Thermochemistry and Fuels

oxygen. It is also very likely that some of the fuel will not get burned when there is a de-
ficiency of oxygen. This unburned fuel ends up as pollution in the exhaust of the engine.
Various terminology is used for the amount of air or oxygen used in combustion:

80% stoichiometric air = 80% theoretical air = 80% air

= 20% deficiency of air

133% stoichiometric oxygen = 133% theoretical oxygen

= 133% oxygen = 33% excess oxygen

For actual combustion in an engine, the equivalence ratio is a measure of the

fuel–air mixture relative to stoichiometric conditions. It is defined as follows:

f = 1FA2act>1FA2stoich = 1AF2stoich>1AF2act (2)

where

FA = mf>ma = fuel – air ratio

AF = ma>mf = air – fuel ratio
ma = mass of air
mf = mass of fuel

when

f 6 1 running lean, oxygen in exhaust

f 7 1 running rich, CO and fuel in exhaust
f = 1 stoichiometric, maximum energy released from fuel

SI engines normally operate with an equivalence ratio in the range of 0.9 to 1.2,
depending on the type of operation.

Example Problem 1
Isooctane is burned with 120% theoretical air in a small three-cylinder turbocharged automobile
engine.
Calculate:
1. air–fuel ratio
2. fuel–air ratio
3. equivalence ratio
Stoichiometric reaction is

C 8H 18 + 12.5 O2 + 12.513.762 N2 : 8 CO2 + 9 H 2O + 12.513.762 N2

With 20% excess air, the reaction is

C 8H 18 + 15 O2 + 1513.762 N2 : 8 CO2 + 9 H 2O + 1513.762 N2 + 2.5 O2

With 20% excess air, all the fuel gets burned, and the same amount of CO2 and H 2O is found in the

148
 Thermochemistry and Fuels

products. In addition, there is some oxygen and additional nitrogen in the products (the excess air).
(1) Equation (1) is used to find the air–fuel ratio:

AF = ma>mf = NaMa>NfMf = [115214.7621292]>[11211142]

= 18.16

(2) The fuel–air ratio can be calculated as follows:

FA = mf>ma = 1>AF = 1>18.16 = 0.055

(3) Fuel–air ratio of stoichiometric combustion is

1FA2stoich = [11211142]>[112.5214.7621292] = 0.066

Equivalence ratio is obtained using Eq. (2):

f = 1FA2act>1FA2stoich = 10.0552>10.0662 = 0.833

Even when the flow of air and fuel into an engine is controlled exactly at stoi-
chiometric conditions, combustion will not be “perfect,” and components other than
CO2, H 2O, and N2 are found in the exhaust products. One major reason for this is the
extremely short time available for each engine cycle, which often means that less than
complete mixing of the air and fuel is obtained. Some fuel molecules do not find an
oxygen molecule to react with, and small quantities of both fuel and oxygen end up in
the exhaust. SI engines have a combustion efficiency in the range of 95% to 98% for
lean mixtures and lower values for rich mixtures, where there is not enough air to react
with all the fuel (see Fig. 1). CI engines operate lean overall and typically have com-
bustion efficiencies of about 98%.

Chemical Equilibrium
If a general chemical reaction is represented by
nAA + nBB : nCC + nDD (3)
where A and B represent all reactant species, whether one or two or more, and C and
D represent all products, regardless of number, then nA, nB, nC, and nD represent the
stoichiometric coefficients of A, B, C, and D.
Equilibrium composition for this reaction can be found if one knows the
chemical equilibrium constant
Ke = [1NCnCNDnD2>1NAnANBnB2]1P>Nt2¢n (4)
where
¢n = nC + nD - nA - nB
Ni = number of moles of component i at equilibrium
Nt = total number of moles at equilibrium
P = total absolute pressure in units of atmospheres

149
 Air and Fuel Induction

ENGINE SPEED
2000 rpm
5 3000 rpm
4000 rpm
5000 rpm
4
7000 rpm
B.M.E.P. kg/cm2

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
DELIVERY RATIO
21

FIGURE 25
Brake mean effective pressure as a function of delivery ratio for two-stroke cycle
SI motorcycle engine of 0.347 L displacement. Reprinted with permission from
SAE Paper No. 750908 © 1975 SAE International, [229].

Example Problem 8
An experimental six-cylinder, two-stroke cycle, SI automobile engine has a delivery ratio of 0.88
when operating at 3700 RPM. At this speed, when the exhaust slots close during the cycle, there
is an air–fuel mass of 0.000310 kg in each cylinder, plus a 5.3% exhaust residual from the pre-
ceding cycle. The engine has a bore of 7.62 cm and a stroke of 8.98 cm.
Calculate:

1. charging efficiency
2. trapping efficiency
3. scavenging efficiency
4. relative charge

(1) Displacement volume of one cylinder is

Vd = 1p>42B2S
= 1p>4217.62 cm2218.98 cm2 = 409.5 cm3 = 0.4095 L = 0.0004095 m3

Equation (23) gives charging efficiency:

lce = mmt>Vdra = 10.000310 kg2>[10.0004095 m3211.181 kg>m32] = 0.641 = 64.1%

(2) Equation (22) is used to find mass of air–fuel ingested into cylinder:

mmi = ldrVdra = 10.88210.0004095 m3211.181 kg>m32 = 0.000426 kg

245
 Air and Fuel Induction

Use Eq. (24) to find trapping efficiency:

lte = mmt>mmi

= lce>ldr = 10.000310 kg2>10.000426 kg2 = 10.6412>10.882

= 0.728 = 72.8%
(3) Total mass of air–fuel in cylinder, plus exhaust residual is

mtc = 10.000310211 + 0.0532 = 0.000326 kg

Equation (25) gives scavenging efficiency:
lse = mmt>mtc = 10.000310 kg2>10.000326 kg2 = 0.951 = 95.1%
(4) Use Eq. (26) to find relative charge:

lrc = mtc>Vdra
= lce>lse = 10.000326 kg2>[10.0004095 m3211.181 m32] = 10.6412>10.9512

= 0.674 = 67.4%

10 INTAKE FOR CI ENGINES

CI engines are operated unthrottled, with engine speed and power controlled by the
amount of fuel injected during each cycle. This allows for high volumetric efficiency at
all speeds, with the intake system designed for very little flow restriction of the incom-
ing air. Further raising the volumetric efficiency is the fact that no fuel is added until
late in the compression stroke, after air intake is fully completed. In addition, many CI
engines are turbocharged, which enhances air intake even more.
Fuel is added late in the compression stroke, starting somewhere around 20°
bTDC. Injectors mounted in the cylinder head inject directly into the combustion
chamber, where self-ignition occurs due to the high temperature of the air caused by
compressive heating. It takes a short period of time for the fuel to evaporate, mix
with the air, and then self-ignite, so combustion starts shortly bTDC. At this time fuel
is still being injected, which keeps combustion occurring well into the power stroke.
It is important that fuel with the correct cetane number be used in an engine so that
self-ignition initiates the start of combustion at the proper cycle position. A distribu-
tion of fuel droplet sizes is desirable so that the start of combustion of all fuel parti-
cles is not simultaneous, but is spread over a short period of cycle time. This slows the
start of the pressure pulse on the piston and gives smoother engine operation.
Injection pressure for CI engines must be much higher than that required for SI
engines. The cylinder pressure into which the fuel is first injected is very high near the
end of the compression stroke, due to the high compression ratio of CI engines. By the
time the final fuel is injected, peak pressure during combustion is being experienced.
Pressure must be high enough that fuel spray will penetrate across the entire combus-
tion chamber. Injection pressures of 20 to 200 MPa are common (3000 to 30,000 psia). A
typical engine could have injection pressure of 25 MPa at idle, 135 MPa at nominal

246
 Fluid Motion within Combustion Chamber

FIGURE 6
Schematic showing relationships among swirl, injection
duration, and number of orifice holes in the fuel nozzle
of a CI engine. Proper design, as given in Eq. (5),
assures good fuel distribution throughout the entire
combustion chamber.

Example Problem 1
A four-cylinder, 3.2-liter engine running at 4500 RPM has a swirl ratio of 6 as defined by Eq. (1).
The stroke and bore are related as S = 1.06 B.
Calculate:

1. angular velocity of gas mixture in the cylinder using the paddle wheel model
2. swirl ratio as defined by Eq. (2)

(1) Equation (1) is used to find angular velocity:

1SR21 = v>N = 6 = v>14500>60 rev>sec2

v = 450 rev>sec

(2) For one cylinder

Vd = 13.2 L2>4 = 0.8 L = 0.0008 m3

Vd = 1p>42B2S = 1p>4211.062B3 = 0.0008 m3
B = 0.0987 m = 9.87 cm
S = 11.06219.87 cm2 = 10.46 cm = 0.1046 m

Average piston speed is

Up = 2SN = 12 strokes>rev2 10.1046 m>stroke2 14500>60 rev>sec2

= 15.7 m>sec

Tangential speed of rotating gas is

ut = 2p vr = 12pradians>rev21450 rev>sec210.0987>2 m2 = 139.5 m/sec

Use Eq. (2) to find swirl ratio:

1SR22 = ut>Up = 1139.52>115.72 = 8.9

266
 Combustion

Combustion in an SI engine is quite different from combustion in a CI engine,

and the two types are studied separately.

1 COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINES WITH HOMOGENEOUS AIR–FUEL MIXTURES

The combustion process of SI engines can be divided into three broad regions: (1) igni-
tion and flame development, (2) flame propagation, and (3) flame termination. Flame
development is generally considered the consumption of the first 5% of the air–fuel
mixture. (Some sources use the first 10%.) During the flame development period, igni-
tion occurs and the combustion process starts, but very little pressure rise is noticeable
and little or no useful work is produced (Fig. 1). Just about all useful work produced in
an engine cycle is the result of the flame propagation period of the combustion process.
This is the period when the bulk of the fuel and air mass is burned (i.e., 80–90%, de-
pending on how defined). During this time, pressure in the cylinder is greatly in-
creased, providing the force to produce work in the expansion stroke. The final 5%
(some sources use 10%) of the air–fuel mass that burns is classified as flame termina-
tion. During this time, pressure quickly decreases and combustion stops.
In an SI engine, combustion ideally consists of an exothermic subsonic flame pro-
gressing through a premixed air–fuel mixture, which is locally homogeneous. The
spread of the flame front is greatly increased by induced turbulence, swirl, and squish
within the cylinder. The right combination of fuel and operating characteristics is such
that knock is avoided or almost avoided.

Maximum
Pressure
Pressure, P

Ignition
EVO
Negative Positive
Work Work

540 630 0 90 180

BDC TDC BDC
Crank Angle, u (degrees)

FIGURE 1
Cylinder pressure in the combustion chamber of an SI engine as a function of crank angle.
The increase in pressure rise is very slow after ignition during the flame development
period. This results in a slow pressure force increase on the piston and a smooth engine
cycle. Maximum pressure occurs 5° to 10° aTDC. Adapted from [93].

286
 Combustion

of reaction and flame speed, and combustion ends by slowly dying away. Although
very little additional work is delivered by the piston during this flame termination pe-
riod due to the slow reaction rate, it is still a desirable occurrence. Because the rise in
cylinder pressure tapers off slowly towards zero during flame termination, the forces
transmitted to the piston also taper off slowly, and smooth engine operation results.
During the flame termination period, self-ignition will sometimes occur in the
end gas in front of the flame front, and engine knock will occur. The temperature of the
unburned gases in front of the flame front continues to rise during the combustion
process, reaching a maximum in the last end gas. This maximum temperature is often
above self-ignition temperature. Because the flame front moves slowly at this time, the
gases are often not consumed during ignition delay time, and self-ignition occurs. The
resulting knock is usually not objectionable or even noticeable. This is because there is
so little unburned air–fuel left at this time that self-ignition can only cause very slight
pressure pulses. Maximum power is obtained from an engine when it operates with
very slight self-ignition and knock at the end of the combustion process. This occurs
when maximum pressure and temperature exist in the combustion chamber and knock
gives a small pressure boost at the end of combustion.

Example Problem 1
The spark plug is fired at 18° bTDC in an engine running at 1800 RPM. It takes 8° of engine ro-
tation to start combustion and get into flame propagation mode. Flame termination occurs at 12°
aTDC. Bore diameter is 8.4 cm, and the spark plug is offset 8 mm from the centerline of the
cylinder. The flame front can be approximated as a sphere moving out from the spark plug. Cal-
culate the effective flame front speed during flame propagation.
Rotational angle during flame propagation is from 10° bTDC to 12° aTDC, which equals 22°.
Time of flame propagation is

t = 122°2>[1360°>rev211800>60 rev>sec2] = 0.00204 sec

Maximum flame travel distance is

Dmax = bore>2 + offset = 10.084>22 + 10.0082 = 0.050 m

Effective flame speed is

Vf = Dmax>t = 10.050 m2>10.00204 sec2 = 24.5 m>sec

Example Problem 2
The engine in Example Problem 1 is now run at 3000 RPM. As speed is increased in this engine,
greater turbulence and swirl increase the flame front speed at a rate such that Vf r 0.85 N.
Flame development after spark plug firing still takes 8° of engine rotation. Calculate how much
ignition timing must be advanced such that flame termination again occurs at 12° aTDC.
Flame speed is

Vf = 10.85213000>18002124.5 m>sec2 = 34.7 m>sec

294
 Exhaust Flow

cylinder along with the air–fuel charge. This results in a larger exhaust residual during
the rest of the cycle. This backflow of exhaust gases is a greater problem at low engine
speeds, being worst at idle conditions. At most low engine speeds, the intake throttle is
at least partially closed, creating low pressure in the intake manifold. This creates a
greater pressure differential, forcing exhaust gas back into the intake manifold. Cylin-
der pressure is about one atmosphere, while intake pressure can be quite low. In addi-
tion, real time of valve overlap is greater at low engine speed, allowing more backflow.
Some engines are designed to use this small backflow of hot exhaust gas to help va-
porize the fuel that has been injected directly behind the intake valve face.
Some engines have a one-way reed valve at the exhaust port to keep exhaust gas
from flowing back from the exhaust manifold into the cylinder and intake system dur-
ing valve overlap.
Engines equipped with turbochargers or superchargers often will have intake
pressures above one atmosphere and are not subject to exhaust backflow.
Another negative result of valve overlap is that some intake air–fuel mixture can
short-circuit through the cylinder when both valves are open, with some fuel ending up
as pollution in the exhaust system.
Variable valve timing, which is becoming common in automobile engines, de-
creases the problem of valve overlap. At low engine speeds, the exhaust valve can be
closed earlier and the intake valve can be opened later, resulting in less overlap.
If the exhaust valve is closed too early, an excess of exhaust gases is trapped in the
cylinder. Also, cylinder pressure will go up near the end of the exhaust stroke, causing
loss of net work from the engine cycle. If the exhaust valve is closed late, there is an ex-
cess of overlap, with more backflow of exhaust gas into the intake.
Figure 2 shows the flow of gases through the exhaust valve out of the cylinder.
When the valve is first opened, blowdown occurs with a very high flow rate due to the
large pressure differential. Choked flow will occur (sonic velocity) at first, limiting the
maximum flow rate. By the time the piston reaches BDC, blowdown is complete, and
flow out of the exhaust valve is now controlled by the piston during the exhaust stroke.
The piston reaches maximum speed about halfway through the exhaust stroke, and this
is reflected in the rate of exhaust flow. Towards the end of the exhaust stroke, near
TDC, the intake valve opens and valve overlap is experienced. Depending on engine
operating conditions, a momentary reverse flow of exhaust gas back into the cylinder
can occur at this point.

Example Problem 1
A 6.4-liter V8 engine with a compression ratio of 9:1 operates on an air-standard cycle and has
the exhaust process shown in Fig. 1. Maximum cycle temperature and pressure are 2550 K and
11,000 kPa when operating at 3600 RPM. The exhaust valve effectively opens at 52° bBDC.
Calculate:

1. time of exhaust blowdown

2. percent of exhaust gas that exits the cylinder during blowdown
3. exit velocity at the start of blowdown, assuming choked flow occurs

331
 Exhaust Flow

Exhaust Mass Flow, mex

Blowdown

Exhaust
Stroke

Valve
Overlap
0

TDC BDC TDC BDC TDC

Crank Angle, u

FIGURE 2
Exhaust gas flow out of cylinder through the exhaust valve(s), showing
blowdown and exhaust stroke. Possible reverse flow back into the cylinder may
occur during valve overlap. Adapted from [28].

(1) Blowdown will occur between 52° bBDC and BDC. This is 52>360 = 0.1444 of a
revolution.

Time of Blowdown = 10.1444 rev2>13600>60 rev>sec2 = 0.0024 sec

(2) For one cylinder,

Vd = 16.4 L2>8 = 0.80 L = 0.0008 m3

Clearance volume is

rc = VBDC>VTDC = 1Vd + Vc2>Vc = 9 = 10.0008 + Vc2>Vc

Vc = 0.0001 m3

Volume when the exhaust valve opens (let R = 4) is

VEVO>Vc = 1 + 121rc - 12[R + 1 - cos u - 2R 2 - sin2 u]

= 1 + 1219 - 12[142 + 112 - cos1128°2 - 21422 - sin21128°2]
= 7.78
VEVO = 7.78 Vc = 17.78210.0001 m32 = 0.000778 m3

The temperature and pressure when the exhaust valve opens is

TEVO = T31V3>VEVO2k - 1 = 12550 K210.0001>0.00077820.35 = 1244 K

PEVO = P31V3>VEVO2k = 111,000 kPa210.0001>0.00077821.35 = 690 kPa

332
 Exhaust Flow

mEVO = PV>RT = 1690 kPa210.000778 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K211244 K2

= 0.00150 kg

At the end of blowdown, gases are at hypothetical state 7, but volume is V4 or V1:

P7 = Po = 101 kPa
T7 = T31P7>P321k - 12>k = 12550 K21101>11,000211.35 - 12>1.35 = 756 K
VBDC = V4 = V1 = 1Vc + Vd2 = 10.0001 + 0.00082 = 0.0009 m3
m7 = PV>RT = 1101 kPa210.0009 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K21756 K2
= 0.00042 kg
1¢m2blowdown = mEVO - m7 = 0.00150 - 0.00042 = 0.00108 kg

This is [10.001082>10.001502]11002 = 72.0% of total mass.

Note: If Otto cycle analysis is used and the exhaust valve is assumed to open at
point 4, then

T4 = T311>rc2k - 1 = 12550 K211>920.35 = 1182 K

P4 = P311>rc2k = 111,000 kPa211>921.35 = 566 kPa
m4 = PV>RT = 1566 kPa210.0009 m32>10.287 kJ>kg-K211182 K2
= 0.00150 kg

This is the same result as the one obtained previously. Calculation of the
amount of mass in the cylinder would be the same using any point along process line
3–4. This means that the same percentage of the exhaust flow must occur during blow-
down regardless of when the exhaust valve is opened. Size of the exhaust valve(s) and
the corresponding mass flow rate through the valve(s) then dictate when the valve
should be opened.
(3) If flow is choked at the start of blowdown, velocity will be sonic. Using Eq. (2)
yields,
VEVO = c = 1kRTEVO = 111.3521287 J>kg-K211244 K2 = 694 m>sec

3 EXHAUST VALVES
Exhaust valves are made smaller than intake valves, although the same amount of mass
must flow through each. The pressure differential across the intake valves of a natural-
ly aspirated engine is less than one atmosphere, while the pressure differential across
the exhaust valves during blowdown can be as high as three or four atmospheres. In ad-
dition, if and when choked flow is occuring, sonic velocity through the exhaust valve is
higher than sonic velocity through the intake valve. This can be seen in Eq. (2), with the
exhaust gas being much hotter than the intake air–fuel mixture. We have for intake

A i = 1constant2B21Up2max>ci (4)
where
A i = area of inlet valve1s2
1Up2max = average piston speed at maximum engine speed

333
 Heat Transfer in Engines

Water
Jacket
A
q X
Y

FIGURE 10
Cooling of piston. The face of a piston (A) is one of the hotter
surfaces in a combustion chamber. Cooling is done mainly by
Y convection to the lubricating oil on the back side of the piston
face, by conduction through the piston face, by conduction
through the piston rings in contact with the cylinder walls, and
by conduction down the connecting rod to the oil reservoir.
High conduction resistance occurs because of lubricated
surfaces at cylinder walls (X) and rod bearings (Y).

an engine ages, deposits slowly build up on the walls of the cylinders, due to impurities
in the air and fuel, imperfect combustion, and lubricating oil in the combustion cham-
ber. These deposits create a thermal resistance and cause higher wall temperatures. Ex-
cessive wall deposits also slightly decrease the clearance volume of the cylinder and
cause a rise in the compression ratio.
Some modern engines use heat pipes to help cool internal hot regions that are in-
accessible to normal cooling by conduction or coolant flow. With one end of the heat
pipe in the hot interior of the engine, the other end can be in contact with the circulat-
ing coolant or exposed to external air flow.

Example Problem 1
A 3.0 liter, 5-cylinder, 4-stroke cycle SI engine, with a volumetric efficiency of 82%, operates at 3000
RPM using gasoline with a lambda value of 0.91. Bore and stroke are related as S = 1.08 B. At a
certain point in the engine cycle, the gas temperature in the combustion chamber is Tg = 2100°C
while the cylinder wall temperature is Tw = 190°C. Calculate the approximate convection heat
transfer rate to the cylinder wall at this instant.
Bore can be calculated as follows:

Vd = 1p>42B2S = [13000 cm32>15 cylinders2] = 1p>421B2211.08 B2

B = 8.91 cm = 0.0891 m

The area of one piston face is

A p = 1p>42B2 = 1p>4210.0891 m22 = 0.006235 m2

401
 Heat Transfer in Engines

The mass flow rate of air into one cylinder of the engine is
#
ma = hvraVdN>n
= 10.82211.181 kg>m32[10.003 m3>cycle2>15 cylinders2]13000>60 rev>sec2>12 rev>cycle2
= 0.01453 kg>sec

The mass flow rate of fuel into one cylinder of the engine is
# # #
mf = ma>1AF2act = ma>[l1AF2stoich] = 10.01453 kg>sec2>[10.912114.62] = 0.00109 kg>sec

Use Eq. (7) to find Reynolds Number:

viscosity mg and thermal conductivity kg of gases (air) at average temperature of 1145°C
are obtained from ref. [63]
# #
Re = [1ma + mf2B]>1A pmg2
= 5[10.014532 + 10.001092kg>sec]10.0891 m26>[10.006235 m2215.21 * 10 -5 kg>m-sec2]
= 4284

Equation (8) gives the Nusselt number and convection heat transfer coefficient (ref. [40] sug-
gests C1 = 0.035 and C2 = 0.80):

Nu = hgB>kg = C11Re2C2 = hg10.0891 m2>10.090 W>m-K2 = 10.03521428420.80

hg = 28.44 W>m2-K

Equation (6) gives convection heat transfer rate at combustion chamber wall at this instant:
#
q = hg1Tg - Tw2 = 128.44 W>m2-K212373 - 4632K = 54,320 W>m2 = 54.32 kW>m2

5 HEAT TRANSFER IN EXHAUST SYSTEM

To calculate heat losses in an exhaust pipe, normal internal convection flow models can
be used with one major modification: Due to the pulsing cyclic flow, the Nusselt num-
ber is about twice that which would be predicted for the same mass flow in the same
pipe at steady flow conditions [82] (see Fig. 11). Heat losses from the exhaust system
affect emissions and turbocharging.
Pseudo-steady-state exhaust temperatures of SI engines are generally in the
range of 400°–600°C, with extremes of 300°–900°C. Exhaust temperatures of CI en-
gines are lower due to their greater expansion ratio and are generally in the range of
200°–500°C.
Some automobile engines and large stationary engines have exhaust valves with
hollow stems containing sodium. These act as heat pipes and are very effective in re-
moving heat from the hot face area of the valve. Whereas solid stems remove heat by
conduction only, heat pipes use a phase change cycle to remove a much greater amount
of energy, up to 4000 W>cm2 of surface area. Liquid sodium is vaporized in the hot end
of the hollow valve stem and then is condensed back to liquid at the cooler end. Be-
cause of the large transfer of energy during a phase change, the effective heat conduc-
tion in the stem will be many times greater than pure conduction. Sodium is used as the

402
 Friction and Lubrication

30
 ENGINE IDLING
 20 BMEP LOAD
 40 BMEP LOAD
20  30 BMEP LOAD
Fmep, psi

10

0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
RPM

FIGURE 6
Friction mean effective pressure as a function of engine speed and load for six-cylinder CI engine.
Pressure in psia. Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper No. 730150 © 1973 SAE
International, [158].

 ENGINE MOTORED COMPLETE

 ENGINE MOTORED, MANIFOLDS REMOVED
30
 ENGINE MOTORED, VALVES REMOVED AND
CAMSHAFT DEACTIVATED ENGINE
ENGINE POWERED MOTORED
ENGINE
20 POWERED
Fmep, psi

10

0
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
RPM

FIGURE 7
Comparison of friction mean effective pressure of a motored engine vs. fired engine. Engine is a six-
cylinder CI engine. Pressure in psia. Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper No. 730150 © 1973
SAE International, [158].

Example Problem 1
A five-cylinder, in-line engine has an 8.15-cm bore, a 7.82-cm stroke, and a connecting rod length
of 15.4 cm. Each piston has a skirt length of 6.5 cm and a mass of 0.32 kg. At a certain engine
speed and crank angle, the instantaneous piston speed is 8.25 m/sec, and clearance between the
piston and cylinder wall is 0.004 mm. SAE 10W-30 motor oil is used in the engine, and at the tem-
perature of the piston–cylinder interface, the dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.006 N-sec/m2. Cal-
culate the friction force on one piston at this condition.

440
 Friction and Lubrication

30
12:1 COMPRESSION RATIO
7:1 COMPRESSION RATIO
25

20 FRICTION
MEP

15

10

PUMPING

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
LOAD, BMEP
Friction and pumping work versus load at two compression ratios

FIGURE 8
Friction mean effective pressure (fmep) and pumping mean effective pressure (pmep) as a
function of brake mean effective pressure (bmep) for two compression ratios. Engine is a
four-cylinder, 3.25 liter, SI engine, with 9.53 cm bore and 11.40 cm stroke, operating at 1600
RPM. Pressures in psia. Reprinted with permission from SAE Transactions © 1958 SAE
International, [177].

Using Eq. (13),

ts = m1dU/dy2 = m1¢U/¢y2
= 10.006 N-sec/m22[18.25 m/sec2/10.000004 m2] = 12,375 N/m2

Contact area between the piston and cylinder wall:

A = pB1height2 = p10.0815 m210.065 m2 = 0.0166 m2

Friction force on the piston:

Ff = tsA = 112,375 N/m2210.0166 m22 = 205 N

441