against an
electrochemical gradient
a) concentration
b) pressure
c) electrical
 uphill movement
 (+) carrier
 (+) energy
 exhibits saturation
kinetics, specificity and
competitive inhibition
 2 TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Primary Active Transport
 Transporter directly breaks down an energy
molecule ie, ATP (Na/K pump)
 Secondary Active Transport

 Transporter is indirectly dependent on

energy expenditure from another
transporter
e.g. Na-glucose transporter fueled by Na-K
pump
 PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Na/K ATPAse or Na-K
pump)
 Responsible for
maintaining Na K
concentration gradient
across the cell membrane
 establishes the negative
electrical voltage inside
the cell
 Basis for nerve function
 Control of cell volume
 SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

If the secondary ion

moves in the same
direction as that of the
primary ion , the
process is called
symport or
cotransport
 Na-glucose
transporter fueled by
Na-K pump
 SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• If the secondary ion

moves in the opposite
direction, it is called
antiport or
countertransport
• Na-Ca antiporter
HOW MOLECULES CROSS THE
MEMBRANE
 VESICULAR TRANSPORT

 BULK TRANSPORT-movement of
macromolecules

 ENDOCYTOSIS
Extracellular substances are engulfed
or enclosed in a membranous vesicle
by the cell membrane
 PHAGOCYTOSIS(CELL EATING)
 Uptake of particulate matter
 The plasma membrane extends and captures large
molecules
 PINOCYTOSIS(CELL DRINKING)

 Uptake of ECF and soluble material

 Occurs when plasma membrane folds inward to form
a channel allowing substances to enter the cell and
encircled within a pinocytic vesicle
 RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS

 Allows uptake of specific

molecule into cell
 Molecule bind to specific
receptor on surface of
cell
 VESICULAR TRANSPORT

EXOCYTOSIS
 Process of releasing from
the cell
 Material is packaged in a
sac or vesicle
 Vesicles migrate and
combine with plasma
membrane
 Material is emptied to the
outside
Eg: hormones, mucus, cell
waste
 EPITHELIAL TRANSPORT

 Movement of substances across an

epithelial surface
 Pathways for transport

 Paracellular
 Transcellular
 PARACELLULAR TRANSPORT
 transport occurs
between adjacent cells
across a tight junction
 Occurs primarily in
small ions and water
molecules
 Passive in nature
 limited by tight
junctions and small
area for diffusion
 there is movement
into the cell both by
diffusion (passive) and
mediated transport
(active)
 Na-K ATPase located
in the basolateral
membrane
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