Surface Chemistry

 Surface Chemistry is the branch of physical chemistry which

deals with the study of physical and chemical phenomenon
that occur at the interface of two phases.

Evaporation Corrosion

Points to cover

1) Adsorption
2) Colloids
3) Catalysis
 Adsorption
 The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than
in the bulk of a solid or liquid due to molecular surface forces is
known as ADSORPTION.

Gas
Molecules
The substances solids, liquids or
gases which are adsorbed on the
surface of adsorbent are called
ADSORBATE.

 The solid or liquid substance on the surface of which adsorption

takes place is called ADSORBENT.
 Examples of some commonly used ADSORBENTS

Palladium Silica Gel Activated Charcoal

Starch Gum Arabia Egg Albumin

 When a substance is uniformly distributed throughout the body
of a solid or liquid, the phenomenon is called ABSORPTION.

 The process in which both adsorption and absorption take place

simultaneously is known as SORPTION.

Absorption
Sorption
 The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a
surface on which it is adsorbed is known as DESORPTION.

 Adsorption of gases on metal surface voids is called

OCCLUSION.

Desorption
Difference between Adsorption & Absorption
Adsorption
1. It involves higher
concentration of the gas or
liquid at the surface of a
substance.
2.It is rapid in the beginning
and slows down near the
equilibrium .
3. It is a surface
phenomenon.
4. It is a fast process.
Absorption
1.It involves uniform
distribution of the molecular
species throughout the bulk.
2.It occurs at a uniform rate.
3. It occurs throughout the
body of the material.
4. It is a slow process.
 Mechanism of Adsorption
 Particles inside the adsorbent are completely
Air
surrounded by other particles on all sides.
Hence the intermolecular forces are mutually
Surface balanced.
Layer
 Particles at the surface of adsobent are not
surrounded by atoms or molecules on all
sides. Hence they possess unbalanced or
residual attractive forces.
Solid
 These forces of the adsorbent are responsible
for attracting the adsorbate particles on its
surface.
 (i) Adsorption is an exothermic process
DH = –ve

(ii) Freedom of movement of gases molecules decreases

DSgas = –ve

(iii) Adsorption is a spontaneous process

DG = –ve but DStotal > 0

(iv) When DG = 0 , state of equilibrium is attained.

Examples :
1.) Anhy. CaCl2  Absorption 2.) 2 () Absorption
HO
HO
2 (g)
NH3(g)
Silica gel  Adsorption Charcoal  Adsorption

3.) Chalk  Absorption (water is absorbed)

Ink
Chalk  Adsorption (ink is adsorbed)

4.) When Charcoal is mixed with Methylene blue then its blue
colour is adsorbed (adsorption) by charcoal and the dye
becomes colourless.

5.) When charcoal is mixed in yellow sugar solution, then yellow

colour is adsorbed by charcoal and white coloured sugar
solution is obtained (adsorption)
 Types of Adsorption
Depending on the nature of forces between molecules of
adsorbate & adsorbent, adsorption is of two types:
Physical Adsorption Chemical Adsorption

Adsorbent Adsorbent
1. It is caused by intermolecular 1. It is caused by chemical bond
Van Der Wall’s forces. formation.
2. It is not specific. 2. It is highly specific.
3. It is reversible. 3. It is Irreversible.
 Physical Adsorption
4. Heat of adsorption is low
(-20 to -40 kJ mol-1)
5. No appreciable activation energy is
involved.
6. It forms multimolecular layers on
adsorbent surface under high
pressure.
7. It depends on the nature of gas.
More easily liquefiable gases are
adsorbed readily.
8. It decreases with increase of
temperature.
Chemical Adsorption
4. Heat of adsorption is high
(-80 to -240 kJ mol-1)
5. High activation energy is involved.
6. It forms unimolecular layer.
7. It also depends on the nature of
gas. Gases which can react with the
adsorbent show chemisorption.
8. It first increases then decreases
with temperature.
FACTORS AFFECTING EXTENT OF ADSORPTION (x/m)
1) Nature of adsorbent :
For Solids : Adsorption  Surface area of adsorbent or free
valency of the solid.
2) Nature of adsorbate :
For Gases : Adsorption  Critical temperature of gas (TC)

Volume of gases at N.T.P adsorbed by 1 g of Charcoal

Gas H2 N2 CH4 CO2 HCl NH3 SO2

Critical Temperature, T c (K) 33 126 190 304 324 406 430

Volume adsorbed (mL) 4.7 8 16.2 48 72 181 380

Critical Temperature Increases

Ease of Liquification Increases
Extent of adsorption increases
3) Effect of Temperature :

Adsorbate + Adsorbent Adsorption ; DH = –ve

 For Exothermic Process : On Temperature Adsorption

 Physical adsorption shows regular decrease with temperature
 Chemical adsorption first increases then decreases with
temperature because it is specific, requires activation energy.
(Physical adsorption) (Chemical adsorption)

P = constant

(x/m)
(x/m)
P = constant

Temperature (T) Temperature (T)

4) Effect of Pressure : (Adsorption Isotherm)

The extent of the adsorption of a gas on a solid is generally

expressed as x
m
where : x – Mass of adsorbate,
m – Mass of adsorbent

Theoretically , x P
m
x
m

Pressure (P) Saturation

Pressure
TYPES OF ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
(a) Freundlich adsorption isotherm : (Physical adsorption)
(i) Freundlich adsorption isotherm is obeyed by the adsorption
where the adsorbate forms single layer on the surface of
the adsorbent.
 Freundlich adsorption isotherm equation,
𝟏
𝒙
= 𝐤𝑷 𝒏 ; n1
𝒎

 In Logarithmic form
𝐱 𝟏 1
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐦 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐤 + 𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐏 ; 0≤𝑛≤1
1
 In general is 0.1 to 0.5
𝑛
 x/m represents the amount of gas adsorbed on the unit mass
of adsorbent
  k and n are constant at a particular temperature and for a
particular adsorbent and adsorbate (gas)
𝑥
(ii) At low pressure, ∝𝑃 ...(a)
𝑚
𝑥
(iii) At high pressure, ∝ 𝑃0 ...(b)
𝑚
1
𝑥
(iv) At moderate pressure, 𝑚
∝𝑃 𝑛 ...(c)

T3 < T2 < T1
T3
x T2 x

log (x/m)
T1
m m
1
slope = n
a c b
intercept = log k
P P
log P
Freundlich adsorption isotherm Freundlich adsorption isotherm Plot of log x/m against log P for the
plot of x/m against P plot of x/m against P adsorption of a gas on a solid
Adsorption in solutions (Liquid + Solid)
Example:
Dyes solution + Charcoal

1
x
= kC n [C = concentration of liquid]
m

Drawback of Freundlich adsorption Isotherm :

Explains Physical Adsorption upto moderate pressure but fails at
high pressure.
APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION :
Few Important applications of adsorption are listed here:
(i) Gas masks : Gas mask (a device which consists of activated
charcoal or mixture of adsorbents) is usually used for
breathing in coal mines to adsorb poisonous gases.
(ii) Removal of colouring matter from solutions : Animal
charcoal removes colours of solutions by adsorbing
coloured impurities.
(iii) Separation of inert gases : Due to the difference in degree of
adsorption of gases by charcoal, a mixture of noble gases
can be separated by adsorption on coconut charcoal at
different temperatures.

 Generally adsorption is exothermic process but an example

of chemical adsorption is endothermic.
−
Ex. Glass + H2(g) Glass/H2(g); DH = Positive [Exception]
 𝐱
Q.1 The graph between log 𝐦 v/s log P is
straight line inclined at an angle 45°
with intercept 0.60. What will be the
extent of adsorption at pressure of 0.3
atm. (Given: 100.08 = 1.2)

Sol.
 𝐱
Q.1 The graph between log 𝐦 v/s log P is  m = tan 45° = 1
straight line inclined at an angle 45°  c = log k = 0.60
with intercept 0.60. What will be the  P = 0.3
extent of adsorption at pressure of 0.3 x
atm. (Given: 100.08 = 1.2)  log m = 0.60 + 1 × log 0.3

x 3
Sol.  log m = 0.60 + 1 × log 10
x
 log m v/s log P = 0.60 + log 3 – log 10
x = 0.60 + 0.48 – 1
 m = kP1/n x
 log m = 0.08
x 1 x
 log m = log k + 𝑛
log P  m = 100.08 = 1.2

y c m x
Q.2 2g of charcoal having surface area 3.01 ×
102 m2 is mixed in 100 mL of 0.25 M
acetic acid solution; after some time
concentration of solution becomes 0.24
M. What will be surface area occupied
by one molecule of acetic acid ?
(1) 2 × 10–19 m2 (2) 5 × 10–19 m2
(3) 6 × 1020 m2 (4) 10–3 m2

Sol.2
Q.2 2g of charcoal having surface area 3.01 ×  Moles of Acetic acid left after adsorption
100
102 m2 is mixed in 100 mL of 0.25 M = 0.24 × = 0.024 mol
1000
acetic acid solution, after some time
concentration of solution becomes 0.24  Moles of acid adsorbed = 0.025 – 0.024
M. What will be surface area occupied = 0.001 mol
by one molecule of acetic acid ?
(1) 2 × 10–19 m2 (2) 5 × 10–19 m2  No. of molecules of Acetic acid adsorbed
(3) 6 × 1020 m2 (4) 10–3 m2 = 0.001 × 6.02 × 1023
= 6.02 × 1020
Sol.2
 Wt. of charcoal = 2g  Surface area occupied by 1 molecule of
Total surface area of charcoal
Acetic Acid =
Total surface area of = 3.01 × 102 m2 No. of molecules adsorbed
charcoal
 Moles of Acetic acid = M × V(l) 3.01×102
= 6.02×1020
initially present
100 = 5 × 10–19 m2
= 0.25 × 1000 = 0.025 mol
COLLOIDS :
Thomas Graham (1861) studies the process of diffusion of
dissolved substances through a parchment paper or an animal
membrane and divided the substances into two classes :-
(1) Crystalloid (2) Colloid

But this Classification soon proved to be wrong since a

crystalloid could behave as a colloid under different conditions
and vice-versa.
New classification was based on the size of solute particles.

Solutions

Crystalloids Colloids Suspension

 Comparison of True Solutions, Colloids & Suspension
S.No Property True Solution or Crystalloid Colloid Suspension
1. Particle size < 1 nm 1 nm to 1000 nm > 1000 nm
2. Visibility Not visible with any of the May be visible with Visible with naked
optical means ultra-microscope eye
3. Separation
(a)With filter paper Not possible Not possible Possible
(b)With membranes Not Possible Possible Possible
(ultrafiltration)
4. Diffusion Diffuses rapidly Diffuses very slowly Does not diffuse
5. Settling Does not settle Does not settle due Settle due to
to gravity but it may gravity
settle under
centrifuge
6. Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous
7. Tyndall effect & does not show shows May or may not
Brownian moment show
 TYPES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS
 A colloidal system is made of two phases.
 The substance distributed as the colloidal particles is called
Dispersed phase (DP) or internal phase or the discontinuous
phase.
 The continuous phase in which the colloidal particles are
dispersed is called dispersion medium (DM).
For Example: A colloidal solution of copper in water
Copper particles (DP) & Water (DM)

 Depending on the dispersed phase or dispersion medium,

colloidal solutions can be classified by 3 ways -
 Dispersed Dispersion
Phase Medium
(DP) (DM)

(A) (B) (C)

On the Basis of
Interaction Types of DP
physical state
of DP & DM b/w DP & DM particles

Lyophilic Lyophobic
8 Types Sol Sol

Multi- Macro-
Associated
Molecular molecular
Colloids
Colloids Colloids
(A) Classification of Colloidal Solutions on the basis of Physical state of DP & DM
Dispersed Dispersion Type of Colloidal
Example
phase medium Solution
Whipped Cream, Shaving Cream, Soda
Gas Liquid Foam
water, Soap lather
Cork, Pumice stone, Foam rubber,
Gas Solid Solid Sol
Bread, Cake
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, Mist, Clouds, Insecticide sprays
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Hair cream, butter, Cold Cream
Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, curd, Jellies, Boot polish
Solid Gas Aerosol Dust, Soot in air, smoke
Solid Liquid Sol Ink, Colloidal gold, Paints, Cell fluids.
Ruby glass (Gold dispersed in glass),
Solid Solid Solid sol
Gem stones, Minerals
NOTE : A colloidal dispersion of one gas in another is not
possible since the two gases would give a homogeneous
molecular structure but colloidal solution is heterogeneous in
nature.

Sol :
If the colloidal system has the appearance of a fluid, then it is
called a Sol. On the basis of dispersion medium different types
of sols are possible.

S.N. Dispersion medium Name of solution

i. Water Hydrosol or aquasol
ii. Benzene Benzosol
iii. Alcohol Alcosol
iv. Air Aerosol
 Emulsions

Oil dispersed in water Water dispersed in oil

(O/W types) (W/O types)

 In this water acts as a

dispersion medium.  In this oil acts as
 Examples of this type of dispersion medium.
emulsions are milk and  Examples of this type are
vanishing cream. In milk, butter, cold cream, and
liquid fat is dispersed in cod liver oil etc.
water.  Emulsifying agents for
 Emulsifying agents for W/O are heavy metal
O/W are gums, proteins, salts of fatty acids, long
soaps etc. chain alcohol, lamp black
etc.
 (B) Classification based on interaction between DP & DM
Lyophilic Sol
Colloidal solutions in which
the dispersed phase has
considerable affinity for the
dispersion medium, are
called lyophilic sols
(solvent - loving).
For Example: Dispersion of
gelatin, starch, gum and
proteins in water.
Lyophobic Sol
Colloidal solutions in which
the dispersed phase has no
affinity or attraction for the
medium or for the solvent
are called Lyophobic colloidal
(Solvent hating).
For Example: Metals and
their sulphides
 Comparison of Lyophilic sol & Lyophobic Sol
S.No. Property Lyophilic sol (Emulsoid) Lyophobic sol (Suspensoid)
1 Preparation Can be easily prepared by shaking or Can not be prepared easily. Special
warming the substance with solvent methods are required
2 Stability Are more stable Are less stable
3 Reversibility Are reversible Are irreversible
4 Viscosity Viscosity is much higher than that of Viscosity is nearly same as that of
solvent the solvent
5 Surface Surface tension is usually low Surface tension is almost same as
tension that of solvent
6 Hydration or These are highly solvated as the These are less solvated as the
solvation particle have great affinity for particles have less affinity for the
solvent solvent
S.No. Property Lyophilic sol (Emulsoid) Lyophobic sol (suspensoid)
7 Charge The particles have little charge or The particles carry a characteristic
no charge at all charge either positive or negative
8 Visibility Particles can not be seen under Particles can be seen under
microscope microscope
9 Coagulation or Precipitated by high concentration Precipitated by low concentration
precipitation of electrolytes of electrolytes
10 Tyndall effect Less Scattering More Scattering
11 Migration in May or may not migrate as they Migrate towards anode or cathode
electric field may or may not carry charge as these particles carry charge
12 General Mostly of organic nature Mostly of Inorganic nature
Example Example: Gelatin, Starch, Gum, Example: Transition metal salt like
Albumin & Cellulose Solution Gold, As etc.
 (C) Classification on the basis of type of Dispersed Phase

Multi molecular Macro Molecular Associated Colloids

Substances which
Formation by behave as normal
aggregation of a large In suitable solvents, electrolytes at low
number of atoms or macromolecules form concentration but get
smaller molecules of solutions in which the associated at higher
substance. size of particles may concentration and
be in colloidal range. behave as colloidal
Ex: Gold Sol (Au) solutions. These
Sulphur sol (S ) Ex: Starch, Cellulose, associated particles are
8
Protein etc. also called micelles.
Ex: Surfactants (Soaps
& Detergents)
 ASSOCIATED COLLOIDS [MICELLES] :
 Soaps and detergents are strong electrolytes
and give ions when dissolved in water. C17H35COONa  C17H35COO– + Na+
Soap O

CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 C

+
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 O Na
+
SodiumStearate
Sodium strearate (C17H35COO Na)
O
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 C
–
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 O

Hydrophobic tail Stearate ion

Hydrophilic head

Hydrophobic tail
 COO
–

CO –
O
– –O Ionic
 The negative ions
OO
C CO micelle aggregate to form a
Stearate
ion
–
OOC COO
– micelle of colloidal size.

Water –OOC  In micelle formation, the

CO
–
O
C

CO
long hydrocarbon chain

O–O

(a)
(a) Arrangement of stearate ions on the surface
of water at low concentrations of soap
O
–
(b)
(tail) which is insoluble in
(b) Arrangement of stearate ions inside the bulk
of water (ionic micelle) at critical micelle water is directed towards
concentrations of soap the centre while the soluble
polar head is on the surface
in contact with water.

SOLID CIRCLE ( )  The charge on the

REPRESENTS
–
micelle is responsible for
POLAR GROUP(–COO Na+) the stability of this system.
WAVE LINE ( ) REPRESENTS
NON-POLAR GROUP (–R)
Critical Micelle concentration (CMC) :
 The concentration above which associated colloids or
Micelles are formed is called CMC.

 CMC of soap is 10–4 to 10–3 mol lit–1.

 These colloids have both lyophobic and lyophilic parts.

Micelles may contain as many as 100 molecules or
more.

Kraft Temperature (TK):

 Temperature above which Micelles are formed.
NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR MICELLE FORMATION ARE :-
(a) Compounds must have hydrophobic part means long
chain alkyl group.
(b) Compounds must have hydrophilic part means
• • +
– 𝐒𝑶𝟑– , – 𝐂𝐎𝑶– , – 𝑶 – , – 𝐍𝑹𝟑 etc.
• •
CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAPS:
The cleansing action of soap is due to
fact that soap molecules form micelle
around the oil droplet in such a way that
hydrophobic part of stearate ions is in
the oil droplet and hydrophilic part
projects out of grease droplet like
bristles.
(a) Grease on cloth (b) Stearate ions arranging
 Oil & grease can be absorbed into the
Hydrophobic centres of soap miscelle &
washed away. Thus soap helps in
emulsification & washing away of oils &
fats.
 The negatively charged sheath around
the globules prevents them from coming
together and forming aggregates.
around grease droplet
(c) micelle formed
METHODS OF PREPARATIONS :

1) Lyophilic sols may be prepared by simply warming the

solid with liquid dispersion medium
Example: Starch with water.
2) On the other hand lyophobic sols have to be prepared
by special methods.

These methods fall into two categories –

(A) Dispersion Methods : In this larger macro sized
particles are broken down to colloidal size.
(B) Condensation Methods : In this colloidal sized particles
are built up by aggregating single ions or molecules.
This method is known as condensation method.
 S.No (B) Aggregation or Condensation Methods

1 Physical Methods

a Exchange of solvent
S.No (A) Dispersion Methods
b By Excessive Cooling
1 Mechanical dispersion
2 Chemical Methods
2 Electro-dispersion
(a) Double decomposition
3 Peptization
(b) Oxidation

(c) Reduction

(d) Hydrolysis
 (A) Dispersion Methods :

(i) Mechanical dispersion :

 The substance to be dispersed is grinded as finely as
possible and then shaken with the dispersion medium
to form a suspension.
 This suspension is passed through colloidal mill where
the suspended particles are broken to produce particles
of colloidal size.
Metal rods
Exercise : Ink, paints.
+ Water + KOH

Ice
(ii) Electro-dispersion (Bredig's arc method) :
 This method is suitable for the preparation of colloidal
solutions of metals like gold, silver, platinum etc.
 An arc is struck between the metal electrodes under
the surface of water containing some stabilizing agent
Electro-dispersion such as a trace of KOH.
 The water is cooled by immersing the container in a ice bath.
 The intense heat of the arc vaporizes some of the metal
which condenses under cold water.
Exercise : Pt, Ag, Cu, Au, Pb Sol are prepared by this method.

(iii) Peptization (Peptization is a opposite process of coagulation)

The process of converting a Freshly prepared precipitate into
colloidal solution by shaking it with dispersion medium in the
presence of small amount of electrolyte known as Peptizing
agent.

FEW EXAMPLES OF SOLS OBTAINED BY PEPTIZATION :

(i) AgI + AgNO3  [AgI] Ag+ ⋮ NO3–
(ii) AgI + KI  [AgI] I– ⋮ K+
(iii) Fe(OH)3 + FeCl3  [Fe(OH)3] Fe3+ ⋮ 3Cl–
(iv) Fe(OH)3 + NaOH  [Fe(OH)3] OH– ⋮ Na+
(v) CdS + H2S  [CdS] S2– ⋮2H+
The process of peptization thus involves the adsorption of
suitable ions (particularly a common ion)
 (b) AgNO3 + KI AgI + KNO3
Q1. Which of the following will form
negatively charged colloidal solution ? t = 0 20 m mol 10 m mol 0 0
t = t 10 m mol 0 10 m mol 10 m mol
a.) 100ml 0.1M AgNO3 + 100ml 0.1M KI
[AgI]Ag+1
b.) 100ml 0.2M AgNO3 + 100ml 0.1M KI
(Positively charged sol)
c.) 100ml 0.1M AgNO3 + 100ml 0.2M KI
d.) 100ml 0.2M AgNO3 + 200ml 0.1M KI (c) AgNO3 + KI AgI + KNO3
t = 0 10 m mol 20 m mol 0 0
Sol t=t 0 10 m mol 10 m mol 10 m mol
(a) AgNO3 + KI AgI + KNO3 [AgI]I–1
t = 0 10 m mol 10 m mol 0 0 (Negatively charged sol)
t=t 0 0 10 m mol 10 m mol
(d) AgNO3 + KI AgI + KNO3
t = 0 20 m mol 20 m mol 0 0
t=t 0 0 20 m mol 20 m mol
 PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTION :
(a) Dialysis :
 The process of separating the particles of colloid from those
of crystalloid, by means of diffusion through a suitable
membrane is called dialysis.
Water
 Its principle is based upon the fact that colloidal
+ particles can not pass through a parchment or
Crystalloid
cellophane membrane while the ions of the
Sol particle
electrolyte can pass through it.
Water  The impurities slowly diffuse out of the bag
leaving behind pure colloidal solution.
Crystalloid
 The distilled water is changed frequently to avoid
accumulation of the crystalloids otherwise they may start
diffusing back into the bag.
 It can be used for removing HCl from the ferric hydroxide sol.
 Prolonged dialysis can cause the colloid to coagulate.
(b) Electrodialysis :

 Process of dialysis can be made faster by applying an

electric field if the dissolved substances in the impure
colloidal solution is only an electrolyte.

Dialysing
membrane

Water
+
Electrolyte
Anode + – + – Cathode

Water

Sol particle Crystalloid

(c) Ultrafiltration :

 Sol particles directly pass through ordinary filter paper

because their pores are larger than the size of sol
particles.
 If the pores of the ordinary filter paper are made
smaller by soaking the filter paper in a solution of
gelatin or collodion and subsequently hardened by
soaking in formaldehyde, the treated filter paper may
retain colloidal particles and allow the true solution
particles to escape.
 Such filter paper is known as ultra filter and the process
of separating colloids by using ultra-filters is known as
ultrafiltration.
 Collodion is a 4% solution of nitro cellulose in mixture
of alcohol and ether.
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS :
(a) Heterogenous :
Colloidal particles in a solution differ in sizes and are not
homogeneously distributed through out the solution.

(b) Visibility :
 Colloidal particles can not be seen with
naked eyes.
 Colloidal particles, however scatter light
and become visible as bright spots in a
dark background when seen through a
ultra microscope.
 In 1903 Zsigmondy devised a microscope
which is based on the principle of
scattering of light by sol particles.
(c) Filterability :
Colloidal particles pass through an ordinary filter paper but
do not pass through parchment and other fine
membranes.

(d) Surface tension and viscosity :

 For Lyophobic sols, surface tension and viscosity are not
very different from those of the medium, as there is
very slight interaction between the suspended particles
and the medium.
 On the other hand Lyophilic sols show a high degree of
solvation of the particles and therefore, the properties
of the medium are modified. Thus, the viscosity is much
higher for the sol than for the medium. Furthermore the
surface tension of the sol is lower than that of pure
medium.
 (e) Colour :

Color of Colloidal  Example : The colour of Silver sol

Solution changes with diameter of particle in
solution.

 Example : finest Gold sol is red in

Manner in which
Wavelength of colour as size of particle increases it
the observer
light Scattered appears purple then blue and finally
receives the light
golden.

Size of Nature of  Example : Mixture of milk and water

Particle Particle appears blue when viewed by reflected
light but red when viewed by transmitted
light.
(f) Colligative properties :

 Colligative properties depend on the relative number of

solute particles in solution.

 In case of colloidal solutions, colloidal particles are the

aggregates of ions or molecules and when compared to
true solutions or normal solutions, the total no. of
particles of solute in solution are very less due to large
size and hence these solutions exhibit colligative
properties to lesser extent.
(g) Optical properties (Sols exhibits Tyndall effect):

When light is focussed on a sol and observed

perpendicular to the beam of light rays, a cone is
seen which is called Tyndall cone. This was first
observed by Faraday and later by Tyndall and is
known as Tyndall effect.

Tyndall effect can be observed only when following

two conditions can be satisfied:

1.) Diameter of dispersed particle is not much smaller

than wavelength of light used.
2.) The refractive indices of the dispersed phase and
dispersion medium differ greatly in magnitude.
 (h) Kinetic properties :
 When a sol is examined with an ultramicroscope, it is
observed that the particle is in a state of continuous
motion in zigzag path.
 The continuous rapid zigzag motion of a colloidal
particle in the dispersion medium is called "Brownian
movement or motion" (first observed by British
botanist Robert Brown).
Fe3+ Ions Adsorbed
(i) Charge on colloidal particles :
Colloidal particles always carry an
Fe(OH)3 electric charge. The mutual forces of
repulsion between similarly charged
particles prevent them from aggregating
Negatively charged
Cl— ions is dispersion medium
and settling under the action of gravity.
Representation of Fe(OH) 3 sol. This gives stability to the solution.
 Positively Charged
1. Metallic hydroxides Cr(OH)3,
Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3 & hydrated
metallic oxides Al2O3.xH2O,
CrO3.xH2O
2. Basic dye in acidic medium stuff 2. Acid dye in basic medium
like:- Methylene blue sol
3. Proteins in (acidic medium)
4. Haemoglobin (Hb)
Negatively charged
1. Metallic sulphides like As2S3,
Sb2S3, CdS and Metal like: Au,
Ag, Cu, Pt etc.
stuff like:- Congo red sols
3. Proteins in (basic medium)
4. Sols of starch, gum, gelatin,
clay & charcoal

NOTE:
Blood is a naturally occuring negatively charged colloid but Haemoglobin
(Hb) is a positively charged colloid.
 ELECTRICAL DOUBLE LAYER :
 The combination of the two layers of +ve and –ve charge
around the sol particle is called Helmholtz double layer.
The first layer of ions is firmly held and is termed as
Fixed layer or Compact layer.

Mobile layer  The second layer is mobile which is termed

as Diffused layer.
Colloidal
Particles
of Al(OH)3
Fixed layer  The diffused layer is only loosely attached to
the particle surface and moves in the opposite
direction under an applied electric field.

 The potential difference between the fixed layer and the

diffused layer of opposite charge is called Electrokinetic
Potential or Zeta Potential.
 (j) Electrophoresis :
Reservoir
 If electric potential is applied across two
platinum electrodes dipped in a colloidal
solution, the colloidal particles move
Anode
Cathode Cathode
Anode towards one or the other electrode, due to
charge on them.

 The movement of sol particles under an

applied electric potential is called
Colloidal "Electrophoresis". Depending upon the
Water solution
(dispersion direction of movement of particles towards
medium) cathode or anode electrophoresis can be
called ‘Cataphoresis’ or ‘Anaphoresis’.
Stop cock
Electrophoresis provides an experimental proof to
show that the colloidal particles are charged
Fig. : Electrophoresis particles.
(k) Electro Osmosis :

 The medium will move in opposite direction to the

dispersed phase under the influence of applied electric
potential.
 The movement of dispersion medium under the influence of
applied potential is known as ‘Electro-osmosis’.(In presence
of plasma membrane)
 (l) Coagulation or Precipitation :
The flocculation and settling down of the dispersed phase
particles is called coagulation or precipitation.

1.) For Lyophobic Sol :

 The stability of a lyophobic sol is due to the adsorption of
positive or negative ions by the dispersed particles.
 If somehow, the charge is removed there is nothing to keep the
particles apart from each other. In such cases they aggregate or
flocculate and settle down under the action of gravity.

Coagulation of lyophobic Sol

By Addition By mixing two By

By Electro-
of oppositely By Boiling Repeated
phoresis
electrolyte charged sols dialysis
(i) By addition of electrolytes :
 When an electrolyte is added in solution, it furnishes
both the type of ions in solution.
 The oppositely charged ions get adsorbed on the
surface of colloidal particles. This causes neutralization.
 Due to greater volume and greater mass these particles
settle down and coagulate.
 The ion responsible for neutralization of charge on the
particle is called the flocculating ion.

Hardy Schulze Rule :

 The higher the valency of the flocculating ion, the
greater is its coagulating power.
 For the precipitation of As2S3 sol (–ve) the precipitating
power of Al3+, Ba2+, and Na+ ions is in the order

Al3+ > Ba2+ > Na+

 For precipitating Fe(OH)3 sol (positive) the precipitating
power of [Fe(CN)6]–3, SO42– and Cl– ions is in the order

[Fe(CN)6]3– > SO42– > Cl–

The minimum concentration of an electrolyte in

millimoles required to cause precipitation of 1 litre sol in
two hours is called FLOCCULATION VALUE.

 The smaller the flocculating value, the higher will be

the coagulating power of the ion.

(ii) By electrophoresis –

During electrophoresis the charged sol particles migrate

towards the electrode of opposite sign where they deposit
their charge and then get coagulated.
(iii) By mixing two oppositely charged sols :
The coagulation of two sols of opposite charge can be
effected by mixing them.
Example: Fe(OH)3 (positive sol) and Arsenic sulphide
(negative sol) when mixed neutralize each other, join and
coagulate.

(iv) By boiling :
Sols such as sulphur and silver halides dispersed in water,
gets coagulated when boiled due to increased collisions
between sol particles and water molecules, which removes
the adsorbed charged layer from the sol and therefore the
sol particles settle down.

(v) By repeated dialysis :

When dialysis is repeated again and again then colloidal
solution gets coagulated.
 1.) For Lyophilic Sol :

Stability of When these two factors are removed, Coagulation of

Lyophilic Sol a Lyophillic sol can be coagulated. Lyophilic Sol

High Less By adding

By adding
Solvation Charge Suitable
Electrolyte
Solvent
 1.) For Lyophilic Sol :

Stability of When these two factors are removed, Coagulation of

Lyophilic Sol a Lyophillic sol can be coagulated. Lyophilic Sol

High Less By adding

By adding
Solvation Charge Suitable
Electrolyte
Solvent

When solvents such as Alcohol and Acetone are added to

hydrophilic sol, the dehydration of dispersed phase occurs.
Under this condition a small quantity of electrolyte can
bring about coagulation.
 PROTECTION OR PROTECTIVE ACTION :

 The property of lyophilic sols to prevent the

precipitation or coagulation of a lyophobic sol
is called Protection.
O
OO OOO  The lyophilic sol used for this purpose
O Lyophllic sol.
are called Protective Colloid.
OO
O

(Protective colloid)
OOOO

 lyophilic sols form a thin layer around

OOOOO

lyophobic sol or around the ions furnished

OO

Lyophobic sol. by electrolyte and therefore the coagulation

O

OO
O OOO (Protected can not take place (as the size does not
colloid) increase much).
[Protection of lyphobic sol.]
 Gelatin, Albumin, Gum Arabia, Potato Starch are some
of the examples of Protective colloids.
 The lyophilic colloids differ in their protective power. The
protective power is measured in terms of Gold number.
 Gold number : (Zsigmondy)

 The number of milligrams of a hydrophilic colloid that will

just prevent the precipitation of 10 ml of standard gold sol
on addition of 1 ml of 10% NaCl solution is known as Gold
number of that protector (Lyophilic colloid).

 The smaller the gold number of a protective

lyophilic colloid, greater is its protection power.
Gold Number of some hydrophilic colloids
𝟏
Lyophilic Colloid Gold Number Protection Capacity  𝐆𝐨𝐥𝐝 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
Gelatin 0.005 - 0.01
Egg albumen 0.08 - 0.1 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐲𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐨𝐥 (𝒎𝒈
Gold number = 𝟏𝟎 ×
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐲𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐨𝐥 (𝒎𝑳
Gum arabic 0.10 - 0.15
Potato - starch 25
 APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS :
Colloids are widely used in the industry.

High voltage (i) Electrical precipitation of smoke :

electrode
(30000 volts Gases free  Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such
or more) from carbon
as carbon, arsenic compounds, dust, etc. in air.
particles
 The smoke, before it comes out from the chimney,
is led through a chamber containing plates having
a charge opposite to that carried by smoke particles.
Smoke
 The particles on coming in contact with these plates
Precipitated ash lose their charge and get precipitated. The particles
thus settle down on the floor of the chamber. The
Fig : Cottrell smoke precipitator precipitator is called Cottrell precipitator.
(ii) Purification of drinking water:
The water obtained from natural sources often contains
suspended impurities. Alum is added to such water to
coagulate the suspended impurities and make water fit for
drinking purposes.

(iii) Medicines :
Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature.
 Argyrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion.
 Colloidal Antimony is used in curing kalaazar.
 Colloidal Gold is used for intramuscular injection.
 Milk of Magnesia, an emulsion, is used for stomach
disorders

Colloidal medicines are more effective because they have

large surface area and are therefore easily assimilated.
(iv) Tanning :

 Animal hides are colloidal in nature. When a hide, which

has positively charged particles, is soaked in tannin, which
contains negatively charged colloidal particles, mutual
coagulation takes place. This results in the hardening of
leather. This process is termed as tanning.
Q.1 On adding 1mL solution of 10% NaCl to Q.2 20 litres of a negative sol required
10 ml gold sol in presence of 0.025 g 0.104 g BaCl2 for its coagulation.
starch so that coagulation is just Determine the coagulation value of
prevented then what will be gold electrolyte ?
number of starch ?
(1) 0.25 (2) 2.5 Sol.1
(3) 25 (4) 0.025 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑔
Moles of BaCl2 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

Sol.1 1g = 1000 mg 0.104

wt. of Starch = 25 mg Moles of BaCl2 = = 0.5 × 10–3 mol
208

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐲𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐨𝐥 (𝒎𝒈 m moles of BaCl2 = 0.5 m moles

Gold no. =𝟏𝟎 × 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐲𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐬𝐨𝐥 (𝒎𝑳
20 L of Negative sol  0.5 m moles
10×25 0.5
Gold no. = = 25  1 L of Negative sol  20 = 0.025
10
Q3. What is the correct sequence of the increasing
coagulation value of the following electrolyte for the
coagulation of ferric hydroxide solution :-
(I) Na3PO4 (II) KCI
(III) K2SO4 (IV) K4[Fe(CN)6]

(A) IV > I > III > II (B) II > III > I > IV
(C) I > II > III > IV (D) IV > III > II > I

Sol.
Ferric hydroxide solution have positive charge. So
order of coagulation value.

KCI > K2SO4 > Na3PO4 > K4[Fe(CN)6]

Charge↑ coagulation value↓
 CATALYST AND CATALYSIS :
Substances which accelerate the rate of a chemical
reaction and themselves remain chemically and
quantitatively unchanged after the reaction are known as
catalyst and the phenomenon is known as catalysis.

Catalysis

Homogeneous Heterogeneous

The Reactants and the Catalyst are The Reactants and the Catalyst
in the same phase (liquid or gas) are in the different phases.
Examples:
(A) Homogeneous catalysis
(i) Lead chamber process :
Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide with dioxygen
in the presence of oxides of nitrogen as the catalyst.
NO g
2SO2 g + O2 g 2SO3 g

(ii) Inversion of cane sugar : In aqueous solution, it is catalysed

by dilute acid (hydrogen ions)
H2 SO4 l
C12 H22 O11 l + H2 O l C6 H12 O6 aq + C6 H12 O6 aq

(iii) Hydrolysis of methyl acetate is catalysed by H+ ion

furnished by hydrochloric acid.
HCl ℓ
CH3 COOCH3 ℓ + H2 O ℓ CH3 COOH aq + CH3 OH aq
(B) Surface Catalysis or Heterogeneous Catalysis :
(i) Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide in the
presence of Pt.
Pt s
2SO2 g + O2 g 2SO3 g
(ii) Haber process for NH3
Fe(s
N2 g + 3H2 g → 2NH3 g
Mo(s
(iii) Decomposition of H2O2:
Pt s
2H2 O2 ℓ 2H2 O ℓ + O2 g

(iv) Hydrogenation of vegetable oils

𝑁𝑖 𝑠
Vegetable oil (l) + H2(g) Vegetable ghee (s)
(v) Synthesis of CH3OH :
Cu(s
CO g + 2H2 g → CH3 OH ℓ
ZnO−Cr2 O3
SOME OTHER RELATED TERMS :
(a) Promoters :
Those substances which do not themselves act as catalysts but
their presence increases the activity of catalyst are called
catalytic promoters.
Example :
In Haber process :Fe is catalyst while molybdenum (Mo) acts
as a promoter
Fe catalyst
N2 g + 3H2 g | 2NH3 g
Mo promoter
(b) Inhibitors :
The substance which decreases the rate of chemical reaction
is called inhibitor. It increases the activation energy for the
reaction.
Example :
1 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻
𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂3 + 2 𝑂2 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4
1 Diphenylamine
C6 H5 CHO + O2 C6 H5 COOH
2
 H3PO4 , Glycerol and Acetamide decrease the rate of
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

(c) Catalytic poison :

The substance whose presence decreases or destroys the
activity of a catalyst is called catalytic poison.

Example :
 Carbon monoxide or H2S act as poison for Fe catalyst in
Haber process for manufacture of NH3.
 As2O3 acts as poison for Pt asbestos in contact process for
H2SO4.
(d) Autocatalysts :
When one of the product of the reaction begin to act as a
catalyst, it is called auto catalyst.

Example :
−
 CH3 COOC2 H5 + H2 O CH3 COOH + C2 H5 OH
(Autocatalyst

 2KMnO4 + 5H2 C2 O4 + 3H2 SO4 → 2MnSO4 + K 2 SO4 + 10CO2 + 8H2 O

(Autocatalyst

In the initial stage the reaction is slow but as soon as the

product come into existence the reaction rate increases.
(e) Induced catalyst :
When a chemical reaction enhance, the rate of another
chemical reaction it is called induced catalysis.

Example :
Sodium Arsenite solution is not oxidised by air if however, air
is passed through a mixture of Na3AsO3 & Na2SO3, both of
them undergo simultaneous oxidation. The oxidation of
sodium sulphite, thus influences the oxidation of sodium
Arsenite.

1
Na2 SO3 + 2 O2 → Na2 SO4

1
Na3 AsO3 + O → Na3 AsO4
2 2
 A catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical
1 composition but can change their physical state.

Only a very small amount of catalyst is sufficient

2 to catalyse a reaction.

Generally catalyst does not change the nature of

(f) General characteristics 3 products.
of Catalysts :
4 Catalysts are generally specific in nature.

When a catalyst is a solid, it is usually more

5 efficient when used in finely divided form.

6 Catalyst can change rate constant of the reaction.

 7 Catalysts participate in mechanism of reaction.

Catalyst does not change enthalpy of reaction, free

8 energy and entropy because they are state function.
(f) General characteristics
of Catalysts : 9 A catalyst does not initiate a reaction.

A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state

10 of a reversible reaction.

11 Catalyst helps in attaining the equilibrium state rapidly.

(g) Theories of catalysis :
1) Intermediate compound formation theory:(Homogeneous Catalysis)
 According to this theory, the catalyst combines with one of
the reactants to give an intermediate compound.
 This intermediate compound reacts with the other reactants
& gives the product & regenerates the catalyst in its original
form.
 Thus the reactants do not directly combine with each other,
instead they react through the catalyst which provides an
alternative pathway with lesser energy of activation.
For Example:
The function of NO (catalyst) in the formation of SO3 is explained as:
𝟐𝐍𝐎. + 𝐎𝟐 → 𝟐𝐍𝐎𝟐
Catalyst reactant Intermediate
𝐟𝐚𝐬𝐭
𝐍𝐎𝟐 + 𝐒𝐎𝟐 → 𝐒𝐎𝟑 + 𝐍𝐎
intermediate reactant 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 product catalyst
regenerated
 (2) Adsorption theory : (Heterogeneous catalysis)
The role of a solid catalyst in enhancing the reaction rate is
explained on the basis of this theory in the following steps:

Adsorption of A
A+B reacting molecules
B
Reacting
molecules
Catalyst surface having
free valencies Adsorption of
reacting molecules

Desorption of A
A+B product molecules
Product B

Catalyst Intermediate

Fig. : Adsorption of reacting molecules, formation of

intermediate and desorption of products
 (h) Catalysts in Industry :
S.No. Process Catalyst
1. Haber's process for the manufacture Catalyst: Finely divided Fe
of ammonia Promoter: Molybdenum
Pressure: 200 Bar pressure
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) Temperature: 723 – 773 K
Now a days, a mixture of iron oxide,
potassium oxide and alumina is used.
2. Ostwald's process for the Catalyst: Platinised asbestos
manufacture of nitric acid. Temperature: 573 K.
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)  4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)  4HNO3(aq)
3. Contact process for the manufacture Catalyst: Platinised asbestos or (V2O5)
of sulphuric acid. Temperature: 673–723K.
2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2SO4(aq)  H2S2O7(l)
(oleum)

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)  2H2SO4(aq)

Zeolites (Shape selective catalyst) :

(i) The calatytic reaction that depends upon the pore

structure of the catalyst & the size of the reactant is
called shape selective catalysis. The pore size is
generally in range 260-740 pm.
Example: Zeolite (honey comb – like structure).
Formula of Zeolite is Nax/n [(AlO2)x (SiO2)y] zH2O

(ii) Zeolite is also called sodium alumino silicate, water

softner & cationic exchanger (Exchange only cation
from hard water).
(iii) Zeolite is 3D silicate.
(iv) Zeolite, before using as catalyst are heated in vacuum
so that the water of hydration is lost and as a result
Zeolite becomes porous.
Application of Zeolite :

Normally used in petro chemical industries for cracking of

hydrocarbon & isomerisation.

𝒁𝑺𝑴−𝟓
R – OH 𝐆asoline (Petrol)
 Enzyme Catalysis :

(i) Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds

which are produced from living plants and animals.
(ii) They are actually protein molecules of high molecular
mass and form colloidal solutions in water.
(iii) They catalyse biochemical reactions.
Reactions Catalysed by Enzymes
S.No. Enzymes Source Reaction
(i) Invertase Yeast Sucrose  Glucose and Fructose
(ii) Zymase Yeast Glucose  Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide
(iii) Diastase Malt Starch  Maltose
(iv) Maltase Yeast Maltose  Glucose
(v) Urease Soyabean Urea  Ammonia and CO2
(vi) Pepsin Stomach Proteins  Amino acid
Characteristics of Enzyme Catalysis :

(i) Highly efficient : One molecule of an enzyme may

transform one million molecules of the reactant per
minute.
(ii) Highly specific nature : One catalyst cannot catalyse
more than one reaction.
(iii) Highly active under optimum temperature (298 K to
310 K)
(iv) Highly active under optimum pH (5 to 7)
(v) Increasing activity in presence of cofactor (Na+, Mn2+,
Co2+, Cu2+ etc.) and co-enzymes.
 Mechanism of Enzyme Catalysis (key lock theory) :
 There are number of active centres of definite shape
present on the surface of colloidal particles of enzymes.
 The molecules of the Substrate, which have complementary
shape fit into these cavities just like a key fits into a lock.
 In the presence of active groups an activated complex is
formed which then decomposes to yield the product.
Enzyme Substrate Activated complex Enzyme Product
E + S [E – S]  E + P
Active site
P

E + S E S E
+
P

Enzyme Substrate Enzyme substrate Enzyme Product

(catalyst) (reactants) complex

Fig : Mechanism of enzyme catalysed reaction

Points to Ponder :

 d-block metals are good catalysts, as they have higher

surface area and unpaired d-electrons.
 Colloidal solution of graphite in water is called
"Aquadag" while that in Oil is called Oildag.
 Gold solution in water is called Purple of cassius.
 Silica gel, a colloidal dispersion of hydrated SiO2 called
Water Glass which is formed when dilute HCl is added to
dilute solution of sodium silicate.