White Blood Cells

White blood cells

〰 are spherical cells that lack
hemoglobin
〰 White blood cells can leave the
blood and travel by ameboid
movement through the tissues
〰 Buffy coat ➺ a thin, white layer
of cells between plasma and red
blood cells

(1) In macrophages, the globin

Each white blood cell type is named
according to its appearance in
stained preparations.
✦ large cytoplasmic granules are
granulocytes
✦ very small granules that cannot be
seen easily with the light
microscope are agranulocytes
Two functions of white blood
cells are:
(1) protect the body against
invading microorganisms
(2) remove dead cells and debris
from the tissues by phagocytosis.
part of hemoglobin is broken down
to individual amino acids (red
arrow) and metabolized or used to
build new proteins.
(2) The heme of hemoglobin
releases iron. The heme is converted
into bilirubin.
(3) Blood transports iron to the red
bone marrow, where it is used to
produce new hemoglobin (green
arrows).
(4) Blood transports bilirubin (blue
arrows) to the liver.
(5) Bilirubin is excreted as part of
the bile into the small intestine.
(6) Other bilirubin derivatives are
reabsorbed from the intestine into
the blood and excreted from the
kidneys in the urine.
There are three kinds of
granulocytes:
Neutrophils
» most common type of white blood
cells
» have small cytoplasmic granules
that stain blue or purple with basic
dyes
» usually remain in the blood for a
short time (10–12 hours)
Basophils
» least common of all white blood
cells
» contain large cytoplasmic granules
that stain blue or purple with basic
dyes
Eosinophils
» contain cytoplasmic granules that
stain bright red with eosin, an acidic
stain.
» involved in inflammatory
responses associated with allergies
and asthma.
There are two kinds of
agranulocytes:
Lymphocytes
» are the smallest of the white blood
cells consists of thin imperceptible
ring around the nucleus.
» lymphocyte activities include the
production of antibodies ➺ the
antibodies destroy microorganisms
and regulate the immune system.
Monocytes
» are the largest of the white blood
cells
» after monocytes leave the blood
and enter tissues, they enlarge and
become macrophages
Platelets
Platelets
〰 are minute fragments of cells,
each consisting of a small amount
of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell
membrane
〰 they are produced in the red
bone marrow from large cells called
megakaryocytes
〰 play an important role in
preventing blood loss.
11.5 PREVENTING BLOOD
LOSS
When a blood vessel is damaged,
blood can leak into other tissues and
interfere with normal tissue
function, or blood can be lost from
the body.
Large amount of blood loss can lead
to death, when a blood vessel is
damaged, loss of blood is
minimized by three processes:
(1) vascular spasm
(2) platelet plug formation
(3) blood clotting
Vascular Spasm
Vascular Spasm
〰 is an immediate but temporary
constriction of a
blood ➺ this constriction can close
small vessels completely and stop
the flow of blood through them.
Platelet Plug Formation
Platelet Plug Formation
〰 is an accumulation of platelets
that can seal up a small break in a
blood vessel
〰 people who lack the normal
number of platelets tend to develop
numerous small hemorrhages in
their skin and internal organs.
(1) Platelet adhesion occurs when
von Willebrand factor connects
exposed collagen to platelets.
(2) During the platelet release
reaction, ADP, thromboxanes, and
other chemicals are released and
activate other platelets.
(3) Platelet aggregation occurs
when fibrinogen receptors on
activated platelets bind to
fibrinogen, connecting the platelets
to one another. The accumulating
mass of platelets forms a platelet
plug.
Blood Clotting
〰 when a blood vessel is damaged,
blood clotting, results in the
formation of a clot ➺ clot is a
network of threadlike protein fibers,
called fibrin ➺ fibrin traps blood
cells, platelets, and fluid.
〰 the formation of a blood clot
depends on a number of proteins
found within plasma, called clotting
factors.
The clotting factors are activated.
Clot formation is a complex
process, but it can be summarized in
three stages:
Stage 1
Inactive clotting factors in the
plasma are activated by exposure to
connective tissue or by chemicals
released from tissues. Through a
series of reactions, the activated
clotting factors form
prothrombinase.
Stage 2
Prothrombinase converts
prothrombin to thrombin.
Stage 3
Thrombin converts fibrinogen to
fibrin (the clot).
Thrombus
» an attached clot that form when
platelets encounter damaged or
diseased areas of blood vessels or
heart walls
» breaks loose and begins to float
through the circulation is called an
embolus.
» thrombi and emboli can cause
death if they block vessels that
supply blood to essential organs,
such as the heart, brain, or lungs.
Clot Retraction and
Fibrinolysis
〰 After a clot has formed, it
begins to condense into a more
compact structure through a process
known as clot retraction.
〰 Retraction of the clot pulls the
edges of the damaged blood vessel
together, helping stop the flow of
blood, reducing the probability of
infection, and enhancing healing.
(1) Thrombin and tissue
plasminogen activator convert
inactive plasminogen into plasmin.
(2) Plasmin breaks down the fibrin
in a blood clot, resulting in clot
fibrinolysis.