Automation and Advanced Procedures in PCB Fabrication-AutomationHH

Automation and Advanced
Procedures in PCB
Fabrication
Happy Holden
Automation and Advanced Procedures
in PCB Fabrication
by Happy Holden
© 2018 BR Publishing, Inc.
All rights reserved.

No portion of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, or transmitted by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by
any information storage system without written permission of the publisher,
except for the inclusion of brief quotation for purposes of review.
BR Publishing, Inc.
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ISBN: 978-0-9998648-9-0
CONTENTS
Foreword ............................................................ i
Introduction ......................................................... 1
Chapter 1
CIM and Automation Strategy .............................. 3
Chapter 2
Computer-Aided Manufacturing ........................... 31
Chapter 3
Mechanization in PCB Fabrication ......................... 49
Chapter 4
Chemical Monitoring and Control .......................... 85
FOREWORD
Happy Holden has worked with PCB fabrication automation

and refined this process since the 1960s. He’s arguably one of
the most knowledgeable experts on the topic of fabrication au-
tomation.
In this book, Happy explains the fundamentals of fabrication
automation with colorful anecdotes and illustrative examples
that he’s encountered throughout his career. If you’re interested
in the automation, mechanization, and chemical control of the
fabrication process, this book is for you.
Andy Shaughnessy
Managing Editor
Design007 Magazine
Automation and Advanced Procedures in PCB Fabrication
INTRODUCTION
I have worked in 1. CIM and Automation Strategy
electronics manu- Automation (from “automatic operation”) can be
facturing for over quantified into levels of systemization (informa-
45 years. I was for- tion) and classes of mechanization (motions).
tunate to be a part Six levels of systemization and six degrees of
of the industry in mechanization create a 36-matrix approach to
its golden years automation planning and execution. Automa-
Happy Holden
from 1972 to 2000! tion also has six key characteristics: superiority,
simplicity, flexibility, compatibility, manufactur-
My love for and experience in automation came ability, and reliability. Automation is key to any
as a result of the era’s explosive growth in print- computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) pro-
ed circuit manufacturing and my education as gram.
a chemical engineer focused on process con-
trol and computers. This gave me a unique set 2. Computer-Aided Manufacturing
of tools and skills to help my employer expand The specific understanding and manipulation
and automate the manual production of PCB of product data is essential for an electronics or
multilayers to respond to the demand for their printed circuit engineer. This chapter provides
new and wondrous device–the HP-35 portable an explanation of the functionality of various ar-
scientific calculator! eas in modern data-driven electronics manufac-
turing. Examples include modern systemization-
However, this book is not about those wonder-
based and mechanization-based PCB facilities.
ful devices. Rather, it is about the engineering
skills and procedures that led to the rapid mod- 3. Mechanization in PCB Fabrication
ernization and automation in printed circuit Process mechanization in PCB fabrication has 10
multilayer manufacturing. Most of these topics various forms. The two most common are verti-
are not taught in college engineering courses, cal and horizontal. Vertical mechanization can
but are acquired through company training or be conveyorized or hoist-based. The chapter also
individual efforts. presents a low-cost automatic transporter that
Keep in mind these topics are based on my opin- can be built by maintenance personnel.
ion, which I have formed over the last 45 years. 4. Chemical Monitoring and Control
The chapters describe what I have observed An important part of mechanization in any au-
to be essential tools that engineers, including tomation scheme is chemical control. This chap-
myself, need to complete the project, develop ter presents the various chemical sensors avail-
the product, meet the schedule, and solve the able to PCB engineers, and their application and
problem. Automation methodology is just one sensitivity. The chapter also explores how these
of 25 essential skills I think a PCB process en- sensors can be combined into automatic control-
gineer needs to master. The chapters listed be- lers for automated lines and describes automatic
low are in no particular order of importance. control theory.
1
CHAPTER ONE
2
CIM & Automation

Strategy
There's a lot of talk about automation, but I find that there is very little available on automation
planning. This is one of my specialties. I started by studying for an MSEE in control theory. This
went well with my bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering, because I specialized in process
control and IC manufacturing.
This led me to take my first job at Hewlett-Packard. They wanted to automate their IC produc-
tion line, even back in 1970. I discovered there were many companies offering equipment and
software, but few had a strategy for how to automate. So we developed a methodology that has
worked for very well over the years. In the next chapter, I will focus on computer-aided manu-
facturing and the connectivity issues with different protocols and available software.
Remember, the benefits will be derived only if certain cardinal principles are observed. This
chapter briefly outlines the background of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) and six
automation principles: superiority, simplicity, flexibility, compatibility, manufacturability, and
reliability.
Introduction
The characteristics of successful automation application in manufacturing depend on how well
business and technical management understand and promote the strategies, tactics, and phi-
losophies used in modern manufacturing. Successful automation implementation can be en-
hanced in any company, small or large, by reviewing philosophies of CIM, automation, manage-
ments roles, mechanization, SPC, TQC, Lean, MRP and design for manufacturing.
Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
The strategies outlined here are considered CIM, which HP was once in the business of selling.
HP called it “The Manufacturers Productivity Network,” or MPN. These products included vari-
ous software, computer, networking, interface, and measurement systems.
At that time, HP had been in the business longer than any other company. It started with gov-
ernment and other requests for automated test and measurement systems. Because of the need
to automate various measurement instruments and systems, HP created the first machine-to-
machine protocol called HP Interface Bus (HP-IB). This was later formulized into the IEEE-488
Communication Standard.
3
HP needed an instrument controller, so they purchased a unique 16-bit computer architec-

ture from Union Carbide, which became the HP2116A in 1964. This computer was unique
because the operating system was real-time, interrupt-driven, and had space for 16 inter-
face cards for measurement instruments (Figure 1). What HP did not realize was that many
companies were using the computer not with instruments, but with multiple input terminals
and printers, creating the first time-share systems. Thus, HP created a smaller and lower-
cost version called the HP2114A. This led to the world’s first time-share system, the HP2000.
Figure 1: HP 2116A computer next to the HP2114A and the

HP2116 as a microwave instrument controller circa1971. (Source: HP Computer Museum)
This would later evolve into a multiuser business system called the HP3000 that used HP
Precision Architecture (HP-PA) to make it sessions-based with block-mode terminals
that would communicate with the computer only when a full page had been typed. Today,
only six enterprise hardware architectures have survived the endless computer wars, all of
which are American: HP-PA, IBM’s POWER architecture, Sun’s SPARC, AMD X86-64, Intel’s
XEON, and Itanium. As a historic side note, Figure 2 shows the inside of the HP2114A with
the 12 PCBs that make up the computer and the input/output peripheral cards and cables.
4
CIM & Automation Strategy
The PCBs were screen-printed resist and pattern-plated with Cu-Sn and Ni-Au, which was typi-
cal of HP’s products. The Sn/Ni alloy was unique to HP and much more resistant to corrosions
than Ni. Further, HP used 0.38-mm lines (0.015”) and 0.89-mm spaces (0.035”).
CIM architecture was defined as early as 1980 when the CASA/SME pub-
lished a presentation of computer-integrated manufacturing to provide a com-
mon set of terms for its members. The ring surrounding the wheel represents vari-
ous influencing factors for the development of CIM such as expertise as a human
factor, productivity as an economic factor, and computer technology as a technological factor.
Figure 2: Inside the HP2114A computer, including one of 12 multilayers that made up the computer.
(Source: HP Computer Museum)
The wheel itself contains four functions: engineering design, manufacturing planning, produc-
tion control, and factory automation (Figure 3). If the individual functions are connected to
each other and operate with a common database, an integrated system architecture is cre-
ated and represented by the hub of the wheel. This development has resulted in the realiza-
tion that CIM, apart from factory automation and functions, is indirectly related to the opera-
tional performance, such as design (product/process), and production planning and control.
5
Additionally, CIM is linked to common business administrative tasks such as manufacturing

management, strategic planning, finance, marketing, and human resource management. A
further innovation was the addition of information resource management and communica-
tions between the different functions. Therefore, a common database alone is insufficient for
achieving integration. The all-embracing nature of the CIM wheel reflects the idea promot-
ed by CASA/SME that CIM must be viewed as a concept embracing the company as a whole.
INTEGRATED
INTEGRATED
SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS
ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE
Figure 3: The CIM wheel defined by CASA/SME.
The Outer Ring

The common business administrative tasks related to CIM are located on the outer ring of the
wheel. They primarily form the company’s connection to the outside world. Data processing ap-
plications can be found in the most diverse areas. Most software systems applied in these areas
were originally self-styled developments, which are increasingly being replaced with standard
commercial software packages. Currently, this software is installed primarily on mainframes.
Overlaps of its functionality exist mainly with the software of the production planning and control.
6
The Inner Ring

Functions related to the operational performance of the company are located on the inner ring
of the wheel. Data processing applications of the development and design area are computer-
aided design (CAD), simulations, analysis programs, such as the finite element method (FEM),
and drawing storage and management, such as group technology (GT).
The types of data found in this area are diverse: drawings, technical specifications, and bills of
material (BOM). Moreover, data in manufacturing companies is often disorderly. There may be
several types of part numbers and BOMs, or more than one GT or CAD system, each with its
own computer internal representation of geometric data. The applied software rarely runs on
the same hardware, resulting in many different hardware systems.
The second group of applications on the inner ring of the wheel is attributed to process plan-
ning, production planning, and control. It comprises tasks such as routing generation, resource
planning, material
COMPUTER requirements planning,
INTEGRATED capacity planning, order distribution and supervi-
MANUFACTURING
sion, and planning of quality
assurance, such as quality pro-
cess and resource planning.
In the United States, software
in the production planning
and control area mostly runs
on large client or servers, al-
though the software itself is
more frequently supplied by
sundry software houses and
not by the computer vendor.
As in the common business

administrative area, the soft-
ware packages, which are inte-
grated within themselves, have
a modular structure and their
single components can also be
Figure 4: The seven CIM strategy categories. bought and applied. Therefore,
a company rarely purchases
and installs all modules of such a package, resulting in functional overlaps and data redundan-
cy. One example of this would be material requirements, and planning and purchasing systems.
The third group on the inner ring includes the automation of manufacturing installations. Ex-
amples include robots, numerically controlled machines, flexible manufacturing systems, and
7
computer-aided measuring and testing methods. This area is characterized by the extreme het-
erogeneity of the systems involved, the diversity of which being much more pronounced than
in the previously mentioned groups of functions. Another view is the CIM hierarchy (Figure 5).
HIERARCHY OF SYSTEMS
Finance Payroll
Level 4: Simulation
Financial/Management Sales/Order
Inventory
Planning & Control Processing
Purchasing Accounting Project Research
~
Planning
&
Development
Quality &
Production Materials
History Reliability Management Modeling
Level 3: Control
Manufacturing Product
Tracking
Labor
Tracking
Maintenance
Dispatch
Control Production
Process/CAE Process/CAE
Design
Routings Process Recipe
Development Download
Fabrication Analysis
Automated Materials
Machine
Assembly Handling
Control
Level 2: Environmental Process Control Product
Monitoring & &
Supervisory Facilities Optimization Testing
Control Sensor Based Manual Factory

Data Acquisition Data Collection
Prototype
Development
Level 1: Smart
Instruments
Mini/Micro
Computers
Numerical Control
(NC) Controllers
Dedicated Lab Instrument
Programmable Analog/Digital
Equipment Logic
Controllers (PLC) Loop Controllers Robotic
Controllers
Automation
& Sensors
Machinery, Sensors, Actuators
Figure 5: The CIM hierarchy of activities.
The Hub
These statements have shown that there are serious impediments to integration within these
groups of applications. There are few suppliers covering all three sectors. Therefore, suppliers
have done little to nothing about interfaces, not to mention the integration of various groups of
applications. Information and communication management, represented by the hub of the wheel
which links everything, is intended to serve as the information management and communica-
tion control function between the single areas. It operates on a common, integrated database.
8
Key Challenges
There are three major challenges to developing a smooth-operating computer-integrated man-
ufacturing system:
1. Integration of components from different suppliers
Problems may arise when different machines, such as computer numerically con-
trolled (CNC), conveyors, and robots, use different communication protocols. In
the case of automated guided vehicles (AGVs), even differing lengths of time for
charging the batteries may cause problems.
2. Data integrity
The higher the degree of automation, the more critical the integrity of the data
used to control the machines will be (Figure 5). While the CIM system saves on
labor of operating the machines, it requires extra human labor to ensure there are
proper safeguards for the data signals that are used to control the machines.
3. Process control
Computers may be used to assist the human operators at a manufacturing facil-
ity, but there must always be a competent engineer on hand to handle unforeseen
circumstances by the control software designers.
CIM Subsystems
A CIM system is not the same as a lights-out factory, which would run completely independent-
ly of human intervention, although it is a big step in that direction. Part of the system involves
flexible manufacturing, where the factory can be quickly modified to produce different products,
or where the volume of products can be changed quickly with the aid of computers (Figure 6).
CIM Architecture for Manufacturing

Standards for computer interfacing and control are available for each industry. Some are de-
signed specifically for automation, electronics manufacturing, fabrication, and assembly.
Automation
Two truisms are becoming increasingly apparent in industry:
1. Technology is rapidly advancing and leading to more complex products.
2. More and more nations are awaiting advancing technology, resulting in
competition requiring an increased focus on product cost and quality.
9
Figure 6: The CIM hierarchy of related/critical systems.
In a model developed for PCB fabrication, a new and important variable, the complexity factor
(C), has been increasing steadily since the 1960s at an order of magnitude every 13 years [1].
Automation is a strategic tool for controlling, managing, and directing a productive process by
automatic means. It is usually complemented by product and technological innovations. As an
engineering discipline, it can be accurately planned and is mostly arithmetic, not propaganda.
The chief ingredients in automation are adequate know-how and common sense.
There are numerous business and global factors behind the automation movement, but these
are four that we’re primarily concerned with:
1. Global competitive pressures
2. Growing complexity of product and working situations
3. Changing skill availability and job expectations
4. Technology availability and its costs
10
Figure 7: The CIM software architecture for manufacturing.
What has not been clear to management is that automation is mainly an approach to a com-
pany's future business strategy. Management’s response to automation has usually been frag-
mented and reactive, with numerous requests for new machinery, such as using more com-
puters, and new processes and procedures. As a result, overlapping and excessive investment
requests accompanied by additional staff too often of lead to inefficient or incompatible fabri-
cation systems.
A Working Definition of Automation

Automation in a working context means more than just automatic machinery. Machinery implies
mechanization. Automation also means the system information directs and controls people, ma-
terials, and machines, also known as systemization [2]. Therefore, automation is made up of two
components, like a vector: mechanization (material flow) and systemization (information flow).
11
Mechanization Classes
Mechanization can be divided into six classes that indicate the amount of sophistication of
machines and machine interactions with humans. The classes are rated based on the percent
of the work done by machines:
Mechanization Classs Percentage Mechanized

1 Manual 0%
2 Semi-manual 10-25%
3 Machine-assisted 25–50%
4 Human-assisted 50–75%
5 Semi-automatic 75–99%
6 Fully automatic 100%
Systemization Levels
Similarly, systemization can be divided into six levels that indicate the amount and sophistica-
tion of blueprints, information, data, scheduling, and control that take place:
Percentage
Systematization Level Collected by
Sensors or
Computers
1 Manual information collection distribution 0%
2 Batch computer/human collection distribution 10-24%
3 Online computer/human collection distribution 25-49%
4 Real-time computer/machine interface 50-74%
5 Dedicated supervisory control 75-99%
6 Fully automatic gateway/network control 100%
Each level has an increasing percentage of machine/computer content handling the informa-
tion required to fabricate, schedule, test, or move a product.
Automation Matrix
When both measures are applied to any activity in the process to tool or build a printed circuit, an
automation matrix is created about that work center. This matrix allows for the current situation
and future objectives or plans to be appraised, even if it is all manual (Figure 8). It is quite common
for automation objectives to be made up of a number of steps or phases, allowing each step to be
stabilized before the next one is taken. The automation matrix lends itself to this step approach.
12
Systemization Levels
Systemization
Material
Handling
Mechanization
Networking
Mechanization Classes
Figure 8: Automation vector is defined as systemization and mechanization
including material handling and networking between work centers.
Contrary to popular belief, the real work in automation is getting started. The time for manage-
ment to start is now. In general, there will be five challenges that executives need to concentrate
on if an automation program is to take root and flourish:
1. Commit to being the best
2. Build the team
3. Tear down traditional barriers
4. Gain knowledge of the tools and philosophies that create excellence
5. Use leadership to execute the strategies
Getting Started
The first step is a commitment. More precisely, a shared vision is the most important step.
The vision that must be shared is that of being the best and creating a roadmap for achieving
that major goal.
There will probably be changes along the way. The general manager can best affect major
13
Manufacturing
Automation Techniques
and Advanced Procedures in PCB Fabrication
Commitment
to be
the best
Benchmarking, Benchmarking,
manufacturing, engineering,
and excellence and excellence
Education &
awareness
Total quality
Demand pull Design flow control Process Computer-aided
production processes (TQC) consistency tooling
(JIT) (Six Sigma) (SPC) (CAM)
Cooperative
Level Design for
suppliers
schedules manufacturability
(LEAN) (DFM)
AUTOMATE
MANUFACTURING
Figure 9: Commitment to manufacturing and engineering excellence is the basis for any automation system.
changes from the top, whether they are the head of a stand-alone company or of a major manu-
facturing division. Only the general manager can make the long-term commitment to being the
best. This vision is shared because it will also require others to be committed to manufacturing
and engineering excellence.
Successful automation can only result from a professional team effort. How can a company
get everybody pulling in the same direction? Part of the answer is education through shar-
ing information about technologies that are galloping out ahead of the decision-makers.
The general manager must hire people who can do the job when they think their team is
internally or externally deficient. The general manager must also be sure to adequately
train the whole team, including the production workers, who too often are left out. Figure 9
shows a diagram of the process.
The technical demands may require at least a temporary boost in engineering manpower or
consulting. In many cases, the lack of adequately trained numbers of engineers limits the rate
of improvement and increases the risk of failure.
To build the team that is required, the general manager must tear down the traditional walls
that have isolated the various functions that participate in manufacturing and engineering.
He must build a strong partnership of equals from marketing, R&D, purchasing, produc-
14
tion, engineering, manufacturing, sales, distribution, and after-sales service. These related
functions should work together as a closely-knit team to achieve the overriding goal of be-
ing the best. These walls are not only barriers to the shared vision, but to the understanding
and consensus of what information is needed to develop the strategy for automation. Finally,
success can be found by gaining knowledge of tools and philosophies that create excellence,
some of which are outlined in this book, and using leadership to execute these strategies.
Automation is Strategic
There are numerous dimensions to automation strategies, which are all driven by top manage-
ment. Do you know any of these strategies? If not, here are six fundamentals:
1. Develop a plan
2. Be aware of the opportunities
3. Create a quality paradigm
4. Recognize myths
5. Understand the prerequisites
6. Avoid pitfalls
Automation is Tactical
Likewise, there are numerous elements to automation tactics:
1. Focus the factory
2. Consider the technologies
3. Implement a manufacturing management information system
4. Learn to pay as you go (justification)
5. Plan the steps and have a good a methodology
6. Understand how to integrate
Six Automation Principles

For this rest of this chapter, the assumption will be that all the necessary preparations in strat-
egy and tactics have been completed. Now, how does it all fit together for successful implemen-
tation? This problem affects large, wealthy companies as well as small job shops.
Successful automation implementations depend on close adherence to some cardinal princi-

ples, which will be reviewed in further detail:
15
1. Superiority
2. Simplicity
3. Flexibility
4. Compatibility
5. Manufacturability
6. Reliability
1. Superiority: Automation Must Contribute to a Business Goal

In the simplest terms, the business goal is to be the best. However, “best” is relative. Thus, it can
be rated based on experience, reputation, technology, profitability, engineering, or anything to
compare oneself to competitors. What might customers think is important in rating the best?
Examples might include quality, delivery, price, flexibility, technology, or service. The selection
of which area of performance that automation is aimed at will have the most influence on pick-
ing vendors and programs.
The 40-40-20 Rule

In a recent publication about CIM [3], Wickham Skinner quoted the General Electric “40-40-20
Rule." The rule states that for the average fabrication and assembly production plants, only 20%
of any ultimate cost saving and performance improvements come from productivity changes
and conventional engineering concepts and techniques. Meanwhile, 40% can come from manu-
facturing policy and structure changes, such as TQC and Lean, and 40% from improvements in
fundamental manufacturing technology.
This gives a clear alternative to smaller companies who cannot afford expensive automated
equipment. Their management can make a much more affordable investment in policy and
structure changes. This is just another way of saying “manufacturing philosophies.” As men-
tioned earlier, the important ingredient is commitment to being the best. Once this commit-
ment has been made, then investment in education, awareness, and training can be made.
2. Simplicity: Automation Must Help Simplify Manufacturing

It is imperative to use automation technology to simplify the production task rather
than make it more complex. Part of simplifying the problem is not automating any op-
eration that is better done by human skills. The basis for this principle is that automa-
tion is consistent, untiring, and fast, but unlike humans, machines do not possess com-
mon sense or the ability to change their own programming when a glitch appears. To take
advantage of automation, factors must be simplified from the previous manual technique.
16
Total Quality Control

Total Quality Control (TQC) is the foundation of any excellence program. It is a manage-
ment and operating philosophy totally committed to quality that focuses on continuous pro-
cess improvements using data and the scientific method making perfection a goal. TQC re-
quires universal participation and working as a team so that the result is customer satisfaction
because expectations are consistently exceeded for both internal and external customers.
Vital elements of the TQC process include clearly understood

and agreed-upon goals, appropriate performance mea-
sures, rigorous information collection such as quali-
tative and quantitative analysis, an approach
utilizing creative problem solving, and par-
ticipation by all members. Top management
must drive this entire process.
The working objective of TQC is to fix

the process and make it work better.
All activities are processes, so the TQC
methodology starts with four proce-
dures:
1. Identify the problem
2. Identify the causes
3. Eliminate the causes
4. Monitor the process
This may seem simple, but it only succeeds
when everyone becomes involved. Workers,
supervisors, engineers, and managers must
receive training on the elements of TQC. Man-
agement should back every step of this training from
providing initial instructions and statistics experimenta-
tion, to providing time for employees to learn these skills and
reinforcing the commitment to being the best.
So why has it taken so long for TQC to be accepted? It may be because TQC is counterin-
tuitive to the current business culture. The current business culture causes companies to re-
act to uncertainty by adding complexity. Even the current reward systems encourage com-
plexity. For example, a company might add a vendor if another vendor’s performance is not
trusted. Lead time may be added if capacity is not trusted. Similarly, inventory may be add-
17
ed when levels are low, while rework stations may be added if quality is low. If a company
does not have the time to do something right, they may choose to add more time to do it over.
Gaining control over and reducing complexity through knowledge and understanding are the
primary objectives of TQC. One major task of automation is to simplify and organize complex-
ity. A simpler process has:
• Less inventory
• Fewer floor spaces
• Fewer people
• Fewer process steps
• Fewer part numbers
• Fewer options, accessories, manuals, literatures, paperwork,
and less chance of error
Per Unit of Output

TQC and Six Sigma are
constant contributors to
move product quality and
manufacturing yields high-
er. The goal is to minimize
variability and maximize
quality (Figure 10).
One role the computers of

automation play in TQC
is the collection, reduc-
tion, and analysis of infor-
Figure 10: Narrowing the process latitude below two sigmas
mation and data. When a
is the goal of TQC and Six Sigma programs.
problem has been solved,
the systematization role of automation constantly monitors to keep it under control.
Standardization
Standardization is another method of simplification, which is why many companies standard-
ize panel sizes in production. What they may lose in material cost they can make up for in im-
proved performance from a simpler automated process. Other candidates for standardization
are image transfer and CNC tooling, procedures, equipment, and training. Even tasks such as
costing and accounting can benefit from standardization. DFM/A is one of the best ways to ob-
tain standardization. Remember, automation will require simplification.
18
3. Flexibility: Automation Must Adapt to Changes Without Repeating the Initial

Investment
Trends in Automation
Historically, if the manufacturing environment was simple enough, the product quantity large
enough, and the product characteristics stable enough, one would invest in fixed or rigid mech-
anization. The only other option would be to leave it essentially manual. This could be applied
equally to a single task or an entire manufacturing sequence.
Recently, the trend in automated systems has been toward flexible and adaptable systems.
While labor and fixed automation is increasing in costs, newer technologies are bringing flex-
ible systems down in cost. Viewed as a “per unit cost,” this means that the intersection of flex-
ible systems and manual or fixed systems is spreading. This spread covers the typical volumes
seen in batch printed circuit production (Figure 11).
Flexible automation in printed cir-

THE MOVEMENT TO FLEXIBLE
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS (FMS) cuits today is typically program-
mable and computer-aided based on
CNC, direct numerical control (DNC)
of shearing, drilling, contouring, and
COST PER UNIT
FIXED AUTOMATION photo-plotting, computer-aided in-

spection (AOI), computer-aided test
MANUAL and process automation, and com-
puter-aided artwork/tooling (CAM).
Direct imaging and inkjet printing
FLEXIBLE / ADAPTABLE
are examples of flexible automation
that eliminate many human/machine
PRODUCTION QUANTITY PER YEAR steps. All of these techniques are auto-
Figure 11: Flexible manufacturing systems are more mation because they have both mech-
cost efficient and adaptable to any type of manufacturing. anization and systemization content.
Modern Information Systems (MRP III)

Flexible automation that is mostly systemization would be the role of a modern information
system. The technique for production processes is called manufacturing resource planning
(MRP III).
MRP III and the older materials requirements planning (MRP) are management processes or
techniques for taking the business plan and breaking it down into tasks of materials, inventory,
schedules, and costs. Specifically, the detailed tasks include the following on page 20:
19
• Business planning • Material planning

• Production planning • Shop floor control
• Order processing • Vendor scheduling
• Master scheduling • Planned execution and feedback
The capacity to do evaluations and “what-if” scenarios is possible. MRP is a powerful discipline
and philosophy, but it is based on company-wide teamwork and detailed implementation driven
by top management.
Matching Major Stages of Product and

Process Life Cycles with Automation Vectors
Product Structure: Product Life Cycle Stage
1. One-of-a-kind 2. Multiple 3.Few major 4.Commodity products;
products; Low volume, products; products; High volume, high
Process Structure
low standardization Low volume Higher volume standardization
Process Life Cycle Stage
1. Jumbled flow job

shops
2. Disconnected line
flow (batch)
3. Connected line flow

(assembly line)
4. Continuous flow
Figure 12: The information extent of systemization varies with the type of manufacturing.
MRP III can be used in just about any size company making any type of product on a pro-
cess or batch order flow. Some companies using MRP III employ a few as 50 people and have
annual sales as little as $3 million. The four basic MRP III packages (Figure 12) for discreet
product manufacturing are:
20
1. Jumbled flow (job shops)

• Traditional MRP with varied routings
• Material-based backward scheduling
• Individual shop orders
2. Disconnected line flow (batch)
• Lot control
• Serial number BOM effectiveness
• 7000.1 cost accounting compliance
3. Connected line flow (assembly line)
• Fixed routing cumulative MRP
• Backflush inventory
• Daily or weekly schedules
4. Continuous flow (process)
• Capacity-based forward scheduling
MRP III systems will not be made obsolete by CIM or automation. In fact, just the opposite will
be true. As manufacturing systems become more dependent on systemization to control the
mechanization, manufacturing planning and control function will become more indispensable.
Ten years ago, MRP was essential for:
• Material requirements planning • Forecasting
• Capacity requirements planning • Resources requirements planning
• Order entry • Purchasing distribution
• Master production scheduling • Resource planning
• Shop floor control • Cost accounting
Today MRP II (III) has added:

• Group technology • Manufacturing decision support
• Preventative maintenance • Production documentation
• Simulation throughput optimization • Computer drawing graphics
• Demand-pull interfaces
21
Sales/Order
Schedule Simulation
system
optimization
Work order
grouping Group
technology
Accounting Robotics
Complexity
AR/AP
Production
Stores control Direct
management NC tape numerical
preparation control
Yield quality
Freight systems
management Unit
operation
control
Business content Technical content

Business data Processes &
processing automation
Figure 13: Business and technical systems software come

in many varieties and complexities.
MRP III centers on the fundamentals of materials, and production planning and control. It
stresses accurate data that increases visibility into manufacturing. MRP III provides a common
language for communication–a company game plan that calls for company-wide teamwork and
discipline to make it work. It is a basic, comprehensive approach to running a manufacturing
operation. There are a large number of MRP III general-purpose systems available today at
a very reasonable cost. There are also two or three MRP III systems designed specifically for
printed circuit fabrication [4]. See Figure 13.
Consideration of Advanced Technologies
As mentioned earlier, 40% of potential performance improvement is contributed by advanced
manufacturing technology. In applying the principle of flexibility to new equipment, processes,
or materials, one can design the automated system to handle a wide variety of operations, not
just one or two. Part of making the system flexible is building into its requirements the capabil-
ity of adding new technology or replacing parts with new technology as it becomes available.
This will require staying informed about new trends and developments so systems can be de-
signed with both current and future needs in mind.
I believe these advanced technologies come into use as part of a wave theory. That is, new
technology is first picked up by a small group of initiators, the risk-takers, who make up 2–5%
of the industry. Between the second and fourth year of this technology, the companies with
reputations of being progressive have assimilated this technology into their operations. This
22
group encompasses 15–18% of the industry. The remaining 80% of the industry will integrate
this technology over the next five to fourteen years.
By this time, if the technology is still viable, it will be common practice and knowledge. Remem-
ber, the printed circuit complexity factor will increase by 10 times every 13 years. This is one
of the major driving forces behind the technology turnover and is a major consideration in the
automation planning cycle. A person can place himself with respect to the waves by checking
how many years a technology has been out and using this as part of his technology acquisition
targets.
4. Compatibility: Automation Must Evolve from and Coexist with Manual Techniques
One truth in automation is that if you cannot do something manually, what makes you think
you can do it through automation? Automating for quality is a myth. Automating for consis-
tency either results in consistent quality or consistent scrap. The automated system must share
the same heritage as the manual systems. The most suitable manual technique for automation
is Lean or the continuous-pull production technique. It focuses on many of these problems in a
conventional material flow system:
• Excess inventories
• Queues and safety buffers
• Extensive repairs and reworks
Lean Manufacturing
Lean (synchronized) manufacturing is a logistics approach designed to result in minimum in-
ventory by having material arrive at each operation just in time (JIT) to be used. Figure 14
shows the “alligators” when you lower the
level of the swamp with JIT.
Orders in a Lean system are pulled through

the system by demand. They are often trig-
gered by a reorder point system called kan-
ban. Every time a container of material parts
is issued, the item is immediately ordered.
Lean applies to job shop, batch, and assem-

bly line manufacturing, but is most common
in high-volume, repetitive processes where
a common product is being manufactured. Figure 14: Lowering inventories through the practice of
The Lean approach reduces inventory and Lean and JIT uncovers many hidden problems.
23
buffers of all kinds to a

Automated Manufacturing (CIM) point where problems
like unsuitable materi-
als, late deliveries, or
inconsistent processes
cannot be hidden. Lean
Flexible Computer-Aided
Total Quality LEAN/JIT forces businesses to
Manufacturing
Commitment Manufacturing Design/Tooling
Systems stop the line and fix the
v Statistical quality v Flow processes v Manufacturing v Balanced work cells
problem before rework
control
v Statistical design
v Balanced schedules
(MRP III)
automation
v Resource/capacity
v Design for manufacturing
(DFM)
is created. Lean implies
of experiments planning (MRP/CRP) changing the physi-
Figure 15: Automation fits with systems other than Lean/JIT, such as TQC, DFM, cal process and plant
SQC, FMS, CAM tooling, etc. layout to reduce tran-
sit time, and therefore,
costs and buffers. Again, this shares a common philosophy with grouped-flow manufacturing
cells and TQC. TQC should exist within any business considering implementing Lean. The TQC
methodology must be applied everywhere by top management, even to develop a strong sup-
plier relationship and maintenance program.
1. Total Quality Commitment
A philosophy where all elements of a business are viewed by everyone involved
as processes capable of being continuously improved through understanding
and simplification.
2. LEAN/JIT Manufacturing
A manufacturing system that provides the right quantity of the right resources
and possesses the required functionality to the correct place as needed.
3. Flexible Manufacturing Systems
A complete manufacturing process that can efficiently produce a range of prod-
ucts requiring continuously changing setups.
4. Computer-Aided Design/Tooling
The discipline of using computers to boost productivity of engineering activi-
ties associated with the creation of parts and systems via modeling, analysis,
design, testing, and optimization.
The payback of a TQC/Lean program includes real savings. Higher quality is achieved, lower
inventories are required, work-in-process inventory tracking is no longer essential, space is
reduced, equipment utilization is higher, and direct/indirect labor is lower.
24
Series of Workstations
Receive Inspect Electroplate Assemble Automation

6 6 6 6 Methodology
SYSTEMIZATION LEVELS
5 5 5 5 Automation methodology
4 4 4 4 is a formal procedure for
3 3 3 3 planning, designing, and
2 2 2 2 implementing automa-
1 1 1 1 tion. It is particularly im-
A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F
portant when you want to
start integrating several
Mechanization Classes previously independent
Material1 production tasks into one
Handling
Degree a b c d e f a b c d e f a b c d e f Phase 1 or more automated sys-
Phase 2
Network1 Phase 3 tems. The methodology
Communication
Extent 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
stems from the previously
defined automation ma-
Figure 16: The automation methodology consists of automation plans for each trix (Figure 8). Additional
work center plus plans for material flow and information flow between work axes are added to the ma-
centers.
trix to cover material han-
dling (mechanization)
Schedules, Projections, Inquiries,
capacity open orders orders and network communi-
Manufacturing Business
Queue, yields
Planning Closed orders
Support Quotes,
shipments
cation (systematization)
Manufacturing between cells or work cen-
Control Standard
variances Inventory, purchases ters. A simplified diagram
Customers
Bill of materials Board quotes

is illustrated in Figure 16.
Defects
The actual methodology
Attributes, Payments
performance
Standard variances
will take up several draw-
Manufacturing Financial
Event
completion
Event
initiation
Analysis Management Invoices ings and utilize a number
Part
of worksheets to analyze
process
data Routing
and plan the data.
standards
Factory
Standard
variances This methodology was
Automation Documents
used to design the auto-
Computer-Aided
Programs, files Tooling Preparation Artwork, specs
mated HP’s printed circuit
facilities for Hewlett-Pack-
ard in Sunnyvale and Palo
Figure 17: The automation information flow diagram shows the major items of
Alto, California; Loveland,
information transferred between customers and the internal work centers of
modern printed circuit manufacturing. Colorado; Boise, Idaho;
Boeblingen, Germany; and
Puerto Rico. Figure 17 shows the automation information flow diagram [5]. The complexity of
the automation was enormously simplified by this methodology.
25
5. Manufacturability: Automation Must Be Supported by Product Evolution

The majority of printed circuits boards are not designed and fabricated by the same group. As
a result, it is very difficult to change the design of a printed circuit. Feedback for printed circuit
designers can then take one or more of these three common responses to the design:
1. A printed circuit unsuited to the automated systems of the fabricator
will usually have quoted a higher price than ones ideally suited. This
has the tendency to send the buyer elsewhere, therefore selecting the
products the automated systems will handle.
2. Computer-aided tooling/artwork systems are used to process and
methodize PC artwork files, put them on grid, clean up line spacing
and straightness, align layers, standardize tooling, and provide NC and
AOI programs. They can also design multiple image panels. All of these
tasks change and improve the product. The printed circuit and its panel
evolve, which will improve the performance of the automated system.
3. Design for manufacturing (DFM) programs can be undertaken by cus-
tomer or product engineering. These programs are designed to lead
the customer to do a better job at designing the product, and making
changes or edits that will improve the product and lead to correspond-
ing cost savings.
DFM (Design for Manufacturability)

DFM is a relatively recent engineering philosophy focused on improving the fabrication of parts
or simplifying the assembly of products by analyzing value, tolerance, movement, difficulty, or
suitability for automation. The approach can take many avenues but the goal is the same–sim-
plify the product and make it easier to manufacture. One technique, developed by Dewhurst
and Boothroyd, and further refined by Hitachi and General Electric, involves the design for
assembly being based on a rigorous analysis of assembly part count, complexity of motion and
parts, and assembly time. With this numerical rating, a more rational program of improve-
ments is possible.
Other times, customer or product engineers implement the program. It is their job to supply cus-
tomers with PCB education seminars, design and cost guidelines, and tradeoff comparisons. A
manufacturability audit or recommendation may be in order if a company produces prototypes.
By any means, the goal is to make the printed circuit more producible. This will lower the com-
plexity factor (C). In fact, if automation is going to be utilized, this product evolution is essential.
There are other facets of the philosophy such as group technology, value engineering, tolerance
and margin analysis, analytical troubleshooting, and experimental design. Like TQC, MRP III,
and GT, DFM depends on accurate data and analysis. Information is essential.
26
6. Reliability: Automation Must Be Robust and Tolerant Enough to Keep

Functioning, and Functioning Well, Even Under Adverse Conditions
Automation usually entails a sizable investment. If so, the return on this investment is most
assuredly based on continuous use. Inoperability due to breakdown, spare parts, operator mis-
takes, or undue complexity cannot be tolerated. Prima donna systems are for research labs. A
manufacturing system must be robust, easy to maintain and service, straightforward to oper-
ate, and have a track record that speaks for itself. Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) is
a key TQC process to ensure that reliability issues do not interfere with customer satisfaction
and profitability.
Processes and Raw Materials Consistency
Process and material characterization is a major factor in the reliability of a process. The lati-
tude a process exhibits to variability in conditions and materials are chief factors in process
control, quality, and yields. This is the main focus of manufacturing philosophies such at statis-
tical quality control (SQC) or statistical process control (SPC) [6].
The SQC approach is essential to providing process reliability and meeting a TQC approach.
There are numerous sources of variability including materials, machines, tooling, workman-
ship, etc. They combine similar tolerances and are not simple summations. The end-result
could be large and unpredictable rejects and defects, or, if managed, small and predictable
rejects and defects.
Reducing process variability means working on machine instability, maintenance, and calibra-
tion; improving tooling accuracy and ease of use; making setups reproducible and easy to ad-
just, or having no need for adjustments; and ensuring raw materials are properly specified and
that vendors have their processes under statistical control. It requires training, coaching, and
well-documented procedures.
Leadership to Execute the Strategies
Automation, although highly desirable, is about more than just buying equipment and pro-
cesses from vendors. A successful automation program requires focusing on the business needs
of the company. The first step is the commitment to being the best, not the purchases. Automa-
tion follows other manufacturing programs. It is not the start of the process. CIM fits with TQC,
Lean, DFM, SQC, CAT/A, and FMS programs.
Improved performance can be achieved when these programs move the manufacturing re-
sponse curve to the right, while customer improvement programs move PCB products to the left
(Figure 18, page 28). As shown, a mediocre PCB at point 1 can be improved to point 2 or point
2’ by process improvement or product simplification. Better yet, improvement could move it to
point 3. This is the secret of Japan’s enormous manufacturing success.
27
Figure 18:
Improvement in yield
and customer satisfac-
tion is a combination of
process improvements
(2’–2) and product
improvements (1–2)
resulting in a markedly
improved yield (1–3).
Management’s challenge is to:
• Think strategically
• Examine the role of technologies
• Use manufacturing and engineering philosphies to support the company's
business goals
• Support ongoing programs of education and training in new techniques
The keys to automation success include seven checkpoints:
1. Believe that it can be justified. Many benefits will come from entirely
unexpected sources.
2. Recognize that enthusiasm, along with a champion, can work wonders.
3. Start with a vision, but begin implementation before detailed
planning is complete. Early success builds momentum.
4. Realize that functional organization will try to get in the way.
Don't let it happen.
5. Get rid of obsolete traditions. They have no place in today's
competitive environment.
6. Rigorously apply TQC, or an equivalent, before proceeding.
Understand that technology is only part of the answer.
7. Lots of benefits will come from simple improvements.
Success comes from people, not machines.
These seven ideas, along with the strategies, tactics, philosophies, and principles outlined here,
are all aspects of the commitment to being the best.
28
Chapter 1 References
1. Holden, H.T., "Complexity Factor C," IPC Technical Review, March/April

1986.
2. Wu, Bevan P.F., "Manufacturing Strategy Towards Integrated Automation,"
Taiwan Productivity Center Conference, December 1983.
3. Skinner, Wickham, "The Focused Factory,” Harvard Business Review. May/
June 1984, pp 113–21.
4. O'Connor, J. F., "Making MRP Work in a Multiplant Environment," PCFAB,
September 1985.
5. "Case Study of PCB C.I.M. Fab. Implementation," InterNepcon 1986 Confer-
ence, Singapore, August 26, 1986.
6. Wallskog, A. G., "Meet the Challenge of International Competition for PCBs
Through Strategic Quality Planning," IPC Technical Review, March/April
1986.
29
CHAPTER 2
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
After covering automation planning, the difference between automation and mechanization
should be clear. In printed circuit fabrication and assembly, most of what is advertised is mech-
anization. However, true automated solutions are seen in assembly tests. The difference be-
tween the two is the networking and protocols that supply the information and data. Examples
can be drawn from the semiconductor fabrication industry. This industry has employed fully
automated factories since the mid-1980s.
This chapter is dedicated to current automation protocols and some new ones just coming onto
the market. Next, examples will be drawn from my own projects. The messages and recipe data
needed for production scheduling-to-machine connections have evolved over the years. The
selections to be covered include:
• Serial RS-232C/RS-485
• Parallel IEEE-488/HP-IB
• MAPS protocol
• SECS I & SEC II/GEM protocols
• OML
• IPC-2541
• LAN (IEEE-802.3 and TCP/IP)
• Wireless and IoT
Recipe-to-Machine and Machine-to-Machine

When I started working with automation control in 1970, we only had ASCII characters in paral-
lel cabling. We started by using these printer and teletype protocols to control machines. Some-
times, we had only binary-coded decimal (BCD) to work with. Today, lights-out factories and In-
dustry 4.0 initiatives are the norm. This progress comes as a result of the automotive industry’s
application of PLCs and robots to manufacturing. Figure 1 shows what the Germans foresee for
31
Factory Industry 4.0 [1]. Figure 2

MES & Production Environmental shows the four-level CAM
Production Testing Monitoring hierarchy, while Figure 3
Profile
Equipment
(Including OEE) • Electricity monitoring
• Factory waste water
shows typical networked
• Machine vision
• Information between
the front-end equipment • Motion I/O cards Web Access
• Energy management factory control units.
and MES application • Computing platform
• Production traceability • Controller
I was fortunate to be em-
ployed by Hewlett-Pack-
ard early in my career.
Their 2116 computers,
and later the 2110, were
Web Access Predictive Machine real-time, interrupt-driv-
Maintenance Automation en computers and ideal
• Production
performance analysis • Industrial robots for machine control. HP
• Machine status
• Abnormal diagnosis
• Automated guided
vehicle even developed a CNC
• Sensor measurement • Industrial machinery
machine control system,
but decided not to sell it.
Figure 1: The scope of Industry 4.0 enables an intelligent plant. The system did not fit the
(Source: Advantech)
experience of their instru-
ment or computer sales force. They sold all the CNC systems to Allen Bradley in Milwaukee.
Thus, I ended up working with Allen Bradley to buy back the software that HP had developed.
This was serendipitous as AB introduced me to their programmable logic controller (PLC) tech-
nology. PLCs became a major tool in machine control.
HP had already developed CAD tools for PCB design and mechanical engineering. It had data
acquisition, SCADA, and test systems. The business computer division developed MRP and ERP
software. In 1982, HP acquired Genesis Corporation, which had created IC-10 and six others
software products for factory con-
trol, such as PC-10. HP developed
a complete software solution for
factory automation connectivity
specifically for GM and the MAPS
implementation. As this new soft-
ware group became a division, they
expanded their product line to in-
clude quality/test/inspection sys-
tems, CNC/machine control sys-
tems, materials handling software,
and an industrial process control
system (licensed from Mount Isa
Mines). The HP products were in-
tended for typical factory automa- Figure 2: Enterprise and plant control topology showing the four-
tion networks (Figure 4). level hierarchy. (Source: Renesas Edge Big Data in Manufacturing)
32
Figure 3: Industrial automation controllers and PLCs. (Source: Wenatchee Valley College, Washington)
Figure 4: Industrial automation networking alternatives. (Source: Pinterest network for AB Inc.)
33
The interconnectivity for machine-to-ma-

RS232C
chine usually involves one or all of these con-
nection standards (Figure 5).
RS-485
RS-232C
Serial RS-232C RS-485
According to TALtech [1], “RS-232 stands for IEEE-488.2
Recommend Standard number 232 and C is
the latest revision of the standard. The serial
ports on most computers use a subset of the
RS-232C standard. The full RS-232C stan-
USB A & B
dard specifies a 25-pin "D" connector of which
Male-A-A Male-B-B
22 pins are used. Most of these pins are not
needed for normal PC communications, and USB
indeed, most new PCs are equipped with male Mini &
D type connectors having only 9 pins.” Micro Mini-A&B Micro-A&B
Synchronous and Asynchronous

Communications
IEEE-802.3
TALtech’s “Introduction to Serial Communi-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
cations” tutorial provides important explana-

tions and details on this topic [1]. CAT5 cable
w/RJ45
Parallel IEEE-488
The IEEE-488 is a short-range digital commu- Figure 5: Five connectivity standards for
nications 8-bit parallel multi-master interface industrial automation.
bus specification. More information on paral-
lel IEEE-488 is available on the IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) website [2].
Message Automation and Protocol Situation

Message Automation and Protocol Situation is also referred to as MAPS protocol [3]. A great
description of MAPS and how it works is available in an HP Journal article from August 1990.
SECS I & SEC II/GEM protocols

The Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI) is an open standard. Equip-
ment manufacturers identified a need for their semiconductor process equipment to communi-
34
cate with a larger host computer system, and thus developed the SEMI Equipment Communi-
cations Standard (SECS). SECS defines parts of all seven ISO open system interconnect (OSI)
communications layers.
SECS/GEM standardizes two-way communication within a network or serial cable that con-
nects equipment and is independent of any particular programming or computer operating
system. This is explained in a great HP Journal article [4].
A major limitation of the SECS standard is that it only defines messages and their content. It
does not define how the messages are used together to perform a function. Equipment manu-
facturers are left to decide what messages to use to perform functions that were performed
manually before. This, of course, makes it difficult to develop translators for external systems
to communicate with such equipment.
Figures 6 and 7 show more details of the SECS II/GEM standard built on the OSI seven-level
communication model. A SECS/GEM document from SEMETECH provides more details [5].
Open Manufacturing Language

Open manufacturing language (OML) provides an internet of manufacturing an intelligent
connectivity platform for all PCB assembly production machines and processes, automated
or manual, and enables the sup-
Application and Communication Layer of Factory Automation (Host to Applications)
port. Support can include plan-
Host ning, supply chain, quality man-
Application
Layer MES application software
agement, and corporate systems
(IC-10) Remote control such as MES, ERP, and PLM.
Online and of equipment
remote Factory automation The standard is the proprietary
diagnostic software/solution
(PC-10) development of the Valor divi-
HSMS
TCP/IP GEM E30
sion of Mentor, a Siemens Busi-
(E37) ness, which offers the hardware
Configuration SECS-II (E5) Equipment
SECS-I
simulation for sale. The OML carries on
RS232C(E4)
the long-standing tradition of
Communication SECS/GEM ODB++, the PCB design commu-
Layer driver
nication standard from Valor. No
SECS/GEM information is presented regard-
interface
ing whether OML conforms to
Control logic
either MAP or SECS II standards.
Equipment
Complete information about the

Figure 6: SEMI’s SECSII/GEM communication standard documents ma- OML Standard can be found at
chine connectivity and control/recipes. (Source: HP Journal, July 1985) OMLcommunity.com.
35
Figure 7: The seven-layer OSI communication standard. (Source: HP Journal, August 1990)
A recent interview with Oren Manor of Mentor, a Siemens Business [6] has more information
about OML.
Look for this new open language standard to gain momentum in the industry now that Siemens
has acquired Mentor, and thus the Valor platform, which adds to their large pool of MES, ERP,
PLM, and automation products.
IPC-2541
According to a 2016 IPC press release [7], “IPC’s 2-13 Shop Floor Communications Subcom-
mittee brought together leading software developers, machine vendors, assembly equipment
manufacturers and their customers to work on development of a new IPC standard to meet
the current and future needs of industry that will fill a gap identified by the group. This new
standard will provide uniformity of data protocols that will allow ease of machine to machine
communication.”
Jason Spera, Subcommittee Chairman and CEO of Aegis Software, said, “The subcommittee is
firmly committed to developing the standard and is also working to provide an easy-to-under-
stand definition of Industry 4.0 and its significance.”
Further, David Bergman of the IPC in the 2016 APEX IPC Committee Works Report stated, “Ma-
chine vendors want to engage quickly and all parties agree that a replacement for the current
IPC-2541, Generic Requirements for Electronics Manufacturing Shop-Floor Equipment Com-
munication Messages (CAMX) is needed and demanded by industry and speed of execution is
critical.”
36
The fastest way to implement an electronics shop-floor data protocol is to follow those working
with semiconductors and adopt the SECS II/GEM standard from SEMI. Those in the semicon-
ductor industry are usually pleased to see others follow their lead because they have a 35-
year head start with many factories, vendors, and established software already in place. The
IPC Committee is still needed because CAD data/definitions, components, processes, and tests
should be set up for the SECS II/GEM standards.
LAN (Ethernet, IEEE-802.3, and TCP/IP)

IEEE-802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1 network architecture and also defines
LAN method using CSMA/CD. It is the physical layer and data link layer for media access con-
trol (MAC) of wired Ethernet. Ethernet is increasingly popular for factory automation due to
the availability of numerous sources for the communication hub. It is also available as a wire-
less standard in IEEE 802.11.
TCP/IP
Transmission control protocol and internet protocol are the most common communication
languages or protocols for the internet. TCP/IP provides the connectivity “specifying how
data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received” at the destination.
This protocol is organized into four virtual layers, which are used to sort related protocols ac-
cording to the needs of the network.
Wireless and IoT

The Internet of things (IoT) is a growing and popular trend, but does it apply to factory automa-
tion? Currently, IoT is headed for consumer use, and for control and monitoring applications
that are highly dispersed, such as energy monitoring. The role of security is a big question and
the specifics of individual factory automation are challenging. If IoT can create group or cluster
controllers that are compatible with factory networking, then it may play a role. Meanwhile,
wireless is a different situation. Advantech SMARTWORX has more information on wireless
communication [8].
Industry 4.0 Initiatives

The term Industry 4.0 originated from a project in the high-tech strategy of the German gov-
ernment, which provides for the computerization of manufacturing.
37
Level 4: Design Principles for Industry

Planning • Cost accounting
• Production planning
• Capacity planning and
• Financial accounting
4.0 Scenarios
Financial
• Master schedule
• Materials planning There are six design principles in
Level 3:
Industry 4.0: Interoperability, vir-
• WIP tracking • Equipment management tualization, decentralization, real-
• Inventory control Manufacturing • Engineering data collection
• On-line instruction and
time capability, service orientation,
• Engineering analysis
• Shop floor Engineering • Rework management and modularity. These principles
control/scheduling
• Bill of materials • Workstation analysis support companies in identifying
and implementing Industry 4.0
Level 2: scenarios. A working paper by the
• Equipment control Supervisory • Automatic data collection
• Alarms Monitoring • Facilities monitoring and Technische Universitat-Dormund,
• Recipe control and Control control
• Safety assurance system Germany has more details [9].
• Tester data collection
Level 1:
Automation Examples
Semiconductor Productivity
Network at H-P: PC-10
• Facility sensors • Test systems Semiconductor fabricators like to
• Processing equipment avoid writing custom software to
fit all the idiosyncrasies of individ-
Figure 8: Equipment operation and GEM capability for industrial
automation. (Source: HP Journal, July 1985) ual processing systems. Therefore,
HP developed PC-10 to handle IC process HOST

equipment by separating it into general
classes. SECS II was a mandatory prereq- Condition of Manufacturing
Equipment Status of
Control condition process
uisite of the equipment before an interface Information to
achievement
process material
to PC-10 could be developed (Figures 9 and Process condition Condition of
each unit
10). Information to
execute recipe
Communication
condition Alarm condition
HP's approach to interfacing was to sur-
vey a representative number of processing
systems within a class to develop a generic
Event report, Event report,
model. A class is a group of equipment sys- variable data,
or alarm
Manufacturing
Equipment - 4
variable data,
Manufacturing
Equipment - 8
or alarm
tems that operate similarly and perform Manufacturing Manufacturing
Equipment - 7
Equipment - 3
the same general functions so that the com- Manufacturing Manufacturing
Equipment - 2 Equipment - 6
munications requirements look the same Manufacturing Manufacturing
to PC-10. The assumption is that each piece Equipment - 1 Equipment - 5
of equipment in an equipment class sup-

ports a subset of the SECS II data streams Figure 9: Real-time monitoring of equipment status.
and functions that PC-10 supports for that (Source: Sematech Generic Equipment Model)
38
HOST
Process &
master data
Setting condition Judgment

of process
(recipe) results
process model
NG
NG
process
process
suspended
suspended
Judgment
of process
results
NG
process
suspended
Setting of inspection Reporting of inspection

Setting of processing condition report
conditions
Material Material
Manufacturing Manufacturing Manufacturing Manufacturing
Equipment - 1 Equipment - 2 Equipment - 3 Equipment - 4
Figure 10: PC-10 process control and supervision, including downloading recipes.
(Source: Sematech Generic Equipment Model)
class. HP also assumed that

(2) “Message to host” panel where SECS (1) “SECS data tables and control” panel to
the order of the messages,
binary data is formulated. This binary be imported and displayed at machine which is not defined by SECS
data is then sent to the host. application. It controls and monitors the
communication state with the host. II, is generally the same for all
equipment in that class. This
1985 Hewlett Packard Journal
article [4] offers more details.
Figures 10 and 11 are schemat-

ics of the CIM hierarchy in
wafer fab using PC-10 as the
equipment controller.
Computers Come to Plating
Computers were first applied
to PCB manufacturing at HP’s
(3) “Message from host” panel (4) “History data log” panel logs Palo Alto facility in 1974. Fig-
where data is received in SECS the “send and receive data”
binary format and converted to between host and equipment in ure 12 and 13 show the comput-
text and other formats. both low and high levels.
er-controlled plating system
Figure 11: Process recipe on PC-10 to be downloaded by that included hoist control,
SECS II and GEM (Source: HP Journal, July 1985) current control, and moni-
39
toring for the plating tanks;

Disc
chemical replenishment for
Memory
the plating cells; and multi-
HP 2110B Realtime Computer
ple process sequence recipes
System (Cu, Sn/Ni, Sn, and Au) that
Console
Tape Reader
HP used for all its different
Analog/
Digital
Production Log
Teleprinter
23,000 separate products.
Converter Multiprogrammer Extender
Tape Punch
Multiprogrammer
CIM Environment Used for
Voltage Adjustment
the Sunnyvale PCB Factory
Current and
Voltage
Current The PCB facility in Sunny-
Line Printer
Metering
Platers’
Teleprinter vale was built in 1981 [13]. It Pumps for
Chemicals,
Brighteners
Plating Machine
had even more factory au-
Hoist Control
tomation than the facility in
HP 6259B HP 6259B
Palo Alto. Figure 14 shows

1st
Rectifier
29th
Rectifier
Temperature, pH,
Waste Treatment, &
Additional Monitoring the overall CIM system infor-
mation flow, while Figure 15
Figure 12: Automation diagram of the plating system used at HP’s facility in
Palo Alto, California. (Source: Metal Finishing Magazine )
[10] demonstrates the hardware
system diagram. This was the
first implementation of HP’s automation strategy, “The Manufacturers Productivity Network.”
Figure 13: The author with one of the robot hoists controlled by the computer system.
40
Figure 14: CIM information flow for the new Sunnyvale PCB fabrication facility.
The many systems it included:

• WIP tracking
• CNC for drilling and routers (Figure 16)
• Production scheduling
• High volume robot lamination (Figure 17)
• Computerized plating and chemical control (Figure 18)
• Laboratory automation of chemical analysis (Figure 18)
• Wastewater treatment process control (Figure 19)
• Quality systems for electrical test and AOI systems (Figure 20)
• Inkjet individual board serialization for traceability
41
CAM System Hierarchy of Sunnyvale PC
Corporate/ Plant/Factory
Finance Control
Production
CAD Process
Model
Cell Cell Supervisory Cell

Controller Controller Control Controller
Photo NC Drills NC Routers Water & Process Plating &

Lab
1
Plotter Waste Monitoring Hoist
Instruments
Control & Control Control
Multilayer Press
2
Digitizer Robotics/AMH
1 1 1
3
Step & AOI/Repair 2 2 2
Repeat 2 1 4
3 3 3
Manufacturing Mechanization/ 4 4 4 Product
Test
Engineering/Tooling Fabrication Chemical Process Control
Figure 15: The HP-Sunnyvale PCB CIM system diagram.
Figure 16: The DNC/mechanical computer system.
42
Figure 17: The robotic multilayer lamination computer system.
43
Electroplating and Chemical Process Control Center

HP1000/A800
Plating Line Computer DS 1000 to Supervisory Control Ultraviolet
7870E
Spectrophotometer
12050A
Extender
8-16 BIT DUP REC
HP-IB
HP2648
HP3076 Super Display Atomic
Fiber 7814A Absorption
Operator Input
Optic
Link
Hoists
1
2
12050A
30V
#13 3
500 A 4
Extender Infrared
Line Printer
Line 1 HP6464C Plating Log Spectrometer
D/A Plating Line 1 Super Display
30V
A/D 500 A
#1
HP3076
HP2240/ Power Supply 1 Operator Input
HP2241
30V Hoists Material Test
HP-IB 500 A
#17 1 Data Station
2 HP2648
Automatic Titrator
Line 2 HP6464C Super Display
3 Laboratory
D/A 4
30V
Terminal
A/D 500 A
#1
HP2240/
Power Supply 2 Plating Line 2
HP2241
Figure 18: The chemical and plating computer system.
Water Purification and Waste Treatment Control Center

HP7245B
Water Treatment and
Printer/Plotter
HP2627A Waste Elimination
Operator’s
Console
HP2645A
System Console
7870E
Fiber
Optic
Link 12050A
HP-IB Extender
7814A
HP2250A
HP1000/A900 Measurement &
Computer Control Control Processor
Figure 19: The waste treatment computer system.
44
Figure 20: The quality, AOL, and electrical test computer system.
45
Figure 21 shows four of the automated systems controlled by the CIM network:
1. Electroless copper and multilayer desmear line
2. Dual copper-nickel-gold/tin plating lines
3. Automatics chemical analysis, control, and dosing
4. Robotic material handling in multilayer lamination
Figure 21: Four automated systems controlled by the CIM information network.
46
1. Introduction to Serial Communications, Taltech Instrumental

Software Solutions.
2. IEEE Standard Codes
3. GL Communications Inc.
4. "Semiconductor Productivity at HP," HP Journal article, July
1985.
5. SEMI Standard E30, GEM (Generic Equipment Model)
6. Mentor Graphics: Connecting the Manufacturing Environ-
ment, Oren Manor interviewed by Stephen LasMarias, SMT
Magazine, May 2017, p. 80–90.
7. IPC Committee Works to Develop Shop Floor Communication
Standard, IPC website, March 17, 2016.
8. Advantech B+B SMARTWORX
9. Hermann, M., Pentek, T., Design Principles for Industrie 4.0
Scenarios, Working Paper No. 01/2015, Technische Universitat-
Dortmund, January 2015.
10. "Computerization Comes to Plating," Metal Finishing Maga-
zine, May 1978.
11. MPN: Alive in Sunnyvale PCB, HP-CIM brochure.
47
CHAPTER 3
48
Mechanization in PCB Fabrication

Process automation, also known as process mechanization, is an integral part of modern high-
speed rigid PCB and flex manufacturing. This mechanization has been continually refined since
the early 1950s. It is surprising that the mechanization used so long ago is still popular today,
4,000 years after the Egyptians discovered electroplating!
This chapter will review various mechanization schemes used in the printed circuit manufac-
turing industry, with emphasis on newer conveyorized electroplating, and will be divided into
five sections:
• Process mechanization
• Building a low-cost transporter
• Programming hoists and control systems
• Justification of automation
• Six principles of planning automation
Process Mechanization
In reviewing the options for higher productivity in plating and wet processes, we find the basic
machine choices are tenfold:
• Vertical or horizontal conveyorized transport (Figure 1a)
• Overhead conveyor or powered roller (Figure 1b)
• Walking beam or I-beam transport (Figure 1c)
• Split-rail pusher or side-arm return transporters (Figure 1d)
• Cantilevered or overhead (gantry) programmed hoists (Figure 1e)
Most companies select the horizontal conveyorized machines for etching, developing, and strip-
ping. Meanwhile, many choose the cantilevered programmed hoists for electroless copper, black
oxide, and smear removal with multiple overhead programmed hoist for electroplating. Vertical
49
and horizontal conveyorized electroplating machines have recently become very popular for
HDI and
[1 & 2].
panel plating. More information is available on the first computer controlled system
Vertical Conveyor Overhead Conveyor
Powered Rollers
Horizontal Conveyor with Immersed/Sprayed

Figure 1a: Vertical and horizontal processing. Figure 1b: Overhead and powered-roller
Simple Overheads conveyorized lines.
Walking Beam
I-Beam or Cable
Figure 1c: Overhead walking-beam and cable Figure 1d: Split-rail pusher and side-arm
transportation systems. cantilevered return system.
50
Programmed Hoists
Vertical Conveyorized
Vertical conveyorized mechanization has be-
come increasingly popular especially for thin
(Back view) materials and HDI. Figure 2 shows a variety of
these applications.
Cantilevered
Vertical electroplating of panels for panel plat-
ing or pattern plating is shown in Figure 3. The
electrified panels slide continuously next to
solution ejectors that supply fresh solution at
a high agitation and behind them are the inert
anode titanium baskets with copper slugs, sup-
plying cations to the solution and cell.
Gantry
Alternatively, if insoluble anodes are used,
Figure 1e: Cantilevered and gantry (overhead) hoist
copper oxide or copper sulfate dissolution and
system.
makeup tanks can supply the copper. A top
view of a typical vertical conveyorized system is seen in Figure 4 showing the solution nozzles
and inert anode screens.
a b
c
d
Figure 2: Vertical conveyorized mechanization applications for: (a) developing photoresist

(b and c) copper panel plating and (d) nickel-gold finger plating.
51
Figure 3: Vertical panels

slide between sets of
solution-injectors and
copper anode baskets.
DC Rectifier
DC rectifier Cathode
Plating Cell Top View

Control
Control Anode
Anode Cabinet
cabinet
Anode shield
Auto Flow pipe
stripping
Disc wheel
Side guide
Side View
Spraying nozzles
Figure 4: Vertical conveyor plating cell, side, and top views showing
the solution-injectors and fixed anodes with moving cathodes.
This same arrangement can be employed in static plating tanks for manual or hoist production.
Figure 5 shows the rear of the copper cells and the electrical connections. For more information
about solution spargers and eductors, see Chapter 10 of the HDI Handbook [3].
52
Figure 5: Vertical conveyor plating cell and rear buffer tank showing the
load-pickup robot and copper cell electricals.
Horizontal Conveyorized
Horizontal conveyors are the oldest mechanization in printed circuit manufacturing. These
closed machines have increased in their applications from historic photoresist developing,
stripping, cleaning and etching; to drill smear removal, oxide treatments, electroless copper,
final finishes/coatings, metallization, and electroplating (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Horizontal conveyorized process mechanization has been used in

printed circuit manufacturing since the early 1960s. (Source: Chemcut)
53
Figure 7a: The internal mechanisms of horizontal conveyors are powered

roller and spray nozzles connected to pumps and filter for solution distribution.
Small diameter disk rollers located close to squeeze

rollers help guide thin foils through the rollers.
Dryer and fluid delivery heads are narrower. Disk
roller shafts are located in recessed areas for thin
foil support.
Features
Ultra-flex circuits:
• Minimum: 25-µm base material, 2x5-µm copper
and 20-mm copper edge
• Maximum: up to 4 µm
Transport distance for:
• Squeegee rollers: 25 mm
• Disk rollers: 23 mm
Transport diameter for:
• Disk rollers and squeegee rollers: 32 mm
• Guiding roller between the squeegee rollers and
the module-to-module transition
• Squeegee rollers with guiding clips
Figure 7b: The internal mechanism details of horizontal conveyors with

modification for ultra-thin materials and flex.
54
Conveyor Mechanisms
The internal mechanisms con-
sist of motor-driven powered
rollers (Figure 7). Some are
specially designed for very
thin materials. The solutions
are sprayed through nozzles by
pump filter arrangements, or
in some cases, the panels are
below the solution level and
immersed. In some configura-
tions, extractors are employed
to remove excess solution to
Figure 8: Horizontal conveyorized plating line where the panel fixture prevent puddling. Other varia-
submerges below the solution level and travels under horizontal anodes, tions have the horizontal pan-
while the electrical contact/frame remains above the solution and drives els fully immersed in the solu-
the panel without the use of rollers.
tions with anodes on top and
bottom (Figure 8).
An excellent technical paper, An In- Fluid knives
novation in Horizontal Processing,

is available from The Journal of the Fluid engine
Institute of Circuit Technology [4 & 5].

The paper describes a non-contact
flow process chamber that results in
faster and more uniform chemical
Fluid feed port
reactions. These are called fluid en-
gine, jet knife, fluid knife, and drying
knife units [4]. A typical assembly of
these is shown in Figure 9 [5]. When
implemented, they reduce the equip- Note:
ment length and operating costs. The Upper rollers that would
be fitted in all positons as
authors also describe the roller drive fluid dams have been
removed for clarity
Side frame
transport and guiding system suit-

able for both thick, rigid PCBs and
Figure 9: Exploded view of a single fluid head chemical process
thin flex materials and can be seen in followed by triple rinse sections fitted with fluid knives [5].
Figure 10 [5].
55
Roller bearing block Drive shaft bearing block Spray Actions

The optimization of spray action in conveyorized mod-
Drive
ules has been approached with a variety of equipment
shaft designs with their own unique merits and shortcomings.
There are fixed spray nozzle arrays, spray bar arrays,
which oscillate back and forth transverse to the machine
direction, and stationary bars that pivot along a fixed
Bevel gears axis, which results in a spray pattern with oscillating
angles. The spray is typical of a conveyor system (Figure
11). The objective is to achieve a uniform spray pattern
across the surface of the board and to have high-impact
spray action assist the developer chemistry with good
replenishment fluid dynamics and mechanical erosion
of the resist.
A high surface velocity of the developer solution is de-

sirable to reduce the thickness of the stationary liquid
boundary layer. Spray pressure and nozzle type selec-
tion largely determine the spray impact (Figure 12). Di-
rect fan nozzles yield the highest impact, cone nozzles
Figure 10: Roller drive system close-up with
upper rollers removed for clarity and a give lower impact, and deflector fan nozzles provide the
close-up view of a drive from driven lowest impact. While direct fan nozzles appear to be the
rollers to other rollers [5]. obvious choice, there are trade-offs that can favor the se-
lection of cone nozzles. Fan nozzles

have a very narrow spray footprint
and it takes a large array of care-
fully arranged nozzles to achieve
good coverage. Cone nozzles gener-
ate a larger spray footprint. They are
spaced for maximum coverage and
minimal overlap. Spray overlap is
undesirable because spray impacts
cancel each other out.
Interference with spray action and

shadowing effects needs to be mini-
mized. Plastic clip-on guides for thin
laminate are staggered. Guide wires Figure 11: Spray impact for etching of copper
are oscillated to randomize their with cupric chloride etchant.
56
Direct fan Cone Deflector fan

shadowing effect. Conveyor wheels
are staggered and solid wheels are
replaced with wheels that feature
thin spokes. Resist features that
form during the development pro-
cess can also shadow sprays and in-
terfere with clean, complete devel-
opment, which led to the concept
of sprays that impact at different
angles.
High impact Medium impact Low impact This can be achieved by mounting
nozzles at various angles or by an-
Figure 12: Spray impact of different types of spray nozzles. gular oscillation of spray bars. Pay-
ing close attention to the develop-
ing chemistry and its control, and providing the recommended process equipment design are
critical to achieving clean blind vias and straight side walls of the through-holes.
Other Conveyors
Two other forms of horizontal conveyors can be used for mechanization: overhead conveyors
and powered rollers. These are often employed for wafer plating or small parts, but can be as
large as units used to provide corrosion resistance to entire armored personal carriers of many
tons. A detailed description of a novel horizontal powered autocatalytic copper plater for use to
metallize inkjet-printed RFID circuits can be found on the Cemco website [6].
Roll-to-Roll Conveyorized
Plating
Roll-to-roll (RtR) conveyorized
mechanization is quite interest-
ing. Figure 13 shows the COF
RtR line feed and copper clean-
ing details. Figure 14 shows the
panel plating for four 96 mm
Cu-polyimide (PI) webs. There
are elaborate roll-feeding mech-
anisms and roll take-up mecha-
Figure 13: COF roll-to-roll feed and copper cleaning details.
nisms to minimize any stress on
the thin PI material, and also to provide for exchanging feed and take-up rolls without stopping
the system. This system employs two different copper plating cells–one to metallize the graph-
ite PTH coating, and a second larger cell to build up the copper thickness to several microns.
57
Figure 14: COF roll-to-roll horizontal copper plater.
The same care can be seen in Figure 15 for the COF roll-to-roll nickel/gold plating line. Again,
multiple electrolytic cells are employed to include nickel strike, nickel plating, and gold strike
along with gold plating and electrolytic recovery of gold in the rinse waters.
Figure 15: COF roll-to-roll horizontal nickel/gold plater.
58
Walking Beam Operation
Walking Beam
The walking beam is one
of the simplest mechani-
zations schemes. A single,
solid beam on the edge of
a series of tanks “walks”
1. Start, timer time out, vertical lift 2. Top of lift, horizontal move
racks along the process
flow in a four-part se-
quence (Figure 16).
To start, the walking beam

bar returns to the load
position and lifts all the
4. End of drop, horizontal return, wait 3. End of move, drop racks as the timer ends.
On the top of the lift, the
Figure 16: Walking beam mechanism.
beam moves forward and
drops the rack into the next station. At the end of the drop, the beam waits until the cycle timer
tells it to return to the previous location. It then drops the racks into the next station. Once
again, the cycle timers tell the beam when to return to the previous location. Unfortunately, I
have not seen one of these machines since 1971. Pity–they are very efficient!
The drive mechanism can be electric motors or

pneumatic cylinders. Variations for plating tanks
have a powered-horizontal chain to move the rack
through the tanks until it get to a pick-up loca-
tion. The disadvantage is that there is only one
cycle time and tanks cannot be passed over.
Self-Operated Transporter
This transporter is self-operated or human-pow-
ered. It is moved from tank to tank by the opera-
tor, but provides muscle to lift heavy racks and
provides for their dripping (Figure 17).
Split-Rail Pusher
For a long time, the workhouse of surface finish-
ing was the split-rail pusher machine. This ma-
chine has a similar program cycle to the split-rail
Figure 17: Self-operated vertical-lift transporter. mechanism (Figures 18 and 19). The entire rail
59
Split-Rail Pusher Automatics
moves up and down, and forward and backward

through one station. All the while, it pushes the
racks along the rail.
The name “split-rail” comes from the fact that

the rail does not have to be one continuous rail,
but can be split into multiple rails that remain
in the down position for continuous immer-
Figure 18: A Side-Arm
split-rail pusher machine.
Return-Type Automatics
sions, such as electroplating. It is usually built
in one continuous tank/unit to save on costs.
Electric motors or pneumatic cylinders typi-
cally constitute the drive mechanisms.
Side-Arm
Like the pusher, the side-arm is a return type of
mechanism with individual arms for each rack
(Figure 20 and 21). This adds improved design
flexibility and additional flexibility that a sepa-
rate tank timer can raise any arm. These arms
can be electrified or motored, and are usually
Figure 19: An automatic split-rail pusher ready for driven by a motorized-chain mechanism.
shipment.
Like the split-rail pusher-type mechanism,
these are the historical workhorses of the metal
finishing industry. Additional references and
information can be found in Products Finishing
magazine or from the National Association for
Surface Finishing.
The programmed hoist mechanism is more

common in printed circuit manufacturing (Fig-
ures 22–28). Figure 22 shows the cantilevered
hoist, since the drive and other lift apparatus
are not over the working baths.
Figure 20: Side-arm return mechanism.
There are also other common commercial can-
tilevered process systems (Figures 23–25). Hoists have horizontal drive motors that position
the work racks at the center of the tank locations and lift/lower motors to pick up and drop the
work racks or baskets. Linear encoders, distance meters, switches, and other devices signal the
position of each process tank.
60
Figure 21: Side-arm return-type mechanisms.

Automated Hoists: Cantilevered
Figure 22: Illustration of a common cantilevered

hoist machine.
Figure 23: Illustration of cantilevered process system.
(Source: Technic Inc.)
Figure 24: Commercial cantilevered process system. (Source: Technic Inc.)
61
Figure 26: Gantry process automation system.
Figure 25: Commercial cantilevered process system.
Figure 27: Commercial overhead process systems.

Gantry/Overhead Hoist Some were sophisticated enough to jump over the
one in front of it.
The gantry or overhead hoist system is equally
as popular as the cantilevered system. Its ad-
vantages are that it can carry larger, heavier
racks over a longer reach. However, it has more
debris-generating mechanisms over the work-
ing process solutions (Figures 26 and 27). Drive,
programming, and control are identical to the
cantilevered systems.
These overhead systems allow for very conve-

nient automatic racking systems (Figure 28).
They can have multiple hoists on them and be
multiple columns (Figure 29).
Figure 28: Automatic racking and queuing system for

hoist line.
62
Stationary Rack Tank

Accessories
In advanced PCB production
using blind vias, it is now a re-
quirement that vias be plated
solid. This has created a num-
ber of new copper plating for-
mulations and modifications
to the plating cells to increase
agitation. In addition to air agi-
tation and work agitation, injec-
Figure 29: Hoist and tank systems. (Source: Technic Inc.) tors provide increased solution
agitation by added injectors to
plating cells (Figure 30).
Additional discussions of this topic are also

found in Chapter 10 of the HDI Handbook.
Commercially Available Hoists

The next two sections sections discuss putting
together your own automated system. The first
COMMERCIAL HOISTS illustrates commercially available program-
Adriot / Amsax model Standard stroke Minimum headroom mable hoists. These can be purchased and in-
ABH: up to 55 kg. (120 lbs.) 102 cm (40”) 229 cm (7’ 6”) tegrated into manual lines or you can plan the
ATH: up to 140 kg. (350 lbs.) 102 cm (40”) 312 cm (10’ 3”) system yourself.
AMH: up to 270 kg. (600 lbs.) 122 cm (48”) 345 cm (11’ 4”)
Figure 30: Side view of the spouted bed electrode (SBE)
OPH: up to 1000 kg. (2200 lbs.) 122 cm (48”) 345 cm (11’ 4”) The lift weight of five available models are
plater head used for vertical hoist systems. (Source:
shown here:
OTH: up to 5455 kg.
Technic Inc.)
(12000 lbs.) 152 cm (60”) 374 cm (12’ 3”)
COMMERCIAL HOISTS
Adriot / Amsax model Standard stroke Minimum headroom
ABH: up to 55 kg. (120 lbs.) 102 cm (40”) 229 cm (7’ 6”)

ABH ATH: up to 140 kg. (350 lbs.) 102 cm (40”) 312 cm (10’ 3”)
ALH AMH: up to 270 kg. (600 lbs.) 122 cm (48”) 345 cm (11’ 4”)
OPH: up to 1000 kg. (2200 lbs.) 122 cm (48”) 345 cm (11’ 4”)
OTH: up to 5455 kg. (12000 lbs.) 152 cm (60”) 374 cm (12’ 3”)
AMH
ABH
Figure 31: Line drawings of several cantilevered models
ALH
from Adroit Automation and Amsax Automation [7].
63
AMH
ndent
orters
Low-Cost Automatic Transporter
In 1974, one of HP’s nine prototype facilities developed
its own low-cost automatic panel transporter. Figure 32
shows the electroless copper processing line built over
the manual tanks. This transporter and frame only cost
about $7,000 to manufacture. The frame is welded two-
inch painted tubular steel, and the transporter is con-
structed out of high-strength aluminum tubing that is
also painted.
The system features two additional transporters (Fig-

ure 32). Each transporter is battery-powered and runs
Figure 32: Battery-powered independent autonomously. The controls for the system are basically
transporters for PCB panels built over
electromechanical.
manual processing tanks.
A timer at each process step controls the transporters.
Once the transporter arrives on station, it starts the timer for that process. When the timer
ends, the load is lifted and the transporter moves to the next process step. After being unloaded
at the end, the transporter is reversed and moved back to the load station by an operator. The
slightly larger electroplating process line transporter was arranged in an oval with the load
adjacent to the unload.
Transporter Details
The seven sketches in Figure 33 provide an overview of how to build the transporter and frame.
Each additional transporter is about $3,000. Being battery-powered, there are no high voltages,
electronics, or computers involved. It is a simple, rugged, reliable robotic transport system.
TRANSPORTER - Drive
Mechanical Assembly Transporter

Drive wheels
(polyurethane tread)
Simple chain
drive
12 V DC motor
low-speed
(worm gear box)
Top guide wheels

A Brake unit
Bottom guide wheel
Figure 33a: (a) Transporter drive, wheels, switches, and pulley (b) Another view of the transporter lift.
64
Figure 33a shows the transporter drive arrangement. A 12V DC motor with a self-actuat-
ed brake unit drives the transporter forward by a chain drive attached to two drive shafts.
These are the drive wheels that run on top of the 4x2-inch square steel channel. Two top
guide wheels and one bottom guide wheel keep everything aligned. This entire assembly is
behind the process tanks in a plastic shroud so no debris falls into any of the processes.
Figure 33b: (a) Transporter lift, drive, wheels, and pul-

ley. (b) Another view of the transporter lift.
Figure 33b details the transporters lift mechanism.

The 12V DC motor provides lift and drop for the
PCB load. The lifting bar is guided and pulled up
by a stainless steel cable that winds on a drum con-
nected to the motor. On the cable is a bobbin that
contacts a microswitch at full lift to kill power to
the lift. Gravity allows it to drop, and the motor
runs in reverse until the drop micro switch closes.
Figure 33c provides a close-up of the frame and

track for the transporter. The frame is 2-inch diam-
eter mild steel pipe and supports the two 4x2-inch
steel channels on which the transporter wheels
drive the transporter forward. The transporter
control box and the fixed timing control box are
Figure 33c: (a) Frame details. illustrated as well as the transporter alignment.
65
CONTROL SYSTEM
Control Box for Each Station
LID
Die Cast
Box
Electromagnet Electronic
Timer
(Variable)
Proximity
(reed)
C switch ‘B’
B
Direction of Transporter à
Reed A
Switch ‘E’
Signal to Transformer
Magnet
Figure 33c: (b) Transporter control box (left), and a static tank control box (right).
The manual transporter control box is mounted on each transporter (Figure 33c). It shows the
amount of the battery charge and has manual switches to raise and lower the load, and to move
the transporter in reverse back to its load station.
Figure 33d is a close-up of the fixed timing control box for each process tank. It consists of
an electronic or electromechanical timer, an electromagnet, and a magnetic reed switch. The
transporter includes a permanent magnet and a magnetic reed switch. The control sequence is
illustrated in Figure 33e and by the control diagram in Figure 33f.
Figure 33d: Two views of the static tank, control box,

eed switch, electromagnet, and timer controller.
66
Figure 33e shows the standard operation of the transporter in its automatic mode:
1. When the transporter first starts down the frame and encounters the first process tank,
the permanent magnet on the transporter will close reed switch A in the fixed control box.
2. This indicates the transporter is on station by activating the electromagnet that closes
reed switch B in the transporter and stops it. Also, the process timer will start and the trans-
porter will lower its load until its drop microswitch is closed. This will stop the drop motor.
3. When the process timer ends, it will cancel the electromagnet and the transporter will lift
the load until the lift microswitch is closed.
4. At the top of the lift, a delay timer allows for drip-off when the lift switch is closed. Then
the transporter moves forward and the cycle repeats itself at the next process control box
(repeat 1) until the unload station is approached and its proximity switch A is activated by
the permanent magnet. This turns on the electromagnet, the transporter stops, and an
alarm sounds as it lowers it load. The operator will manually bring the transporters back to
CONTROL SYSTEM - Running sequence
their loading position later.
Electromagnet Electromagnet-ON Electronic

Electronic
Timer Timer
Switch B Switch B
Magnet A A
Switch E Switch E
1. Start - horizontal run 2. On station - vertical drop

• Brings permanent magnet into line • This activates a proximity switch B which turns
with the control box. on the electromagnet and starts timer. The
electromagnet activates a proximity switch E in
the transporter which stops the transporter and
lowers the load until micro-switch is closed.
Electromagnet-OFF Timer
‘Times-out’
Electromagnet Electronic
Switch BB Timer
Switch BB
Magnet
Switch E
3. Time out – Lift

• When the timer times out it cancels the 4. Top of lift - horizontal run
electromagnet and the load is lifted.
• At top of lift limit switch, a delay timer allows drip-off and
then the transporter moves forward again (repeat 1).
X. Finish - last control box
• This activates a proximity switch A which switches on the electromagnet and starts alarm. The electromagnet activates a
proximity switch in the transporter which stops the transporter and lowers the load into a holding area.
Figure 33e: Running sequence of the control system.
67
CONTROL SYSTEM - Electrical Diagram
1. Station Control Box timer

Figure 33f illustrates the
24 V DC
proximity switch electrical diagram for this
+ r
A
24 V
electromagnet
type of system. It shows a
DC C1 C2 fixed process station control
- box with a timer, electromag-
2. Transporter Control net and proximity switch
12 V batteries
–RAISE PB
B, a transporter controller,
proximity
switch E upper lift limit SW and its manual control box.
drive motor
–FORWARD
–OFF
lower lift limit SW The transporter needs only
–REVERSE
a proximity switch E, upper
charger lift / lower motor
and lower limit switches,
meter
two drive motors, and two
manual move switches. A
complete electrical diagram
Figure 33f: An electrical diagram of a control system. is shown in Figure 33g.
Figure 33g: Entire control system’s electrical diagram.
68
Figure 34: Manual process tank line. (Source: Technic Inc.)
Figure 34 shows manual tanks suitable for use with a transporter. One implementation of a
transporter on an oval track was constructed using an overhead rail and is shown in Figure 35.
This process automation transporter is both simple and inexpensive. It is well within the skills
of most maintenance personnel from a small proto lab or quick-turn PCB facility to construct
and maintain them. Thus, it represents a major step in throughput automation and productiv-
ity. It is compatible with manual operations and does not interfere with the normal use and
maintenance of those processes. The next
logical step after implementing process au-
tomation is automatic process control.
Programming Hoists and Control

Systems
Programmed hoists, unlike vertical or hori-
zontal conveyorized systems, must have a
program called a timeway. The sequences
of tanks are laid out in a logical fashion, but
with multiple tanks for lengthier process im-
mersions (Figure 36.) Therefore, there is a
control system included as part of the unit.
The following diagrams show how a timeway
Figure 35: Oval tank system with a transporter using an
overhead rail. is created.
69
K J I H G F E D C B A
9 8 7 6 5 2 1
4 3
HOIST SUPERSTRUCTURE
DRAGOUT
DRAGOUT
DRAGOUT
DRAGOUT
UNLOAD
CLEAN
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
STRIP
PLATE
1-2 Ni
ETCH
LOAD
ACID
ACID
ACID
TIN
5-8 Cu PLATE 1-4 Cu PLATE
CATWALK
RECOVERY
REDUCE
UNLOAD
DESMEAR
PANEL METALLIZATION & PLATING LINE
CLEAN
SWELL
CLEAN
RINSE
RINSE
OXIDE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
RINSE
ETCH
LOAD
DRY
A = Cu Plating rectifier #1 I= Ni Plating rectifier #1
B = Cu Plating rectifier #2 J= Ni Plating rectifier #2
C = Cu Plating rectifier #3 K= Sn Plating rectifier #1
D = Cu Plating rectifier #4
E = Cu Plating rectifier #5 HOIST SUPERSTRUCTURE
F = Cu Plating rectifier #6
G = Cu Plating rectifier #7
H = Cu Plating rectifier #8 PANEL OXIDE & DESMEAR LINE
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
10 = Oxide reducer filter
PANEL METALLIZATION & PLATING LINE 11 = Oxide filter
1 = H2O2 etch pump 12 = Oxide pump
2 = Cu plating filter 13 = H2O2 etch pump
3 = Cu plating pump 14 = H2O2 etch filter
4 = Cu plating filter 15 = Permanganate filter
5 = Cu plating pump 16 = Organic swell pump
6 = Ni plating filter
PLATING ENGINEERING & CHEMICAL CO. LTD.
7 = Ni plating pump
Cu, Ni, Sn Plating Line & Desmear-Oxide Line
8 = Sn plating filter
Your Address, Your Town, USA
SIDE VIEW: TRANSPORTERS-TANKS-CATWALK & SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 9 = Sn plating pump DWG A-12345, Rev.1
PLATING CO, USA
Series B- DWG 1 of 10
Figure 36: Blueprint layout of dual-hoist line with top and side views.
Computer Control Systems

Most of today’s modern PCB hoist systems have a computer control system made up of eight
components as seen in Figure 37:
1. Flashback: Stores transporters' historical data and tracks flight bar activities.
2. Graphical Builder: Built-in user-defined graphics for water treatment plant,
material-handling systems, water purification or any number or type of side
equipment. This allows a very quick and easy visual check of your complete
installation.
3. TPP (Time Priority Program): Flexible mixing control, process and maximize
different processes sequence together running at the same time.
4. Timeway: Fixed and mixed limited processes can be run in the line at the
same time.
5. OSST server: Communicates with the PLC to control transporters and all
side equipment and continuously reads the status of the machine.
6. OSSTjwin: An HMI-optional client computer connects to OSST server over
an Ethernet network with full functionality.
70
Figure 37: Eight normal components of a computer hoist control system.

(Source: Process Automation International Ltd.)
7. OSSTlite: An optional software package that ran on Microsoft PDAs commu-

nicating wirelessly to client computers like OSSTjwin and OSST lite.
8. Remote access: Direct remote access through Internet or VPN through OS-
STjwin.
Operators Interface
The most important part of a hoist computer control system is the communication with the
operators. Graphic displays are the most common and provide the best feedback (Figure 38).
Database Scheduler
The database provides and retains: The scheduler selects timeways for:
• System properties • Fixed cycles
• Part number properties • Random cycles
• Processes and recipes • Random loads
• Reports • Predicted loads
• Network information
The hoist software minimizes payload overexposure to aggressive chemistry based on a hier-
archy of tank priorities. This allows non-sequential processing and leapfrogging one payload
ahead of others and improves it throughput. The software integrates all process line functions,
is more sophisticated and flexible than alternative concepts, and provides full process docu-
mentation. The program is designed for ease of use for both process engineers and operators in
a Windows format with the following features:
71
• Total process control, regardless of the number of stations or carriers

• Total speed control for any segment of travel
• Total control and integration of process-dependent I/O, both digital
and analog
• Total optimization of any process line for maintenance, engineering,
and management via intuitive menus with appropriate graphics
Figure 38: Operator graphic display and communication of hoist activities of pattern plating line status.
Hoist software is utilized in both side-arm (cantilevered) and overhead applications where it
directly controls servo drives, and serves as a graphical interface/scheduler for integration to
any major PLC for larger overhead applications. As a result, this controls the AC motor drives.
Whether used as a single package or integrated with a PLC, integrated hoist software allows a
much higher degree of user interface, including production tracking, process parameter moni-
toring, statistical process control, barcode operations, and custom database development/inte-
gration with the existing network.
72
Processing options include manual, fixed timeway, serial, random loading, and certified pro-
cessing. The method of sequences for timeways is seen in the next section.
Production Reports and Logs

End-of-shift production, end-of-production day, load reports, chemical and energy usage, part
numbers processed, and many other reports are usually available online and via the network
for production control, engineering, and operations (Figure 39).
Figure 39: Hoist line status report with operator inputs.
Interfaces and Drivers

This computer control system is based on AI Control AB of Nykoping, Sweden, and contains
equipment drivers for common programmable logic controllers:
• Allen Bradley (AB) • Delta
• ABB PLCs (Asea Brown Boveri) • General Electric
• Bosch • Hitachi
73
• Honeywell • Omron
• Mitsubishi • Siemens
• Modicon • Schneider Electric
It will also interface with common metal-finishing power supply controllers such as (Figure 40):
• American Plating Power • Dynapower

• Baker Technology Associates, Inc. • Dynatronix
• Chemring Plating Systems, Inc. • KraftPowercon
Figure 40: Rectifier control screen for hoist software.
74
Network Controller
The network control aspects of hoist software provide for the systemization, or system informa-
tion, as defined in the last section of this chapter. Using the network, it can be run from any cli-
ent without installation. It normally has an open structure for client access and customization.
Other features allow it to connect to automatic chemical analyzers, dosing and replenishment
of critical chemicals, maintenance information, and trouble alarms. This flexibility makes pro-
grammable hoists popular, but many of these computer features can be adapted to the fixed
automatics and walking beam machines introduced in the first part of this chapter. Once the
computer is introduced, even fixed machines can have the intelligent control to allow for more
flexible options. Thus, this type of software can easily be adapted for their use.
Hoist Timeways
Creating a timeway starts with calculating the minimum practical cycle time (CT). This is equal
to:
• The line length the hoist must travel times five
• Divided by the average hoist velocity
• Plus the time of the number of lifts and drops
• Plus any waits or drip-off times
For example, the minimum cycle time will be 11.5 minutes for a 72.9-foot line (22.22 meters)
with 25 process tanks plus load/unload and a total of one-minute drip-off waits.
CT(min) = line length (ft) x 5 + # lifts x @ sec + # drops x @ sec

+ waits velocity of hoist (ft/min) 60 sec/min 60 sec/min
CT(min) = 72.9 (ft) x 5 + 26 x 7.5 sec (min) + 26 x 7.5 sec (min)

+ 1 min = 11.5 minutes 90 (ft/min) 60 sec 60 sec
A cycle time can never be shorter than the longest immersion time. This is the reason for multi-
ple tank positions. Calculated from the longest process time divided by the cycle time, the result
is rounded up. This determines the number of tank positions for that process. For a 60-minute
immersion in copper plating, this would be: 60 min / 11.5 min = 6 tank positions representing
each position visited during one cycle of the machine.
75
Creating a Timeway
On graph paper, draw the vertical axis as a scale of the tank-to-tank center distances.
(1 mm = .04 inch). The horizontal axis is the minimum cycle time (1mm = 1 sec.).
Starting at the load station, walk a load through the entire process sequence. Mark the time to
lift and lower, and the optimum immersion time. When the end of the paper is encountered, go
back to zero time on the same tank and continue until the entire process is completed. Remem-
ber to carry over remaining time. An example is seen in Figure 41.
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3
4
Figure 41: The first step in a timeway is to create a scale of tank-to-tank distances and a timeline.
Next, walk the hoist through the process using the scale.
The hoist cannot be in two places at the same time. Go back and adjust lifts and lowers so that
the hoist can carry out all the actions (Figure 42).
Direction of adjustment is based on:
1. Space available in either direction
2. Immersion time range
3. Priority
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4
Adjusts
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 42: Lengthening or shortening immersion times adjusts hoist position conflicts.
The resulting compromises look like the second timeway.
76
Adjust the most flexible and lowest priority tank, such as a water rinse. Also, connect hoist
movements to make it a continuous flow (Figure 43).
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 43: Connected hoist movements form a continuous path, which enables the timeway.
Check all results for the following:

1. Correct immersion times
2. All drips and waits included with correct times
3. Hoist alternately lifts and drops (↑↓)
One could easily make the mistake of not alternating, which could result in the hoist crashing.
Further, document all data by noting:

1. Cycle time
2. Timer settings (waits, delays, or drips)
3. Flight bar positions (all the tank locations where the last vertical move
ment occurred before the cycle end was a drop)
Automation Justification
This section will help you understand the financial calculations that justify automation. Figure
44 recaps some of the mechanized systems presented in this chapter from battery-powered
transporters to return side-arm systems as a function of their output per year in panels (assum-
ing a five-day, two-shift basis).
77
Figure 44: Prices versus various mechanization systems output in panels per year.
Interest Formulas
Common practice in automation justification involves calculating the rate of return or the net
present value (NPV) of the cash flows associated with implementing automation. These in-
clude:
• All purchases of equipment
• Installation
• Taxes (depreciation)
• Water treatment savings
• Operating costs against labor savings
• Yield improvements by not installing automation
78
The interest formulas for these calculations are seen in Figure 45 [8]. There are six described
formulas:
1. Single-payment compound-amount factor (caf’)
• FV based on the PV
2. Single-payment present-worth factor (pwf’)
• PV based on the FV
3. Series sinking fund factor (sff)
• Series payment (PMT) based on the FV
4. Series compound recovery factor (crf)
• Series payment (PMT) based on the PV
5. Series compound amount factor (caf)
• FV based on the payments
6. Series present worth factor (pwf)
• PV based on the series of payments
Key
i = Interest rate per
period
n = Number of inter-
est periods
PV = Present value
of money
FV = Future value of
money
PMT = End of period
payment
Figure 45: Interest formulas for FV, PV, and PMT [8].
79
You can see how all of these financial formulas are related in the example in Figure 46.
Example
1. If one starts with $1,000 and wants to know what it is worth after 10 years
with an interest rate of 6% per year, use the caf’ equation: (caf’-6%-10). The FV
is $1,791.
2. If one wants to know what that FV would be if it was withdrawn six years
early, use pwf’: (pwf’-6%-6). The PV is $1,263.
3. What PV would it take 7 years earlier to get this $1,263? Again, use pwf’:
(pwf’-6%-7). A PV of $840 would be required.
4. If one took the $840 and invested it over 10 years, what payments would
be received at 6% interest? Use the crf equation (crf-6%-10). A PMT of $114 per
period.
5. If instead payments of $114 were made per period for 10 years, what
would be the current worth? Use the caf equation (caf-6%-10). The FV is
$1,504.
6. What annual payment is required to get $1,504 over 7 years? Use the sff
equation (sff-6%-7). The PMT would be $179 per year.
7. What present value would $179 in interest income at 6% give over 7 years?
Use pwf (pwf-6%-7). The PV is $1,000, the same amount from the first step.
Automation ROI
The classical trade-off is between the purchase of an automated system and its advantages, and
the continued increase in direct labor. However, quality, process yields, and wastewater treat-
ment costs also enter into the calculation. Return on investment (ROI) is the calculation of the
equivalent interest rate of the money invested based on the cash flows over the useful life of the
equipment.
Example
A copper/tin pattern plating line with rack strip purchased at a cost of $400,000
plus $15,000 installation with an eight-year operating life and a five-year depre-
ciation would result in the following:
• Capacity: 500 18” x 24" (450 x 600 mm) panels per shift
• Load: two rows of four panels
• Individual process steps: Load, microetch, water rinse twice, sulfuric acid,
copper plate, dragout rinse, water rinse, fluoroboric acid, tin, dragout rinse,
water rinse, dry, unload, rack strip, dragout rinse, water rinse, and load.
80
Interest Formulas: Cash Flows

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
n=10 years FV=$1791 caf'

PV=$1000 FV=PV(caf'-6%-10)=$1791
pwf'
n=6 FV=$1791
PV=$1263 PV=FV(pwf'-6%-6)=$1263
n=7 FV=$1263
PV=$840 PV=FV(pwf'-6%-7)=$840 pwf'

crf
pmt=$114/yr
PV=$840 n=10 pmt=PV(crf-6%-10)=$114
FV=pmt(caf-6%-10)=$1504 FV=$1504
n=10
pmt=$114/yr caf
pmt=FV(sff-6%-7)=$179/yr FV=$1504
n=7
sff
pwf
pmt=$179/yr
PV=$1000
PV=pmt(pwf-6%-7)=$1000 n=7
Figure 46: Seven financial calculations involving $1,000 at 6% interest.
Figure 47: ROI payback worksheet.
81
Automation Return On Investment

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8
($415,000.00) $46,764.80 $163,873.60 $177,251.92 $191,363.39 $206,246.59 $288,342.10 $304,892.58 $322,342.87
PV=$415,000 n=8 PMT = PV(crf-?%-8) = cash flows PMT = cash flows/year
Figure 48: Cash flows for plating investment.
The equivalent interest rate that could be earned on the investment of $400,000 + $15,000 in-
stallation and startup is 35% interest, which is the ROI (Figures 47 and 48).
These tradeoffs can be seen in Figure 49 with a calculated cost comparison between manual pro-
duction for electroless copper and electroplating copper/tin versus four automation strategies.
Figure 49: (a) Electroless copper curves of manual versus automatic cost per square foot
(b) Electroplating copper/tin curves of manual versus automatic cost per square foot [2].
82
1. Holden, H., Plating Automation Comes to Printed Circuits, Plating and

Surface Finishing, October, 1974.
2. Holden, H., Justifying Process Automation, NEPCON, Anaheim, California,
May 1972.
3. Holden, H., HDI Handbook, BR Publishing Inc., January 2009
4. Lymn, Peter, & Bishop, Ken, An Innovation in Horizontal Processing (Part
1), Journal of the Institute of Circuit Technology, vol. 2, no. 4, October
2009, pp. 6–8.
5. Flint, Len, & Bishop, Ken, “An Innovation in Horizontal Processing (Part 2),”
Journal of the Institute of Circuit Technology, vol. 3, no. 1, January 2010,
pp. 8–12.
6. Cemco FSL Ltd.
7. Adroit Automation Inc. and Amsax Technologies Inc.
8. Ireson, Grant, “Engineering Economics,” McGraw-Hill Publishing.
9. Holden, H., “A Modern CIM PCB Facility,” HP CIM Symposium, Singapore, 1988.
83
CHAPTER 4
84
Chemical Monitoring
and Control
This chapter introduces production management and technical personnel approaches to low-
cost methods of monitoring and controlling chemical processes used in PWB fabrication, chem-
ical coatings, chemical machining, sensor manufacturing, and electroplating/electroforming.
These include techniques such as specific gravity, which costs as little as $30, through ion-spe-
cific electrodes, color-wheel comparators, like pool chemistry chlorine analysis, and battery-
powered spectrophotometers, which run only a few hundred dollars. These techniques can be
taught and used by production personnel. Further, since a formal lab is not required, labs can use
these techniques to increase productivity and the number of chemistries controlled. The chap-
ter concludes with automatic analyzers and controllers, and a short overview of control theory.
Importance of Control
Automatic chemical solution control (ACSC) has become essential for modern high-speed,
high-performance processes used in PWB fabrication. Its contributions are found in both qual-
ity control and process control. To help understand the basics of ACSC, five general areas will
be introduced:
1. Where is it used?
2. What sensors are used?
3. What can be analyzed?
4. A typical system
5. Control dynamics
Where is it used?
Automated and batch chemical monitoring provide a myriad of advantages, some of which are
listed here:
• Forecast problems • Reduce human error
• Process control/SPC • Enhance end product reliability
• Automatic additive dosing • Tighten operating window
• Maintain robust processes • Reduce cost and quantity of additives
• Identify process problems
85
Quality by Monitoring the Process

The emphasis on quality is one of the central themes of Survival is Not Mandatory by Steven
Williams, a free e-Book available from I-Connect007. Monitoring the process to provide real-
time data is an important element of quality manufacturing, including these other changes:
• Change in philosophy: emphasis changes from production to quality
• Change in focus: solve problems at the point they occur
• Use of statistics: use techniques to establish how consistent, predictable,
and repeatable the process is
• Change in responsibility: manufacturing gains deeper sense of responsi-
bility for quality
• Change in attitude: cross-functional teams work together to identify
problem causes
• Ongoing improvements: increase in process knowledge leads to continu-
ous improvement in process capability
86
Chemical Monitoring and Control
Figure 1: Basic chemical process control loop and activities.
Basic Chemical Process Control

The basic chemical process control loop is shown in Figure 1. The process (in this case,
an etcher or developer) is monitored by a sensor in the equipment. This provides a sig-
nal to a measuring unit that has an appropriate setpoint. Any deviation from the set-
point instigates a response from the replenishment pump or valve that restores the pro-
cess to its proper state. The activity (in parentheses) shows the actions and their timing.
Modern High-Speed Processes

There are many critical processes in manufacturing high-density HDI boards (Figure
2). Figure 2a shows the electroless copper deposition rate as a function of the copper con-
centration. Figure 2b is the time to etch 1 ounce of copper as a function of the copper con-
centration in the ammoniacal etchant. For example, this could include the plating of HDI
microvias. Figure 3 shows a parameter influence chart for a modern high-throw acid copper-
plating bath. As key parameter characteristics increase, it has various effects on the charac-
teristics of the copper plating. Of course, many of these parameters have interactive effects.
87
This is where statistical tools come into play. Other PWB high-speed processes include:
• Oxide treatments
• Epoxy smear removals
• Thick/high-speed electroless coppers
• High-speed electroplating
• Photoresist developing and stripping
• Uniform straight-wall etching
• Water conditioning and cleaning
Figure 2: (left) Electroless copper deposition rate as a function of the copper concentration and
(right) time to etch 1 ounce of copper as a function of the copper concentration in the ammoniacal etchant.
Figure 3. The copper

plating characteristics
are influenced by the key
parameters of the process.
The various characteristics
change when the key
parameters are increased.
(Source: Electrochemicals)
88
Figure 4: The surface distribution variations as a result of the impact

of various plating parameters. (Source: CVS Inc.)
Figure 4 shows the surface distribution variations of copper plating as a result of the impact of
various plating parameters with relative ratings from 0-10.
What Sensors are Used?

This chapter is about chemical sensors and measurements, which includes automatic control-
lers. A further tutorial on sensors is available from National Instruments [1].
There are various methods available for solution analysis:

• Estimated depletion
• Manual titration
• Other visual indicators
• Instruments with sensors
• Automatic systems
89
Basic Sensors
Although there can be many types of sensors, the primary sensors can be broken down into the
following categories:
1. Wet chemistry 4. Electrochemical
2. Temperature 5. Specific gravity
3. Volume/count 6. Colorimetric
These sensors are found in many locations: on process lines and equipment, in laboratories, on
automatic equipment, hand-carried by operators or engineers, and buried in plant facilities.
Visual Methods
Visual methods have existed for many years. Unfortunately, they can be very subjective. Even
hull cells, which are quite technical, require interpretation. Other visual indicators can be pH
test strips or what the product looks like. Figure 5 shows a hull cell apparatus and finished hull
cells.
Figure 5: Hull cell visual method with apparatus on the left and completed hull cell
panels on the right for acid tin, acid copper, hard gold, and electrodeposited nickel.
90
Wet Chemistry
Wet chemical titrations are very common for chemical control and analysis (Figure 6). This is
a chemical titration looking for a particular endpoint. The volume of reagents will be the analy-
sis. In a later section, these will be automated into automatic titrators and controllers.
Figure 6: Titration by manual or automatic means is the oldest and

most accurate method, although very time consuming.
Temperature
Temperature measurements are the most common sensors in manufacturing today. Sensors
typically fall into one of the following six sensor types:
1. Gas/liquid volume (thermometer) 4. Thermistor
2. Bi-metal strip 5. Solid state (diode or transistor)
3. Thermocouple 6. Radiation (infrared)
The majority of the time, these sensors are connected to a controller and a corrective action,
either heat or cooling, is initiated immediately.
91
Volume/Part Count
With a relatively constant volume of work, all that is required to maintain chemical concentra-
tions is a system of counting panels going through the stripper or etcher. Sensing panel width
can be added to refine the additions (dosing). The simplest physical sensors are (Figure 7):
• Contact
• Non-contact
• Proximity
• Photoelectric
Figure 7: Non-contact switches, (a) photoelectric and (b) proximity.
Electrochemical
Electrochemical sensors are some of the most versatile, but also some of the most complicated
to understand. Thus, other than pH, electrochemical sensors are often underutilized in manu-
facturing. The five major types are:
• Conductivity
• Hydrogen ion activity (pH)
• Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
• Specific ion activity
• Voltammetric (polarographic)
92
Table 1: Electrochemical sensors and applicability.
Conductivity
Conductivity sensors will measure the amount of total dissolved solids in an electrolyte. It is
common to use them when the concentration of a known salt, base, or acid must be determined.
The concentration of these solution will vary the resistance of the solution, or the inverse of
resistance, conductance. The conductivity sensor usually measures in mhos per centimeter
(reciprocal of ohm-centimeters). Lower conductivity ranges of 0.01 to 100,000 microohms per
centimeter are used for water purity, such as boilers, chillers, or deionized water. Higher con-
centrations of electrolytes (50–1,000 milliohms per centimeter) use electroless probes to avoid
polarization effects of electrolysis (Figure 8).
Figure 8: (a) Conductivity of NaCl and H2SO4 and

(b) Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) neutralization of a strong acid with a strong base.
93
Table 2: Definition of pH for common solutions.
Hydrogen Ion Activity

Hydrogen ion activity, or potential hydrogen (pH), is one of the oldest indicators for chemical
activity. This may be because so many things in nature are sensitive to acidity and alkalinity,
and the indicators change color. Table 2 shows the definition of pH in terms of the hydrogen
ion concentration in grams per liter (g/l) and common solutions. The pH value is the negative
power of the concentration in grams per liter [2].
The actual measurement of pH is more complex. The measurement is based on the surface
characteristics of pH sensitive glass. A gelatinous layer forms on both surfaces of a thin glass
bubble in contact with water. A charge is generated within the gelatinous layer directly propor-
tional to the pH of the water and equal to 0.059 v/pH unit. If the water on both sides of the glass
has the same pH, the net potential difference is zero. Figure 9 shows how pH is measured with
a glass probe, and its effect is seen in Figure 8b.
Inside the bulb, the electrical connection from the preamplifier is first made into the silver wire
core of a silver chloride half cell. This provides an efficient contact with the potassium chloride
filling solution and the gelatinous layers to transmit the electrical potential.
The electrical contact between the preamplifier and the gelatinous layer on the outside of the
94
bulb, which is in contact with the sample

stream, follows a more circuitous route.
This half cell must provide an unchanging
contact with the solution by keeping the
concentration of silver and chloride ions
constant. This cell is placed in a separate
reference chamber where a liquid junction
electrically connects the chamber to the
sample stream. The latter completes the
circuit to the gelatinous layer on the outside
of the bulb.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential
Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) mea-
surements, also known as redox, determine
the oxidizing or reducing properties of a
chemical reaction. By definition, a reduc-
tion is the opposite of oxidation. There can
be no oxidation without an attending reduc-
tion. For example, a ferrous ion may lose an
electron and be come a ferric ion (gaining
increased positive charge) if a reduction of
cupric to cuprous ions (which is the reverse
Figure 9: How pH is measured. of this operation) occurs at the same time.
As a sensor in automatic controllers, ORP/redox are used to control the oxidizer in ferric chloride,
cupric chloride, and hydrogen peroxide/sulfuric acid etching. They are also used to measure the
Au(III) to Au(I) in gold tab plating, and the copper activity in electroless copper baths [3].
Specific Ion Activity

In “Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control,” Norman A. Anderson [4] noted,
“Certain applications require that the activity of a particular ion in solution be measured. This
can be accomplished with an electrode designed to be sensitive to a particular ion whose con-
centration is being measured. These electrodes are similar in appearance to those employed to
measure pH, but are constructed of glass-membrane electrodes, solid-membrane electrodes,
liquid ion-exchange membrane electrodes, and silicone rubber impregnated electrodes.”
The reference electrode is the same as that used for pH. The electrode output is read on a high
impedance voltmeter very similar to that used with pH electrodes [5].
95
Many applications are possible using ion-selective techniques. In printed circuits, measure-
ments are made of copper and chloride in acid sulfate plating baths, lead and fluoroborate in
tin-lead fluoroborate plating solutions, cyanide (ductility promoter) in electroless copper so-
lutions, permanganate in desmear/etchback solutions, chromic acid in epoxy smear removal,
and the sulfate in nickel sulfate plating solutions for tab plating [6].
Table 3: List of ions sensed by specific electrodes.
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Specific Gravity
Specific gravity (SG) is my favorite sensor. Since most of the PCB manufacturing processes are
aqueous, the dissolved chemicals raise the SG of all the solutions. Even diluted acidic solutions
have a discernable SG from 1.00 (water) to 1.29 (500 grams/liter sulfuric acid). Other solutions,
like alkaline ammonium chloride copper etching, have a very pronounced SG that varies from
15–25 grams per liter. At 25 g/l, it etches 1-ounce copper in 34 seconds.
There are six major SG sensors (Table 4):
Table 4: Types of SG sensors.
The curves in Figure 10 showing sulfuric acid, acid copper, and hydrochloric acid are normal
for SG sensitivity.
Figure 10: Specific gravity of various weight concentrations of sulfuric acid, copper sulfate, and hydrochloric acid.
97
Hydrometer
Simple hydrometers are inexpensive and easy to procure. Figure 11 shows the various hydrom-
eters that can be purchased with a range of 0.600–2.00 in divisions as little as 0.0005 units.
Figure 11: Overview of 48 different ranges of commercial hydrometers.
Figure 12: A custom specific gravity sensor built from a liquid level switch
that works based on the principle of displaced volume versus buoyancy force.
98
Displacer
Displacers, or hydrometers, work by having a constant weight but vary the displaced volume
until they reach equilibrium (Figure 12). This is a home-built displacer that can be used in
any manufacturing process with an SG of 0.8–1.5. Its range can be adjusted to a full scale of
0.02–0.20 using the 50-turn plastic nut on the displacer. That is equivalent to -36–46.4° Baumé
with a span of 1.4– 24.2° Baumé. This gives it an effective sensitivity of 0.0004-0.004 units.
This is an unusual displacer because it is completely immersed in liquid, so the displaced

volume is constant. It works based on the principle that as you move the nut in or out, the
fulcrum force from gravity changes. However, the displaced volume never changes. There-
fore, the buoyancy force never changes because it acts on the center of displaced mass
and allows only the change in SG to change the buoyancy force. The calibration chart
for this displacer is seen in Figure 13. A commercial plastic level switch is the basic unit.
The end is removed and a six-inch plastic rod is inserted. The calibration chart deter-
mines the plastic-nut diameter that screws on the end, and the depth that the rod drills out.
Figure 13: The design-operating curves for the SG displacer sensor shown in Figure 12. The drill depth and nut
diameter can be determined from the operating point (x-axis) and the SG span (y-axis).
99
A similar SG sensor works based on the principle of fixed volume but variable weight. Here, the
weight is attached to the fixed volume and the wall of a vessel. The volume is totally immersed,
so to reach equilibrium, the volume will go up or down with respect to the anchor point until the
weight is balanced by buoyancy.
Hydrostatic Head
The hydrostatic head SG sensor works based on the principle of different differential pres-
sure from a fixed height of the measured fluid versus a fixed height of water (Figure 14a).
Weight of Fixed Volume

A novel application of the classical hydrometer is the fully-immersed volume with a variable
weight. The weight is beads of titanium attached to both the sidewall and the fixed volume
(Figure 14b). To reach equilibrium, the volume will rise and fall, collecting or detaching differ-
ent weights depending on the fluid’s SG. A LVDT measures the height of the volume to provide
electrical feedback.
Figure 14: (a) Hydrostatic head SG sensor (b) A LVDT constant-volume variable-weight SG sensor.
100
Example
Hydrogen peroxide-sulfuric acid etchant curves demonstrate the usefulness of SG measure-
ments (Figure 15). By measuring the temperature of the solution and the SG, both the copper
sulfate and the sulfuric acid concentrations can be determined.
Figure 15: A solution concentration determination example using only

the temperature and SG of the hydrogen peroxide-sulfuric acid etchant.
Colorimetric
Colorimetric sensors have increased in popularity. There are five major sensor types:
1. Color indicators
2. Reagents with color indicators
3. Reagents with color wheels
4. Colorimeters
5. Photometers
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Color Indicators
There are a large number of color indicators in the form of treated papers. Of these, pH is the
most familiar, but color indicators also exist for metal concentrations, chlorides, and sulfates
(Figure 16).
Figure 16: Color indicator techniques with a color vial and an easy-to-use color wheel.
Reagents with Color Indicators

Most often, colorimetric techniques use specific reagents to develop a particular color. The
intensity of this color can be correlated to concentrations in grams per liter. A very common
example of this is the determination of chlorine in pools.
102
Figure 17: Color comparisons for analysis by time, sensitivity, and cost per test.
Reagents with Color Wheels

A variation of the color indi-
cator is the color wheel. Both
of these techniques are illus-
trated in Figure 16. This also
contains a photograph of a
color indicator vial and a col-
or wheel. Figure 17 summa-
rizes three methods of color
comparisons for analysis.
Some automation is avail-

able to read color strips. The
Reflectoquant is a colorim-
eter that reads color strips
(Figure 18). Figure 18: Reflectoquant is a colorimeter that reads color indicator strips.
103
Figure 19: Examples of common UV-Visible spectrophotometers available from laboratory supply companies.
(Sources: Hach, Thermo Scientific, and TN Lab Supply)
Colorimetric Photometers
Colorimetric photometers are the final category of sensors. These devices are much more ac-
curate than the rest, because the human eye is replaced with a wavelength-specific, electronic
photo sensor. Using a calibration solution, these units can be adjusted to a specific wavelength
and their readout can be calibrated. The concentration can be accurately determined when
used on an unknown. Six common UV-Vis spectrophotometers, sensitive from 340 nm to 1000
nm, are shown in Figure 19.
Photometers are relatively easy devices to build. Most metal-bearing solutions absorb the vis-
ible light spectrum. To measure the chemical concentration, single beam and dual beam color-
imeters are used. Figure 20 shows two diagrams of a single-beam and dual-beam photometer.
I have built examples of both of these units when I needed a number of measuring systems.
The first is a dual-beam with a flow-through cell. A peristaltic pump delivers the sample to
the unit and returns it to the process. The light source is usually incandescent (like an au-
tomobile turn lamp), and the photo sensors are cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, sili-
104
Figure 20: Schematics of self-built photometers, a dual-beam unit with flow-through cell, and a single-beam unit [8].
con photodiode (like a LED lamp), and silicon phototransistor. The optical filters are avail-
able in all wavelengths from 180–820 nm, with band passes down to 10 angstroms [7]. These
allow only those wavelengths of the chemical being measured through to the photo sensor.
The electronics are simple because of the availability of integrated microcontroller units (like
the PIC series) with A/D converters, timers, and analog/digital outputs for only $50 in single
units. They program in BASIC using a notebook computer as the compiler and development
environment. The training unit/development kit I have is designed for 14-year-olds and up!
The second diagram is a single-beam photometer. However, it uses fiberoptic cables to take the
sensor head right into the process, whether it is a tank, sump, or pipe. The colorimeter is used to
analyze for copper in electroless copper, acid copper plating, persulfate etching, and hydrogen
peroxide-sulfuric acid.
105
As shown above, DIY spectrophotometers are very common now on the internet and are being
built by middle and high school students. The simple colorimeters can be built using specific
wavelength LEDs or a grating made from any CD. The detector can be a common cellphone
camera or specific cameras purchased for the Raspberry PI or Arduino. Illustrated is the popu-
lar LEGO spectrophotometer kit, currently available at publiclab.org.
Intermediate Sensors and Devices

The intermediate sensors and devices are:
• Spectrophotometers
• Amperes-hour
Spectrophotometers
Spectrophotometers are the most common of the spectrometric sensors. These instruments
have the advantage of working over a large spectral range from 190–1100 nm and working with
concentration units like grams per liter. The most common spectrometric sensors (also known
as electromagnetic radiant energy sensors) include visible light colorimeters, ultraviolet-visi-
ble light spectrophotometers, and infrared spectrophotometers. Only the first two are routinely
used in printed circuits analysis.
106
The spectrophotometer is used to analyze for copper in electroless copper, acid sulfate plating,
hydrogen peroxide-sulfuric acid etching. It is also used to analyze nickel, cobalt, palladium, and
chromium in plating baths.
Ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometers (UV-VIS) are now being employed because of their mi-
croprocessor control units. By selectively scanning wavelengths and using the first and second
derivatives of the absorbance curves, these spectra can be compared to stored spectra and con-
centrations can be automatically calculated. Many of the units can directly control replenish-
ment and sampling.
This analysis can be used to determine the Au(I) and Au(III) in gold plating baths including
proprietary additives, nickel, impurities in a Watts nickel bath for finger plating, and various
copper analysis.
Diode-Array Spectrophotometer
A unique and new technology of UV-VIS is the diode-array spectrophotometer (DAS). First
developed by HP in 1980, it revolutionized spectrophotometers because it had no moving parts.
Instead of a fixed photo sensor and mobile holographic grating, which would take 10–20 min-
utes to scan through the spectrum, the DAS had a fixed holographic grating and a 1024-element
array of photodiodes. It only takes a few milliseconds to scan the spectrum off the photodiodes.
These diode-array spectrometers work at 190–1100 nm in a few milliseconds, thus making then
suitable for kinetic studies and sensors for liquid chromatography. A diagram of the principle is
shown in Figure 21. The new classes of UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometers are controlled by mi-
croprocessors and can be programmed for a large variety of analyses. The Agilent 8453 series
is typical of these new machines.
Figure 21: Diode array spectrophotometer.
107
Figure 22: Three generations of the DAS: the HP8450A, HP8452a, and Agilent 8453E.
There have been three generations of 845X DAS from HP and Agilent (Figure 22). The first gen-
eration, HP8450A, was a research unit with five cells and sensitivity of 200–780 nm. The second
generation, HP8452A, had a range of 190–820 nm with 2-nm resolution. The third and most
recent generation, Agilent’s 8453E, is the cheapest, smallest, and smartest. It is also the most
sensitive with a range of 180–1100 nm with a 1-nm EP resolution and a full-range scan speed of
1.5 milliseconds.
Other advantages of this technology include:

• Extremely fast spectral measurements
• Matrix multi-component analysis
• Full/partial spectra wavelength lists
• Up to 12 components
• Statistical weighting
• Complex functions
• Full decision making capability
• Wide range of digital communications
Examples of the versatility of DAS for PCB plating chemistries are shown in Figures 23–25,
which depict the spectrum of the additives in a nickel plating bath. In addition to the organic
108
Figure 23: DAS UV-VIS spectra of nickel-plating bath Figure 24: DAS UV-VIS spectra of nickel-plating bath
concentration [10]. components [10].
additives, the UV-VIS can also determine the
total amount of organic breakdown products.
At a higher wavelength, approximately 700–
750 nm, the sensitivity to nickel in grams per
liter is about +/- 0.2. In total, seven different
concentrations could be determined in a few
seconds:
• Saccharin and derivatives
• Component grain refiner
• Nickel
• PH
Figure 25: DAS UV-VIS spectra of palladium in the
• Boric acid electroless copper line [11].
• Chloride
• Impurities
Other similar results are available for copper and tin-plating baths as well. Table 5 compares
UV-VIS to manual titration and AA analysis, both of which are lengthy procedures [9].
Ampere-Hour Meters
Every plating bath should have a current-time totalizer. Many of the plating components are
consumed in direct proportion to the total current plated. The ampere-hour meter is a voltage-
to-frequency (V-F) converter working off of a 50-mv DC current shunt in series with the plating
bath and DC power supply. Electronic, microcontroller, or electromechanical totalizers can be
109
Table 5: DAS UV-VIS spectrophotometric readings vs. manual titration and atomic absorption analysis [10].
used as readouts and controllers to replenish chemicals. These devices are easy to construct or
buy with just a few dollars in integrated circuits. Figure 26 shows two of the units and a sche-
matic of the V-F converter, which accumulates the total DC current used for the amount of time
used as ampere-hours. It can also automatically replenish a chemical based on the current time
setpoint. The integral pump runs for a set number of seconds (2.3 ml per sec) if energized and
can be calibrated for any size power supply using a 50-mV shunt.
Advanced Sensors and Systems

Advanced systems are complex analytical instruments. They have been developed over the last
40 years to provide more sensitive measurements.
110
Figure 26: Ampere-hour meters can be constructed into ampere-hour or ampere-minute

time totalizers for bath analyses or additions. (Source: MesaWest Inc.)
The list of the following seven systems is not complete, but it represents their use in PCB manu-
facturing:
• Electro-analytical (voltammetric)
• Liquid chromatagraph
• Ion chromatagraph
• Gas chromatagraph
• Atomic absorption (AA)
• Combination/miscellaneous (nuclear)
• ChemFET/ChemResistors
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Electro-Analytical (Voltametric) Techniques

Voltametric techniques have come a long way in the last 20 years. These analytical instruments
are some of the hardest to understand, but also some of the most useful. However, voltametric
techniques are often underutilized in manufacturing. Below are the most popular types:
• Voltammogram (square wave voltammetry)
• Polarography
• Differential pulse polarography (DPP)
• Cyclic voltammetric stripping (CVS)
• Sequential elect reduction analysis (SERA)
First, some definitions:

• Voltammetry: measurement of current as a function of potential
• Polarography: voltammetry at the dropping mercury electrode
• Potential (voltage): forces species in solution to lose or gain electrons, such
as an oxide or reducer (measured versus reference electrode)
• Current: measure of electron flow and is proportional to concentration in
voltammetry (faradaic current)
Voltammogram (Squarewave Voltammetry)

To perform a typical plating bath analysis, a small volume of sample solution (10-100 micro-
liters) is added to a test cell containing 10 milliliters of a supporting electrolyte solution and
three specialized test electrodes. Instrumentation controls the electrical potential of the work-
ing electrode with respect to the reference electrode. If, as a result of the applied potential,
components of the test solution are reduced or oxidized, a current will be measured between
the working electrode and the counter electrode.
When the appropriate method is applied, different bath components are oxidized or reduced
and the current response is proportional to the concentration of the substance being oxidized
or reduced. The concentration of a given component is determined by comparing the sam-
ple response to that of one or more standard solutions of known concentration. Multi-compo-
nent analysis scans the applied potential while recording the current responses of the sample.
Voltammetric methods that employ a continuously renewed mercury drop are formally classi-
fied as polarography [12].
112
Employing scanning or pulse potentials in voltammetry can determine copper and formalde-
hyde in electroless copper, gold (I) and gold (III) in gold baths, nickel and cobalt levels in hard
gold deposits, and tin, lead, sulfonic acid, and proprietary additives in solder plating baths.
Polarography
Polarography is an electrochemical technique that uses an applied potential to cause the oxi-
dation or reduction of an electroactive species at an electrode surface. The instrument has a
dynamic working range and can determine both metals and organics.
1. Advantages
• Ease of use
• Wide range of applications
• Little to no sample preparation
• Versatility
• Sensitivity
2. Disadvantages
• Additional methods must be developed
• Breakdown products not detectable
Differential Pulse Polarography

Differential pulse polarography (DPP) determines concentrations of species by measuring lim-
iting current. Limiting current is determined by the concentration in a solution. However, new
methods are sometimes difficult to create and breakdown products are not detectable.
The basic components of a DPP are:

• Reference electrode
• Working electrode
• Counter electrode
• Analytical cell
• Potentiostat
• Current measurement device
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Figure 27: CVS system for plating bath analysis with optional sampler handler (voltammetric cell,
microprocessor-based electronic unit, and optional X-Y chart recorder).
Cyclic Voltammetric Stripping

Cyclic voltammetric stripping (CVS) is an electrochemical technique using an applied potential
to cause the oxidation or reduction of a substance at an electrode surface. CVS determines ad-
ditive concentration from the effect these additives have on the rate of deposition.
The substitution of a rotating platinum electrode for the dropping mercury electrode gives in-
creased sensitivity. This is used in conjunction with a technique of CVS for analysis of the
concentration of proprietary organic additives in acid copper or pyrophosphate copper plating
baths as well as nickel, tin, and tin-lead. In CVS, a series of forward and reverse voltage scans
are applied that alternately plate and strip a layer of the major metal. The electrical charge
required to strip the plate is a measure of deposition efficiency, which, under some conditions,
can be correlated to additive concentration. Analysis is for plating brighteners and carriers,
and incoming additive inspects for copper, nickel, tin, and tin-lead plating.
CVS in the form of microprocessor-controlled instruments is easy to operate and accurate as

long as the electrodes are maintained. Unfortunately, unlike UV-VIS, it cannot detect impuri-
ties.
A CVS unit usually consists of the following (see Figure 27):

• Voltammetric cell • Microprocessor-based electronic unit
• A working electrode (platinum disk) • Chart readout (monitor or X-Y recorder)
• Reference electrode (saturated calomel) • Sample handler (optional)
• Counter electrode (auxiliary)
114
Figure 28: CVS waveform sample report to show brightener and carrier
concentrations for copper, nickel, tin, and tin-lead plating baths.
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Chromatography is a separation technique in which substances are separated by mobility dif-
ferences created by distribution differences between stationary and mobile phases. The station-
ary phase can be solid, a gel, or a liquid film. The mobile phase is usually a gas or liquid.
Substances spending most of the time distributed in the mobile phase elute from the chroma-
tography column first, and substances distributed in the stationary phase will elute later. In
liquid chromatography (LC), the mobile phase is a liquid usually consisting of a mixture of
polar and non-polar solvents. This technique involves pushing a small amount of the sample
through a fine particle material (column) in a carrier solvent using a high-pressure pump. This
fine particle material is selected specifically to retard various components of the mixture. The
components can be detected by various means and quantitative measures of the ingredients
can be made. The detectors can be a DAS UV-VIS, electrochemical, or laser refractance.
115
Some of the applications of HPLC can:

• Detect low levels of impurities in organic additives
• Detect decomposition products from the original additive
• Determine the active components from the inactive
• Detect the extent of leach products into the plating bath
• Determine completeness of a carbon treatment
An HPLC unit consists of (Figure 29):

1. Solvent source
2. High-pressure solvent pump (0–4000 psi)
3. Sample injection valve
4. Chromatograph column with packing
5. Detector and controller
6. Waste reservoir
An HPLC instrument can be somewhat expensive and requires sample standardization. One of
its main drawbacks is that it cannot detect metallic species or impurities.
Figure 29: HPLC components.
Ion Chromatography
Ion chromatography is a special form of liquid chromatography where charged species (an-
ions, cations, and silicas) in simple and complex aqueous matrices are separated by selective
distribution in an electrolytic mobile phase and a stationary phase with weak ionic sites. A
conductivity sensor usually performs detection in ion chromatography. It works with inorganic
compounds, many of them metallic (sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, lithium, magnesium, ac-
etates, formats, glycolates, etc.).
116
Gas Chromatography
In gas chromatography (GC), the mobile phase is a gas, usually helium, which does not chemi-
cally interact with the substance being separated. The stationary phase distributions enable the
separation. Detection methods vary considerably. Mass spectroscopy, flame ionization, thermal
conductivity, and electron capture are used in the instrument laboratory. Gas chromatography
works with volatile organics in solution.
Figure 30: Ion chromatograph components.
Atomic Absorption (AA)

Canada’s Termium Plus terminology data bank [13] offers a great description of atomic absorp-
tion measurements, “An atomic absorption spectrophotometer measures element concentra-
tions in solution by spraying (nebulising) the solution into a long narrow hot flame. Light from
a hollow cathode lamp, containing the element to be analyzed, passes above the long and nar-
row burner to a monochromator. The monochromator isolates ground state radiation from the
hollow cathode lamp. The solution is sprayed into the fuel and air-premixing chamber feeding
the flame. Free atoms are produced in the flame because of the heat and reducing conditions.
If the atoms are the same as the element in the lamp, then light is absorbed. The degree of ab-
sorption depends on the amount of that element present in the original solution. The results are
compared with standard solutions that allow concentrations to be determined. The technique
can be highly precise and accurate.”
Most metallic elements in the periodic table can be determined at subpart per million lev-
els with interferences from other components in solution and cancelled by simple procedures.
Some elements lack sensitivity because they are difficult to atomize, or they form refractory
oxides at flame temperatures.
117
Figure 31: GC components.
The elements that can be analyzed in solution include: Al, As, Au, B, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe,
Ge, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Pb, Si, Sr, Ti, V, W, and Zn.
Successful operation of an AA depends on:

• The correct choice of flame and flame stoichiometry
• Suitable dilution of samples and standards
• Careful optical alignment of the lamp with the monochromator
• Careful alignment of the burner with the light path
• Confirmation that the nebuliser works and is not blocked
118
Figure 32: Atomic absorption spectrophotometer components.
Combination/Miscellaneous (Nuclear)
There are many sensors that fall into this classification: viscometers, surface tension, total
carbon, ionization, x-ray fluorescence, beta-backscatter, paramagnetic, and piezoelectric. Of
these, x-ray fluorescence, beta-backscatter and sequential electrochemical reduction analysis
(SERA) are the most used in PCB fabrication.
X-Ray Fluorescence/Beta-Backscatter
The principles of X-ray fluorescence measurement are shown on the following page:
119
1. The heated cathode in the X-ray tube emits electrons. These electrons are bombarded onto
the anode, which is usually made of tungsten or molybdenum, and accelerated be a variable
high voltage of 50 kV maximum.
2. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into bremsstrahlung. In addition, the char-
acteristic X-ray fluorescence radiation of the anode, such as tungsten, is generated and recog-
nizable by the distinct high-intensity lines. The primary radiation is a combination of these two
types of radiation. Its maximum energy is 50 keV.
3. Using suitable collimators with different dimensions and shapes (circular, square, slot-
shaped), only a portion of the x-radiation emitted by the X-ray tube is employed for the mea-
surement. This allows for the creation of measurement spot dimensions as small as about
50x50 µm. The collimator is made of translucent material for optical imaging of the measure-
ment spot.
4. A light source illuminates the sample. A mirror and lens direct reflected light to a color video
camera. The mirror has a hole in its center for the primary radiation to pass through.
5. The primary radiation excites the coating and substrate materials to emit x-ray fluorescence
radiation. The reason for this is that a primary radiation quantum knocks an electron from one
of the inner electron shells (photo effect).
6. For energy reasons, an electron of an outer shell fills the resultant void and energy in the
form of x-ray fluorescence radiation (Kα and Kβ radiation, etc.) is emitted. This energy is char-
acteristic for the respective material.
7. The radiation is measured using a radiation detector, usually a proportional counter tube
filled with xenon gas. The X-ray fluorescence radiation ionizes the xenon atoms. The released
electrons accelerate toward the counter wire that is at a high voltage potential and located in
the center. The number of free electrons is proportional to the energy of the X-ray fluorescence
radiation.
8. The electrons striking the counter wire are converted into electrical pulses using a charge
amplifier. The height of the pulses is proportional to the radiation energy.
9. The pulses are sorted according to energy and frequency (intensity) of their occurrence.
From this, the spectrum of the X-ray fluorescence radiation of the given coating/substrate ma-
terial combination is obtained. Based on the fundamental parameter method, the software
computes the thickness(es) and composition(s) of the coating(s). It takes into account all
physically relevant processes and allows for standard-free measurements.
10. The measurement data and the video image of the specimen are presented on a color moni-
tor. A typical unit and a diagram of this process can be seen in Figure 33 [14].
120
X-ray fluorescence measures:

• Au: thickness and percentage of Cd, Ni, Cu, and Pd
• SnPb: thickness and percentage of Sn and Pb
• Ag: thickness
• Ni: thickness
Beta-backscatter is much simpler and cruder. A small radioactive isotope (carbon 14, prome-
thium, or thallium) is the source of beta particles. These are directed at the substrate to be
measured and a steady stream of beta particles are backscattered. A high-voltage Geiger-Mül-
ler (GM) tube measures the backscatter. The count is then converted to a thickness reading
(Figure 33c). A typical unit is seen in Figure 33d.
Figure 33: (Clockwise) X-ray fluorescence detection principle, X-ray measuring unit,
Beta-backscatter measurement principle, and Beta-backscatter unit [14].
121
Beta-backscatter measures:
• Gold over nickel
• Tin-lead over copper
• Silver over copper
The beta-backscatter method is used to measure coating thickness when the atomic numbers of
coating and substrate differ by at least 20%. Applications include the following industries: PCB,
electronics, automotive, and consumer products.
Sequential Electrochemical Reduction Analysis

Sequential electrochemical reduction analysis (SERA) characterizes metal oxides, intermetal-
lics, and organic components on surfaces by applying a controlled cathodic current. The appa-
ratus is shown in Figure 34. It reduces the oxides on the part’s surface. The potential of the test
part is plotted versus time (Figure 35). The plateau voltage identifies the oxide and the reduc-
tion time measures the thickness.
Surfaces tested include:

• Bare copper/OSP coated
• Tin-lead
• Tin
• Palladium
• Silver
• Nickel/gold
Mechanisms include:
• Constant cathodic current applied
between the part (surface) and a coun-
ter electrode potential monitored as a
function of time relative to a reference
electrode
• Specific electrolyte chosen and must
be deaerated
• Specific oxides reduced at specific
voltages
Figure 34: SERA testing equipment.
122
Figure 35: SERA mechanism and the counter electrode potential versus time plot.
Paramagnetic and Coulemetric

Paramagnetic and coulemetric sensors
can also be useful (see Figure 36).
ChemFET/Chemresistors
The last of the miscellaneous sensors are
the new silicon devices. These are defused
junctions on silicon transistors doped to
make them sensitive to certain chemicals.
This is a new technology for silicon, and
like MEMS, it is only starting.
Figure 36: Four paramagnetic and coulemetric sensors.
123
WHAT CAN BE ANALYZED?
Automatic Analysis
Combining various chemical sensors, automatic analysis can be performed on production
baths. These systems first appeared in the early 1970s. The amount of production solutions
that can be automatically analyzed is quite large. It includes nearly all of the solutions used in
printed circuit manufacturing.
Electroless Copper
Electroless copper was the first
to be put under automatic analy-
sis. This was due to the complex
chemistry and the rapid deple-
tion of components. Photocircuits
developed the first units for their
full-additive build-up process,
controlled chemical copper coat-
ing (CC4). The various compo-
nents that can be analyzed are in
Table 6.
Etching
Various copper etching is used
in PCB manufacturing for oxide
removal, cleaning, and final foil
etching (Table 7).
124
Electroplating Baths
The largest list of parameters that can be analyzed automatically is in electroplating. Table 8
includes commercially available and proprietary analyzers from the literature.
125
Developer/Stripper
Photoresist developing and stripping is a major process in PCB manufacturing (Table 9).
Smear, Oxide, and Water Treatment

The final area of analysis is the multilayer preparation line and water treatment in general
(Table 10).
Controllers and Delivery Systems

Controller and delivery systems include:
• Automatic titrators
• Chemical analyzers
• Controllers
• Delivery systems
126
Automatic Titrators
Chemical automated analyzers come in many forms. The one that has most application in
printed circuits is wet chemistry (auto-titrators).
The auto-titrator has a wide range of possible analytical sensitivities based on the different
sensors already discussed that can be used as endpoint detection. Principle detectors are pH,
redox, specific ion, conductometric, and photometric. A new sensor based on thermal reactions
is also available.
The programmability of
these units makes them
sensitive to both observable
endpoints (color change)
and to ones not duplicated
by manual titration (second
derivative and thermal). The
endpoints can be detected by
first or second derivatives,
or by the Gran plot method.
Current applications use
them for analysis of metals
in many different electroless
and electroplating solutions.
Figure 37 shows a modern
automatic titrator.
Automatic titrators used on

production lines are usually
housed in industrial enclo-
sures and may be a part of a
larger analytical system, like
the Agilent 8453 diode-array
spectrometer.
Figure 37: Automatic titrators, such as this system, can be used in the
laboratory or on production lines with multiple endpoint detection sensors
available. (Source: Hach.com)
127
Chemical Analyzer/Controller
There are five basic components to these systems:
1. A method of drawing a sample by pump, valve, or in-tank sensor
2. A method of dilution and preparation of the sample drawn
3. A chemical analyzer of sensors or transducers sensitive to the parameter
of a particular solution
4. An analyzer/controller to convert the electrical signal to engineering units
and provide outputs to a feedback system, recorder, indicator, or setpoint con-
troller
5. A replenishment system that refortifies the solution of the chemical pa-
rameter analyzed.
Figure 38 shows a schematic of one of these systems. A multi-channel peristaltic pump samples
the chemical bath. In this example, the specific gravity is measured before the sample is re-
turned to the production tank. Additionally, a smaller quantity is degassed and diluted with
a specific reagent to develop a characteristic color response that measures the metal content
(photometric). Next, pH and redox measurements (potentiometric or conductometric) are
taken.
A chemical control-
ler operates somewhat
differently than an
analyzer or a titrator.
If put on its setpoint, it
only needs to be sensi-
tive to the slope of the
changing parameters,
since the controller
will return it to its set-
point. It does not have
to be linear or contigu-
ous, as an analyzer
does [15].
Figure 38: An auto-analyzer/controller has a solution feed, reagent dilution, chemical

analysis, and controller, as well as four basic sensors.
128
A Typical System
Figure 39 shows a typical electroless copper controller. More of these have been deployed in
production than any other chemical controller. They are second only to ammoniacal etchant
specific gravity controllers. A five-chamber peristaltic pump is employed for sample prepa-
ration and delivery. After pump one draws a sample and allows pump two to take a smaller
volume of degassed solution, the sample is passed through a colorimeter. The characteristic
blue-green color of electroless copper is enough to only require a short cell path with optical
filters and photocells for analytical determination. Pump three adds hydrochloric acid and the
resulting pH indicates the alkaline level of the bath. Then, pump four draws a smaller volume.
Together with pump five, they add sodium sulfite to react with the formaldehyde to liberate
hydroxyl ions. The second pH sensor measures the total solution hydroxyl ion content [16–19].
Figure 39: Automatic electroless copper controller for copper, hydroxide, and formaldehyde.
129
Typical automatic controllers for PWB chemical process are shown below in Figure 40.
c.
a. b.
Figure 40: Atotech Inpulse 2 process automatic controllers; a) electroless copper; b) reducer-CVS; c) copper plating.
(Source: Atotech)
FIGURE ??, Atotech InPulse 2 Process automatic controllers; a. electroless copper; b. Reducer-
CVS; c. Copper plating
Figure 41: Photoresist developer controller is based on the pH of the carbonate developer.
130
Figure 42: Photoresist developer controller is based on the number

of panels to add the carbonate developer.
Figure 43: (a) A colorimetric controller monitors the dissolved copper and adds fresh microetch solution
(Source: Walchem) (b) A hydrometer sensor weir monitors the specific gravity (SG) of the photoresist stripper
and adds fresh stripper solution to maintain the SG set point.
131
Figure 44: CVS system for plating bath analysis with optional sampler handler. (Source: ECI Technology)
Simple or Complex Controllers

Controllers can be as simple as a photoelectric cell counting the number and size of panels on
a conveyorized photoresist stripper, a gravimetric sensor for tin-lead stripper, or a colorimeter
measuring the copper content of a peroxide-sulfuric microetch. Another is the pH cell measur-
ing the carbonate alkalinity in a photoresist developer or a counting unit (Figures 41 and 42).
The delivery system is a solenoid valve-controlled water-driven injector designed to propor-
tionally inject potassium carbonate concentrate on a “feed and bleed” basis [20].
A complex controller would be the CVS system for copper plating bath analysis and control
on ASIC wafer plating lines [21] (Figure 44). The Agilent 8453 diode-array spectrophotometer-
based plating controller also remains a good example (Figure 45).
Figure 46 is an automatic electroless nickel controller that utilizes colorimetric for the nickel
analysis and pH for acid control [22 & 23]. It monitors the dissolved nickel and pH, and adds fresh
plating solutions.
132
Figure 45: Auto-analysis and control for plating bath analysis using DAS [10].
Figure 46: Automatic electroless nickel controller. (Source: Uyemura)
133
Solution Delivery and Re-

plenishment
Solution delivery is usual-
ly done through a sampling
pump, sampling valve, or a sen-
sor in the solution (Figure 47).
The solution replenishment
equipment usually includes
either pumps or valves. More-
over, the flow dynamics for the
pumps/valves can be complex.
Four different flow dynamics
can be employed:
1. On-off
2. Time proportioning
(on-off)
Figure 47: Solution delivery. 3. Analog proportioning
(variable)
4. Pseudo proportioning (digitally-weighted on-off such as 1-2-4-8, etc.)
Control Dynamics
Control dynamics determine the signals to the solution replenishment equipment. Figure 48
displays the traditional control loop and proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. In
this case, the derivative element is being driven only from process feedback. The process feed-
back is subtracted from the command signal (setpoint) to generate an error. This error signal
drives the proportional and
integral elements. The result-
ing signals are added together
and are used to drive the pro-
cess response. The alternate
placement for the proportion-
al element can be seen with
the dotted lines. This can be a
better location for the propor-
tional element, depending on
how one wants the system to
Figure 48: Basic PID controller. (Source: Tim Wescott )
[27] respond to commands.
134
Table 11: Control definitions and identifiers.
To see the effect of these control actions, Figure 49 shows the four controller response algo-
rithms and their responses to a change in load or setpoint. On-off control is the simplest, slow-
est, and never returns to exactly the same conditions. PID is the fastest and the most complex
because it responds to the magnitude of the disturbance (proportional), how long it has been
Figure 49: Control response dynamics to a change in setpoint.
135
off the setpoint (integral), and how fast the disturbance changes (derivative). The characteris-
tics of common controller responses are seen in Figure 50.
Figure 50: Characteristics of common controller responses.
On-Off
On-off control is the easiest feed-
back control to implement, but
the slowest to react because it
ignores the magnitude, speed of
change, and length of the error
signal.
Figure 51: On-off control response [24].
136
Proportional
Proportional control is the most
common kind of control loop. It
is inherently stable when prop-
erly tuned. A proportional con-
troller is just the error signal
multiplied by a constant and
fed out to the drive, but it ex-
periences offset at steady state.
Figure 52 shows what happens

when one adds proportional
feedback to the motor and gear
system. The motor goes to the
correct target for small gains
(kp = 1), but it does this quite
Figure 52: Temperature controller with proportional feedback. slowly. Increasing the gain (kp
The kink at time = 2 is from the external distrubance [24].
= 2) speeds up the response to a
point. Beyond that point (kp = 5 or 10), the motor starts out faster, but it overshoots the target.
In the end, the system does not settle any quicker than it would have with low gain, but there is
more overshoot. If gain continues to be increased, it would eventually reach a point where the
system just oscillated around the target and never settled. The system would be unstable.
Integral
Integral control is used to add
long-term precision to a control
loop. It is almost always used in
conjunction with proportional
control, which provides better
dynamics responses than inte-
gral alone. Again, there is the
possibility for instability.
Figure 53 shows the tempera-

ture control system with pure
integral control. This system
takes a lot longer to settle than
the same plant with propor-
Figure 53: Integral control response. Motor and gear
with proportional feedback position vs. time [24]. tional control (Figure 52). How-
137
ever, notice that when it does

settle, it settles out to the target
value even with the added dis-
turbance. If a problem does not
require fast settling, this might
be a workable system.
Meanwhile, Figure 54 shows

the motor and gear with pro-
portional-integral (PI) control.
Compare this with Figures 52
and 53. The position takes lon-
ger to settle than the system
with pure proportional con-
trol, but it will not settle to the
wrong spot.
Figure 54: PID control response [24].
Differential
In general, if you cannot stabilize a process with proportional control, you cannot stabilize it
with PI control. Proportional control deals with the present behavior of the process, and inte-
gral control deals with the past behavior of the process. If there was an element that predicted
the process behavior, then this
might be used to stabilize the
process. A differentiator will do
the trick.
The example shows the differ-

ential term of a PID controller. I
prefer to use the actual process
position rather than the error
because this makes for smoother
transitions when the command
value changes. The differential
term itself is the last value of the
position minus the current value
of the position. This provides
a rough estimate of the veloc-
Figure 55: Response of the precision actuator system with PID ity (delta position/sample time),
control. This system settles in less than half a second compared which predicts where the posi-
to multiple seconds for other systems [24]. tion will be in awhile.
138
With differential control, the precision actuator system can be stabilized. Figure 55 shows the
heating system with PID control. Using the full PID control with this process can result in per-
formance improvements.
Conclusion
This brings us back to the beginning of this chapter with basic chemical process control loops.
Process control is a control loop with various sensors feeding data to a decision maker that re-
sponds with an action. Good luck with using process monitoring and control!
1. Sensor Fundamentals by National Instruments.

2. Cambridge, Massachusetts, “Electrode Babysitter,” Orion Research Newslet-
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Control,” California Circuits Association, October 1972, pp. 71–88.
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(3rd edition).
5. Frazer, J. W., Kray, A.M., Selig, W., “Interactive-Experimentation Employing
Ion-Selective Electrodes,” Analytical Chemistry, vol. 47, no. 6, May 1975, pp.
869–875.
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tem,” Laboratory Practice, March 1974, p. 61.
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EDN/EE, January 1972, pp. 44–47.
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zine, March 1985.
139
11. Matton, T.R., McSwiggen, P., George, S.A., “Printed Circuit Plating Bath
Process Control,” Hewlett-Packard UV/VIS Technical Note, January 1985.
12. Rothstein, M.L., “Control of Plating Chemistry by Voltammetric Techniques,”
Plating and Surface Finishing, November 1984, pp. 36–39.
13. Termium Plus search for, “atomic absorption spectrographic equipment.”
14. “X-Ray Fluorescence Measures Coating Thickness,” Quality Magazine,
May 2003.
15. Liptak, B., “Trends and Advances in On-Stream Process Analysis-II,” Control
Engineering, May 1971, p. 48–53.
16. Brown, M.J., “Monitoring Measures Chemical Activity in Electroless Copper
Plating Bath,” Insulation/Circuits, November 1975, pp.17–28.
17. Tucker, Dr. W.B., “Automatic Control Applied to the Electroless Deposition of
Copper for Printed Circuits,” American Electroplaters Society Regional Meeting,
March 10, 1972.
18. Hermann, Dr. G., "Chemisches Metallisieren,” Grundig Technische Informa-
tion, January 1972, pp. 1013–1015.
19. U.S. Patent 3,951,602, Spectrophotometric Formaldehyde-Copper Monitor,
April 20, 1976.
20. Hacket, E.T., Wopschall, R.H., “Automatic pH Controlled Replenishment of
Developers for Riston Aqueous Processable Resist,” September 1981.
21. Pecevich, P., “Rapid Determination of Ionic Contamination,” Semiconductor
International, January 1985, pp. 112–115.
22. Mansfeld, F., “The Copper Plating Bath Monitor,” Plating and Surface Finish-
ing, May 1978, pp. 60–62.
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tant,” California Circuits Association Symposium, October 1977.
24. Wescott, T., copyright 2018, reprinted with permission.
140
About the Author
Happy Holden
Consulting Technical Editor
I-Connect007
Happy Holden is the retired director of elec-

tronics and innovations for GENTEX Corpo-
ration. Formerly, he was the PCB technolo-
gist and chief technical officer for Foxconn
Advanced Technology of Taiwan and China.
He also served as the senior PCB technolo-
gist for Mentor Graphics’ System Design Di-
vision in Longmont, Colorado. Prior to Men-
tor, he was a senior consultant at TechLead
Corporation, Westwood Associates, and Merix Corporation.
Holden retired in 1998. In over 28 years with Hewlett-Packard, he managed HP’s

application organizations in Taiwan and Hong Kong. This consulting group spe-
cialized in printed circuit manufacturing, automation planning, and implement-
ing computer-integrated manufacturing. Holden’s prior assignments with Hewlett-
Packard included PCB manufacturing, software marketing, and packaging R&D.
Holden holds a bachelor’s degree from Oregon State in chemical engineering and
studied for a master’s in EE in Control Theory. He is the author of I-Connect007’s
The HDI Handbook, and he and Clyde Coombs co-edited the new 7th edition of the
Printed Circuits Handbook.
Happy continues to give back to the industry by serving as a consulting technical

editor for I-Connect007.

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Happy Holden has worked with PCB fabrication automation

CIM & Automation

HP needed an instrument controller, so they purchased a unique 16-bit computer architec-

Figure 1: HP 2116A computer next to the HP2114A and the

Additionally, CIM is linked to common business administrative tasks such as manufacturing

Figure 3: The CIM wheel defined by CASA/SME.

The Outer Ring

The Inner Ring

As in the common business

Purchasing Accounting Project Research

Control Sensor Based Manual Factory

Machinery, Sensors, Actuators

Figure 5: The CIM hierarchy of activities.

CIM Architecture for Manufacturing

Figure 6: The CIM hierarchy of related/critical systems.

Figure 7: The CIM software architecture for manufacturing.

A Working Definition of Automation

Mechanization Classs Percentage Mechanized

Six Automation Principles

Successful automation implementations depend on close adherence to some cardinal princi-

1. Superiority: Automation Must Contribute to a Business Goal

The 40-40-20 Rule

2. Simplicity: Automation Must Help Simplify Manufacturing

Total Quality Control

Vital elements of the TQC process include clearly understood

The working objective of TQC is to fix

Per Unit of Output

One role the computers of

3. Flexibility: Automation Must Adapt to Changes Without Repeating the Initial

Flexible automation in printed cir-

FIXED AUTOMATION photo-plotting, computer-aided in-

Modern Information Systems (MRP III)

• Business planning • Material planning

Matching Major Stages of Product and

1. Jumbled flow job

3. Connected line flow

1. Jumbled flow (job shops)

Today MRP II (III) has added:

Business content Technical content

Figure 13: Business and technical systems software come

Orders in a Lean system are pulled through

Lean applies to job shop, batch, and assem-

buffers of all kinds to a

Receive Inspect Electroplate Assemble Automation

Bill of materials Board quotes

5. Manufacturability: Automation Must Be Supported by Product Evolution

DFM (Design for Manufacturability)

6. Reliability: Automation Must Be Robust and Tolerant Enough to Keep

1. Holden, H.T., "Complexity Factor C," IPC Technical Review, March/April

Recipe-to-Machine and Machine-to-Machine

Factory Industry 4.0 [1]. Figure 2

The interconnectivity for machine-to-ma-

Synchronous and Asynchronous

cations” tutorial provides important explana-

Message Automation and Protocol Situation

SECS I & SEC II/GEM protocols

Open Manufacturing Language

Complete information about the

LAN (Ethernet, IEEE-802.3, and TCP/IP)

Wireless and IoT

Industry 4.0 Initiatives