CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Studying Cells
Cell Theory: Four Basic Concepts
 Basic building blocks of all animals and plants
 Smallest functional units of life
 Products of cell division
 Basic homeostatic units

The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body

Cytology
- Study of structure and function of cells

Cytology depends on seeing cells

 Light microscopy (LM)
 Electron Microscopy (EM)
 Scanning EM (SEM)
 Transmission EM (TEM)
Overview of Cell Anatomy
Extracellular fluid
- also called interstitial fluid
Cell Membrane
- lipid barrier between outside and inside
Cytoplasm (intracellular fluid)
- around nucleus
- cytosol + organelles

Anatomy of a Representative Cell

The Cell Membrane

Functions of the plasma membrane
 Physical isolation
 Regulation of exchange with the environment
 Sensitivity
 Structural support
Membrane Structure
 Lipids
 Phospholipid bilayer
 Proteins
 Molecular components
 Carbohydrates

Functions of Membrane Proteins

 Receptors  Enzymes
 Channels  Anchors
 Carriers  Identifiers
Membrane Transport
 Selective permeability
 Permeability factors
- Molecular size
- Electrical charge
- Molecular shape
- Lipid solubility
Doors and Channels

Membrane Transport Processes

Passive transport
 Diffusion
 Filtration
Carrier-Mediated transport
 Facilitated transport
 Active transport
Membrane Transport: Cell Membrane Barrier

Membrane Transport Definitions

 Diffusion
Random movement down a concentration gradient (from higher to lower
concentration)
 Osmosis
Movement of water across a membrane down a gradient in osmotic pressure (from
lower to higher osmotic pressure)

Diffusion

Membrane Transport: Diffusion

Diffusion Across Cell Membranes

Membrane Transport: Fat- and Water-Soluble Molecules

Osmosis

Key Note

Things tend to even out, unless something—like a cell membrane—prevents this

from happening. Across a freely permeable or water permeable membrane,
diffusion and osmosis will quickly eliminate concentration gradients.
Osmotic Effects of Solutions on Cells
 Isotonic—Cells maintain normal size and shape
 Hypertonic—Cells lose water osmotically and shrink and shrivel
 Hypotonic—Cells gain water osmotically and swell and may burst.

Osmotic Flow across a Cell Membrane

Passive Membrane Transport

 Filtration
- Hydrostatic pressure pushes on water
- Water crosses membrane
- Solute follows water
- Filtration initiates urine formation

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Membrane proteins as carriers
 Facilitated diffusion (no ATP required)
- Co-transport
- Counter-transport
 Active transport (ATP consumed)
- Independent of concentration gradients
- Ion pumps (e.g., Na-K exchange)
Facilitated Diffusion

Membrane Transport: Facilitated Diffusion

The Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump

Vesicular Transport
 Membranous vesicles
 Transport in both
directions

Endocytosis
 Movement into cell
 Receptor-mediated
 Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis

Exocytosis
 Movement out of cell

Membrane Transport: Active Transport

The Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
- All the “stuff” inside a cell, not including the cell membrane and nucleus.

The “stuff”:
 The cytosol
 The organelles

The Cytosol
 Intracellular fluid  Soluble proteins
 Structural proteins
 Inclusions
  Dissolved nutrients and metabolites
 Ions

Intracellular-Extracellular Differences

Organelles
 Membranous organelles  Non membranous organelles
- Isolated compartments - Cytoskeleton
- Nucleus - Microvilli
- Mitochondria - Centrioles
- Endoplasmic reticulum - Cilia
- Golgi apparatus - Flagella
- Lysosomes - Ribosomes
- Peroxisomes - Proteasomes

Organelles: The Cytoskeleton The Cytoskeleton

 Cytoplasmic strength and form
 Main components
- Microfilaments (actin)
- Intermediate filaments (varies)
- Microtubules (tubulin)

Non membranous Organelles

Centrioles—Direct chromosomes in mitosis
Microvilli—Surface projections increase
external area
Cilia—Move fluids across cell surface
Flagella—Moves cell through fluid
Ribosome—Makes new proteins
Proteasome—Digests damaged proteins

Membranous Organelles
Endoplasmic reticulum—network of intracellular membranes for molecular
synthesis

 Rough ER (RER)
-
Contains ribosomes
-
Supports protein synthesis
 Smooth ER (SER)
- Lacks ribosomes
- Synthesizes proteins, carbohydrates

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Membranous Organelles
 Golgi apparatus
- Receives new proteins from RER
- Adds carbohydrates and lipids
- Packages proteins in vesicles
-Secretory vesicles
-Membrane renewal vesicle
-Lysosomes
Membranous Organelles
 Lysosomes
- Packets of digestive - Hazard for autolysis
enzymes - “Suicide packets”
- Defense against bacteria
- Cleaner of cell debris

Key Note
Cells respond directly to their environment and help maintain homeostasis at the
cellular level. They can also change their internal structure and physiological
functions over time.

Membranous Organelles
 Mitochondria
- 95% of cellular ATP supply
- Double membrane structure
- Outer membrane very permeable
- Inner membrane very impermeable
- Folded into cristae
- Filled with matrix
- Studded with ETS complexes

Mitochondria
Key Note
Mitochondria provide most of the energy needed to keep your cells (and you)
alive. They consume oxygen and organic substrates, and they generate carbon
dioxide and ATP.

The Nucleus
Properties of the Nucleus
 Exceeds other organelles in size
 Controls cellular operations
- Determines cellular structure
- Directs cellular function
 Nuclear envelope separates cytoplasm
 Nuclear pores penetrate envelope
- Enables nucleus-cytoplasm exchange

The Nucleus

Chromosome Structure Chromosome Structure

 Location of nuclear DNA
-
Protein synthesis instructions
 23 pairs of human chromosomes
 Histones
- Principal chromosomal proteins
- DNA-Histone complexes
 Chromatin
Key Note
The nucleus contains DNA, the genetic instructions within chromosomes. The
instructions tell how to synthesize the proteins that determine cell structure and
function. Chromosomes also contain various proteins that control expression of
the genetic information.

The Genetic Code

 Triplet code
-
Comprises three nitrogenous bases
-
Specifies a particular amino acid
 A Gene
- Heredity carried by genes
- Sequence of triplets that codes for a specific protein

Protein Synthesis
Transcription—the production of RNA from a single strand of DNA
 Occurs in nucleus
 Produces messenger RNA (mRNA)
 Triplets specify codons on mRNA
Protein Synthesis
Translation—the assembling of a protein by ribosomes, using the information
carried by the mRNA molecule
 tRNAs carry amino acids
 Anticodons bind to mRNA
 Occurs in cytoplasm

Protein Synthesis: tRNA

Key Note
Genes are the functional units of DNA that contain the instructions for making
one or more proteins. The creation of specific proteins involves multiple enzymes
and three types of RNA
The Cell Life Cycle
Cell division—The
reproduction of cells
Apoptosis—Genetically
programmed death of cells
Mitosis—The nuclear division
of somatic cells
Meiosis—The nuclear division
of sex cells

The Cell Life Cycle

 Highly Variable
- Interphase duration
- Mitotic frequency

DNA Replication

Mitosis—a process that separates and encloses the duplicated chromosomes of the
original cell into two identical nuclei
Four phases in mitosis
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
Cytokinesis - division of the cytoplasm to form two identical daughter cells

Mitotic Phases
 Prophase
- Chromosomes condense
- Chromatids connect at centromeres
 Metaphase
- Chromatid pairs align at metaphase plate
 Anaphase
- Daughter chromosomes separate
 Telophase
- Nuclear envelopes reform
Key Note
Mitosis is the
separation of
duplicated
chromosomes into two identical sets and nuclei in the process of somatic cell
division.

Cell Division and Cancer Key Note

 Abnormal cell growth Cancer results from mutations that
 Tumors (also called, disrupt the control mechanism that
neoplasm) regulates cell growth and division.
Cancers most often begin where
Benign cells are dividing rapidly, because
- Encapsulated the more chromosomes are copied,
Malignant the greater the chances of error.
- Invasion
- Metastasis
Cancer—Disease that results from a
malignant tumor

Somatic Cells
 All have same genes
 Some genes inactivate during development
 Cells thus become functionally specialized
 Specialized cells form distinct tissues
 Tissue cells become differentiated