KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

MUKTHAGANGOTHRI, MYSORE – 570 006

M.A./M.Com/M.Sc./M.BA Open Elective

(SECOND SEMESTER)

Course: ELMES-02 Block I: Unit 1-4

ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

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 Karnataka State Open University

Mukthagangotri, Mysuru - 570 006

Department of studies in Environmental science

M.A./M.Com/M.Sc./M.BA Open Elective

Second Semester

Course: ELMES 02
Advances in Environmental Science
Block I: Unit 1, 2, 3, 4

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iv
 ELMES 02: Advances in Environmental Science
COURSE DESIGN
Dr. Sharanappa V. Halse Prof. Ashok Kamble
Vice Chancellor, Karnataka State Open Dean (Academic), Karnataka State Open
University, Mukthagangotri, Mysuru University, Mukthagangotri, Mysuru
COURSE CO-ORDINATOR
Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar
Chairman, Department of Studies and Research in Environmental Science, KSOU, Mysuru
COURSE WRITERS
NAME COURSE BLOCKS UNITS
Dr. H.M. Swaroopkumar ELMES 02
Basics of Environmental Block
Faculty, DOS in Botany, University of 1 to 8
Science I & II
Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysuru
COURSE EDITOR
Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar
Assistant Professor, Department of ELMES 02
Block
Studies and Research in Environmental Basics of Environmental 1 to 8
I & II
Science, KSOU, Mysuru Science
SLM Editorial Committee
Dr. J.S. Chandrashekar Chairman
Chairman, Board of Studies and Department of Studies and Research in & Member
Environmental Science, KSOU, Mysuru Convener
Dr.T.S. Harsha
Assistant Professor, Department of Studies and Research in Member
Environmental Science, KSOU, Mysuru
Dr.S. Mahesh
Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering, SJCE, Mysuru Member
Dr.K. Girish
Assistant Professor, Department of Microbiology, Maharani’s Science Member
College for Women, Mysuru
PUBLISHER
The Registrar
Karnataka State Open University, Mukthagangotri, Mysore-570006
Developed by Academic Section, KSOU, Mysore.
Karnataka State Open University (KSOU), 2022
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from Karnataka State Open University.
Further information on the Karnataka State Open University Programmes may be obtained from
the University’s Office at Mukthagangotri, Mysuru.
Printed and Published on behalf of Karnataka State Open University, Mysore-570006 by
Registrar (Administration)

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 Contents Page No.

Block Introduction vi

Unit 1: Water Pollution 1 - 16

Unit 2: Air Pollution 17 - 28

Unit 3: Noise Pollution 29 - 40

Unit 4: Soil Pollution 41 - 50

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 Block I

Block Introduction

Environmental pollution is causing various changes in the environment causing health effects and
altering the environment. Most of the pollution is due to anthropogenic activities. Studying
environmental pollution is at most important as we can stop or minimize the pollution and their
effects.
In this block, we have four units. In unit 1, you will learn water pollution, it refers to any physical,
chemical or biological change that has an undesirable affect on living organisms. Sewage, industrial,
agricultural pollution and physical pollutants are the various sources of water pollution. These sources
may be limited to a point sources or spread over large areas (non-point sources). Sewage, fertilizers,
detergents, toxic wastes released by industries are some of the sources of groundwater pollution.
In unit 2, you will learn air pollution definition, classification of air pollutants based on various
factors. Primary and secondary air have been discussed. Sources of air pollution include point sources,
mobile sources and area sources. Smog cools and settles down near the earth and forms a blanket,
while warmer air covers it.
Unit 3 gives you you the definition of noise pollution and sources of noise pollution. The sources are
industrial, transport sector, household, public addressing, agricultural machines, defense and others.
Noise pollution interferences with sleep disturbances, deafness and speech, mental and physiological
and psychological effects. Noise level limits are set by Central Pollution Control Board for day and
night time with reference to industrial, commercial, residential and silence areas. This unit also
described the measures to control noise pollution.
In Unit 4, you will learn the meaning of the soil and its composition is explained. The causes and types
of soil pollution is also discussed. The effects of soil pollution on human health, plants and soil
fertility is given here. Soil erosion and degradation is studied in this unit. Few controlling measures of
soil pollution is also discussed.

Chairman
Department of Studies and Research in Environmental Science
Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri,
Mysuru – 570 006

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 UNIT 1: WATER POLLUTION

STRUCTURE

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definition and Environmental Pollutants

1.3 Sources and Types of Environmental Pollution

1.4 Effects of Water Pollution

1.5 Strategies for Controlling of Water Pollution

1.6 Summary

1.8 Keywords

1.9 Questions for Self Study

1.10 References for further reading

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1.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

 list the resources of water;
 define water pollution and water pollutants;
 list the major types of water pollutants and their sources and effects;
 state the methods of water pollution prevention;
 know necessary strategies for prevention of water pollution in India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear learner, we know that, water is essential for the existence of all life forms. These are for
household uses, water is vital for agriculture, industry, fishery and tourism and so on. Increasing
population, urbanization and industrialization has led to the decreased availability of water. The
quality of water used is also being deteriorated as it is getting more and more polluted. You may be
aware of at least some health hazards and harmful effects of water pollution. In this unit, a detailed
account of various types, sources and effects of water pollutants is described. Some methods of water
pollution control strategies have also been given.
You may be aware that about three fourths of our planet earth’s surface is covered by water.
However, very little of it is available for consumption. Most (about 97%) of the water on earth is
present in the seas and oceans. It is too salty to be of any use for drinking, agriculture and industrial
purposes. The remaining 3% is fresh water; 75% ofwhich is locked up in the polar ice caps and in
glaciers and quite deep under the earth’s surface as underground water. The fresh water, which we can
use, comes to us from two sources:
i) Surface water
ii) Ground water
The small fraction of usable surface water is continuously replenished by means of the hydrological
cycle, Fig 1.1.
The hydrological cycle involves evaporation of water from oceans, rivers and other sources to form
clouds. The clouds on saturation with water vapours cause precipitation falling back on earth’s
surface. On surface, the water runs off to rivers and finally to oceans. The water again evaporates and
the cycle continues. Surface water has a natural tendency to clean itself as it contains certain
organisms that break down pollutants into harmless substances.

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 Fig. 1.1: A schematic representation of Hydrological cycle
(ii) Ground Water: The part of precipitation that seeps into the ground as a result of gravity and fills
the pores between soil particles and rocks under it is called groundwater. The water bearing layers of
soil and rocks are called aquifers. Ground water is very important for agricultural and industrial
purposes. Ground water in the form of wells and springs is often the only source of water supply
especially in villages and small towns.
In spite of a good number of water resources, we have shortage of usable water. This is due to
increasing population, urbanization and industrialization. There is a need to optimize use of water and
also conserve surface run off of water by means of rainwater harvesting, groundwater conservation,
making use of recycling methods etc.

1.2 DEFINITIONS AND WATER POLLUTANTS

1.1.1 Definition of Water Pollution

Water pollution may be defined as “the contamination of streams, lakes, seas, groundwater
or oceans by substances, which are harmful for living beings”. A large amount of water is

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discharged back after domestic and industrial usage. This is contaminated with domestic waste
and industrial effluents. When this contamination reaches beyond certain allowed concentrations,
it is called pollution and the contaminants are called the pollutants.

Water pollution is also defined as ‘the undesirable change in the physical, chemical or
biological properties of water that will have a detrimental consequence of any living organism.

A practical definition of water pollution is: “Water pollution is the addition of substances
or energy forms that directly or indirectly alter the nature of the water body in such a manner that
negatively affects its legitimate uses”.

1.1.2 Water Pollutants

Water pollutant is a chemical or physical agent introduced to any body of water body that may
detrimentally alter the natural condition of that body of water and other associated bodies of
water.
The main water pollutants include bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilisers, pesticides,
pharmaceutical products, nitrates, phosphates, plastics, faecal waste and even radioactive
substances.
Water may be called polluted when the following parameters stated below reach beyond a
specified concentration in water.
i) Physical parameters. Colour, odour, turbidity, taste, temperature and electrical
conductivity constitute the physical parameters and are good indicators of contamination. For
instance, colour and turbidity are visible evidences of polluted water while an offensive odour
or a bitter and difference than normal taste also makes water unfit for drinking.
ii) Chemical parameters: These include the amount of carbonates, sulphates, chlorides,
fluorides, nitrates, and metal ions. These chemicals form the total dissolved solids, present in
water.
iii) Biological parameters: The biological parameters include matter like algae, fungi,
viruses, protozoa and bacteria. The life forms present in water are affected to a good extent
by the presence of pollutants. The pollutants in water may cause a reduction in the population
of both lower and higher plant and animal lives. Thus, the biological parameters give an
indirect indication of the amount of pollution in water.

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1.3: SOURCES AND TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollutants refer to the substances which are capable of making any physical, chemical or
biological change in the water body. These have undesirable effect on living organisms. As
mentioned earlier, the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes is discharged
with some undesirable impurities in it. This contamination leads to the pollution of water, which is
generally called the fresh water pollution. Fresh water pollution may be classified into two types:
surface water pollution and ground water pollution.
Surface Water Pollution
When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake these gives rise to surface water pollution. The surface
water pollution has a number of sources. These can categorized as:
 Point and Non-point Sources
 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources

Point and Non-point Sources: The well-defined sources that emits pollutants or effluents directly
into different water bodies of fresh water are called point sources. Domestic and industrial waste are
examples of this type. The point sources of pollution can be effectively checked. On the other hand,
the non-point sources of water pollution are scattered or spread over large areas. This type of
sources deliver pollutants indirectly through environmental changes and account for majority of the
contaminants in streams and lakes. For example, the contaminated water that runs off from
agriculture farms, construction sites, abandoned mines, enters streams and lakes. It is quite difficult
to control non-point sources.
Natural and Anthropogenic Sources: As mentioned earlier, an increase in the concentration of
naturally occurring substances is also termed pollution. The sources of such an increase are called
natural sources. Siltation (which includes soil, sand and mineral particles) is one such natural
source. It is a common natural phenomenon, which occurs in most water bodies. Indiscriminate
deforestation makes soil loose and flood waters bring silt from mountains into streams, rivers and
lakes.

On the other hand, the human activities that result into the pollution of water are called
anthropogenic or man made sources of water pollution. For example, domestic (sewage and waste
water), industrial and agricultural wastes that goes into the rivers, lakes, streams and seas are

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anthropogenic sources. Certain materials that are leached from the land by run-off water and enter
the various water bodies also belong to this category. The anthropogenic sources of water pollution
are shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2: Anthropogenic Sources of water pollution.

Ground Water Pollution
When the polluted water seeps into the ground and enters an aquifer it results into groundwater
pollution. The most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only source of drinking
water. Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious concern. Groundwater gets
polluted in a number of ways. The dumping of raw sewage on soil, seepage pits and septic tanks
cause pollution of groundwater. The porous layers of soil hold back solid particles while the liquid
is allowed to pass through. The soluble pollutants are able to mix with the groundwater. In addition
to these, the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers and unchecked release of toxic wastes and even
carcinogenic substances by industrial units many result in slow trickling down through the earth’s
surface and mixing with the groundwater. This problem is very serious especially in areas
where water table is high (i.e., where water is available near surface of earth).

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The ground water can move over large distances by virtue of the large empty space available below
the earth’s surface. This way if some impurities seep into the groundwater at one point, they may be
observed at a different point far removed from the point of source. In such a case it is difficult to
estimate the source of water pollution. However, suspended impurities and bacterial contaminants
are removed in the process of seepage by the soil acting as an absorbent and filter, and water acting
as a solvent.
Since the movement of groundwater through the porous rock is very slow, pollutants which get
mixed with the groundwater are not readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater does not have access
to air (in contrast to surface water) therefore, oxidation of pollutants into harmless products in
groundwater does not occur.
Water Pollutants
You have read the various sources from where pollutants enter the water bodies. Let us now learn
about the various types of pollutants arising out of these sources. These can be broadly put under
the following types.
Domestic and Municipal Pollutants: The sewage contains garbage, soaps, detergents, waste food
and human excreta and is the single largest sources of water pollution. Pathogenic (disease causing)
microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae) enter the water system through sewage making it
infected. Typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis and dysentery are commonly caused by drinking infected
water. Water polluted by sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses cannot grow by
themselves, but reproduce in the cells of host organisms. They cause a number of diseases, such as,
polio, viral hepatitis and may be cancer, which are resistant to like the organic matter are oxygen
demanding substances. They are responsible for deoxygenation of water-bodies which is harmful
for aquatic life.
Other ingredients which enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients, i.e., nitrates and
phosphates. They support growth of algae, commonly called algal bloom (blue-green species).
Industrial Pollutants: Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water streams. These are
responsible for discharging their untreated effluents into rivers like highly toxic heavy metals such
as chromium, arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. along with hazardous organic and inorganic wastes (e.g.,
acids, alkalies, cyanides, chlorides, etc.). River Ganges receives wastes from textile, sugar, paper
and pulp mills, tanneries, rubber and pesticide industries. Most of these pollutants are resistant to

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breakdown by microorganisms (called non-biodegradable), therefore damage the growth of crops
and the polluted water is unsafe for drinking purposes.
Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and pesticides release mercury (a
heavy metal) along with other effluents in nearby water body. Mercury enters the food chain
through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the human body. The toxicity of mercury became
evident by the Minamata Bay tragedy in Japan during the period 1953-60. Fish died due to mercury
consumption and those who ate fish were affected by mercury poisoning and quite a few died. The
milder symptoms of mercury poisoning are depression and irritability but acute toxic effects can
cause paralysis, blindness, insanity, birth defects and even death. The high concentration of mercury
in water and in fish tissues results from formation of soluble mono methyl mercury ion, (CH3, Hg+)
and volatile dimethyl mercury [(CH3)2 Hg] by anaerobic bacteria in sediments.
Agricultural Waste: Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes form farms, slaughterhouse, poultry
farms, salts and silt are drained as run-off from agricultural lands. The water body receiving large
quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and nitrates or manures becomes rich in nutrients which leads to
eutrophication and consequent depletion of dissolved oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates
is bad for humanhealth especially for small children.
Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.) are used to kill insect and rodent pests.
Toxic pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking water or through food chain
(biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in water but are highly soluble in fats.
For example, the concentration of DDT in river water may be very low but some fish over a period
of time accumulate so much of DDT that they become unfit for human consumption. The use of
pesticides in our country is increasing very rapidly.
Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic become metabolised by animals that graze on
fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals have been often observed in the human food chain.
The presence of these chemicals in humans even in minute amounts can cause hormonal imbalance
and may lead to cancer.
Physical Pollutants: Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of them are discussed
below:
(a) Radioactive Wastes: Radio nuclides found in water are radium and potassium-40.These
isotopes originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals. Water bodies are also
polluted by accidental leakage of waste material from uranium and thorium mines, nuclear power

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plants and industries, research laboratories and hospitals which use radioisotopes. Radioactive
materials enter human body through water and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain
vital organs. They cause tumours and cancer.
(b) Thermal Sources: Various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants require water for
cooling and the resultant hot water is often discharged into rivers or lakes. This results in thermal
pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology of the water body. Higher temperature lowers
the dissolved oxygen level (which is very essential for marine life) by decreasing the solubility of
oxygen in water. Fish and other aquatic organism can get affected by a sudden change in water
temperatures.
Sediments: Soil particles carried to streams, lakes or oceans form the sediments. The sediment
become polluting due to their large amount. Soil erosion defined as the soil carried by flood water
from crop land, is responsible for sedimentation. The sediments may damage the water body by
introducing a large amount of nutrient matter.
Petroleum Products: Petroleum products are widely used for fuel, lubrication, plastics
manufacturing, etc. and happen to be poisonous in nature. Crude oil and other related products
generally get into water by accidental spillage from ships, tankers, pipelines etc. Besides these
accidental spills, oil refineries, oil exploration sites and automobile service centres pollute different
water bodies. Oil slick which floats on the water surface causes death of marine life and severely
affects the ecosystem of the ocean.
Table 1.1: Types of water pollutants, their sources and effects.
Pollutant Sources of Pollutants Effects and Significance
1. Pathogens Sewage, human and animal Depletion of dissolved
wastes, natural and urban oxygen in water (foul odour)
runoff health effects (outbreaks of
from land, industrial waste waterborne diseases)
2. Organic pollutants
 Oil and grease Automobile and machine Disruption of marine life,
waste, tanker spills, offshore aesthetic damage
oil leakage
 Pesticides and weedicides Chemicals used for better Toxic effects (harmful for
yield from agriculture aquatic life), possible genetic
 Plastics Industrial and household defects and cancer; kills fish
 Detergents waste Eutrophication, aesthetics
Industrial and household
waste

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 3. Inorganic pollutants Agricultural runoff Algal bloom and
Fertilizers(phosphates and eutrophication, nitrates cause
nitrates) methemoglobenemia
Acids and alkalies Mine drainage, industrial Kill fresh water organisms,
wastes, natural and urban unfit for drinking, irrigation
runoff and industrial use.
4. Radioactive materials Natural sources, uranium Cancer and genetic defects
mining and processing,
hospitals and
research laboratories using
radioisotopes
5. Heat Cooling water for industrial, Decreases solubility of
nuclear and thermal plants oxygen in water, disrupts
aquatic ecosystems
6. Sediments Natural erosion, runoff from Affects water quality, reduces
agricultural land and fish population
construction sites

1.4 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

The natural source of water in the form of precipitation or rain is the purest form available in nature.
However after reaching the surface and then underground it gets contaminated by a number of pollutants.
There are some biological factors also mentioned earlier responsible for spoiling the quality of water. These
include the lower plants like algae and bacteria which are the causes of nutrient accumulation in aquatic
systems. This nutrient accumulation gives rise to a condition called eutrophication explained below:
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly becomes rich in plant nutrients such as
nitrates and phosphates due to soil erosion and run off from the surrounding land. Let us try to
understand this phenomenon. A water system like a lake or any reservoir may get a large inflow of
organic matter from domestic wastes and run off from the surrounding land. Increasing human
population, intensive agriculture and rapid industrial growth have led to an increasing release of
domestic waste, agricultural residues, industrial wastes and land run-off into various water bodies.
Nutrients are released from organic waste by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria which start
decomposing it. Dissolved oxygen is consumed in this process. As more and more organic matter
enters a water body, more is the deoxygenation of the water body and larger is the production of
nutrients. These nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of algae and other large water plants such as
duckweed. As more plants grow, some of them die also due to larger oxygen demand and therefore
oxygen deficiency in the water body (i.e., deoxygenation of the water body).Such a water body is

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said to be eutrophied and the process is called eutrophication. The word eutrophication is derived
from the Greek word which means well-nourished as (eu: true, trophos: feeding).
Eutrophication of a water body results due to the release of large amount of nutrients by the action
of aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water body naturally or by human activity.
The above discussion leads us to a concept called biological oxygen demand (BOD). Let us try to
understand by the description given below:
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The quality of oxygen used up by microorganisms at 27ºC and in darkness during 3 days in breaking down
organic wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen demand (BOD).
It can be explained in the following manner. You know that there are many organic compounds or waste
present in a water body. The microorganisms present in the system act upon this waste for their own
consumption and growth. In the process the metabolic activity requires oxygen which is met by the dissolved
oxygen present in water. It is this amount of oxygen which is defined as biological oxygen demand (BOD).
The BOD value of an aquatic system depends upon:
 the type and amount of organic waste
 the organisms acting on it
 temperature and pH
The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body, the greater is the amount of oxygen required to
break it down biologically and therefore higher is the BOD value of water. This value is a good measure in
evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body. The less polluted water shows comparatively low value of
BOD. Its value is used as a criterion for managing water pollution of a water body. An evaluation is made by
determining oxygen concentration in water before and after incubation at 20ºC in dark for 5 days.
Biomagnification
A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be sprayed for controlling
insect pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food chain and harm to other (non target) organisms.
For example, DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control mosquitoes at a concentration expected to be harmless
to non target organisms like fish and birds. DDT accumulated in the marshes and planktons. Planktons were
eaten by fish and the fish had a higher concentration of DDT in its body. Further, when birds ate the fish,
they accumulated still higher concentration. This increase in concentration of accumulated toxic chemicals as
one goes higher in the food chain is termed biomagnification. Biomagnification has at times threatened the
reproduction and survival of carnivores (secondary consumers) who occupy the highest level of the food
chain.

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 Fig. 1.2: Biomagnification showed the increasing concentration via food chain.

1.5: STRATEGIES FOR CONTROLLING OF WATER POLLUTION

There are various way to control water pollution in India. These include treatment of wastewater at source
and through common wastewater or effluent treatment plants, and also through some legal measures.
Wastewater Treatment
Waste water generated by household activity, industries or garbage landfills is called sewage, which is
classified as the municipal water pollution. Sewage contains solid matters in the form of suspended colloidal
and dissolved organic matter, detergent, mineral matter, nutrients and gases. Sewage is one of the major
causes of water borne diseases and therefore the treatment of sewage is one of the important tasks. For a long
time treatment of municipal waste in the form of sewage involved mainly of the removal of suspended
solids, oxygen demanding materials and harmful bacteria. Now the disposal of the solid residue from sewage
has been improved by applying municipal treatment processes.
The treatment of this waste water is carried out in the following three stages:
(i) Primary treatment
(ii) Secondary treatment, and
(iii) Tertiary treatment
Primary Treatment: When the waste water is to be dumped off into a river or flowing steam, the treatment
is carried out by sedimentation, coagulation and filtration. This is known as primary treatment. If the water is
required for drinking purposes, it has to undergo further treatment called secondary and tertiary treatments.
The following steps are performed to do primary treatment of water:

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(i) Sedimentation: This step is carried out in large tanks specially built for this purpose in sewage treatment
plant. The polluted water is allowed to settle so that silt, clay and other matter settle to be bottom and water
is slowly allowed to move out. Fine particles do not settle and are thus required to be removed in the next
step.
(ii) Coagulation: Fine particles and colloidal suspension are combined into large particles by a process
called coagulation. This step is carried out by the addition of special chemicals called coagulants
(flocculants) such as potash alum. The large particles either settle to the bottom or are moved in the next
step.
(iii) Filtration: Suspended particles, flocculants, bacteria and other organisms are filtered by passing the
water through a bed of sand or finely divided coal or through some fibrous materials. The total impurities
collected in these steps are called sludge. It is used as a valuable fertilizer. On composting (i.e. the action of
anaerobic bacteria), it releases sludge gas. It consists mainly of methane gas which is used for cooking
purposes.
Secondary or Biological Treatment: The water after primary treatment is not fit for drinking purposes and
has to undergo further treatment. This is done through secondary or biological treatment. A commonly used
method is to allow polluted water to spread over a large bed of stones and gravel so that the growth of
different microorganisms needing nutrients and oxygen is encouraged. Over a period of time a fast moving
food chain is setup. For example, bacteria consume organic matter from the polluted water; protozoa liveon
bacteria. Every form of life including algae and fungi help in the cleaning up process. This is called
secondary treatment of water. It involves the following processes
(i) Softening: By this treatment undesirable cations of calcium and magnesium are removed from hard
waters. Either water is treated with lime and soda ash to precipitate Ca2+ ions as carbonates or it is passed
through cation exchangers. Thismakes water soft.
(ii) Aeration: In this process, soft water is exposed to air by forcing air through it to add oxygen to
water. This encourages bacterial decomposition of organic matter into harmless products such as
carbon dioxide and water. The addition of oxygen reduces carbon dioxide. sulphide etc.. The water
is as yet not fit for drinking purposes. The pathogenic and other microorganisms need to be killed.
This is done in the next treatment.
Tertiary Treatment: The tertiary treatment is actually disinfecting water. Chlorine is the most
commonly used disinfectant used for killing bacteria. However, chlorine also reacts with traces of
organic matter present in water and forms undesirable chlorinated hydrocarbons (toxic and
potentially carcinogenic). It is therefore desirable to reduce the organic matter in water before
passing chlorine gas. Other methods of disinfection such as ultraviolet radiation, ozone gas

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treatment or reverse osmosis are preferred over chlorine treatment. But these methods are more
expensive. Fig.1.3 gives a clear picture of the process of sewage treatment in total.

Fig. 1.3: The process of sewage treatment.

In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series of screens, chambers and chemical
processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. During primary treatment a large percentage of suspended
solids and inorganic material is removed from sewage. The secondary stage reduces organic
material by accelerating natural biological processes. Tertiary treatment is done when water is to be
reused. Here 99% of solids are removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure that
water is free from infecting materials.
Legal Measures to control Water Pollution:
It is important to utilise a good quality and unpolluted water. The quality criteria may vary
depending on the use. Individual efforts do pay in this regard, however, a common policy in the
form of legislation is always more effective. The enactment of ‘The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act’ in 1974 has helped in the prevention of water pollution. The standards have been
prescribed for water pollution under Environment (Protection) Act 1986. These are given as
follows:
General standards for water pollutants for discharge of effluents in water bodies on land (inland
surface water, public sewers, irrigated land and coastal areas)
 Standards specific for each type of industry
 Standards defined for the amount of waste water to be discharged for different industries
 Standards limiting the amount of a particular pollutant on the basis of production capacity of
an industrial unit

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The state pollution control boards have also been empowered to grant/renew consent tonew/existing
water polluting industries under water ‘Prevention and Control of PollutionAct-1974.’ They have
been empowered to shut down any industrial unit which fails tomeet the prescribed standards under
this Act. The state governments have also been authorized to take punitive measures against
defaulting industries.
It becomes imperative to act upon the above mentioned rules and regulations and also follow
measures at individual end to improve the quality of water used for various purposes.

1.6: SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt water pollution, it refers to any physical, chemical or biological change
that has an undesirable affect on living organisms. Sewage, industrial, agricultural pollution and
physical pollutants are the various sources of water pollution. These sources may be limited to a
point sources or spread over large areas (non-point sources). Sewage, fertilizers, detergents, toxic
wastes released by industries are some of the sources of groundwater pollution.
Phosphatic, and nitrogenous fertilizers cause algal bloom and severe oxygen depletion in water
body. The water body is said to be eutrophied. The quantity of oxygen needed by micro-organisms
in degrading organic wastes in a water body is defined in terms of its biological oxygen demand
(BOD).Biological magnification of toxic materials released into water bodies poses a serious threat
to aquatic life and eventually to human life. Polluted water may be made useful for human
consumption by subjecting it to various treatments. Legislative measures have been enacted in our
country to restrict the pollution of various water bodies.

1.8: KEYWORDS

Water Pollution Water Pollutants

Point sources Non point sources
Eutrophication Biomagnification
Wastewater Treatment

1.9 QUESTIONS FOR SELFSTUDY

1. Define Environmental Pollution.
2. What are the pollutants causing environmental pollution?

15
 3. Briefly explain the sources of environmental pollution.
4. What are the types of environmental pollution? Explain.
5. Discuss the effects of water pollution.
6. Describe the controlling measures for water pollution.

1.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

 Ibrahim A. Mirsal, 2008. Soil Pollution Origin, Monitoring & Remediation, Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg.
 P. D. Sharma, 2012. Ecology and Environment. Rastogi Publications.
 SC Santra, 2011. Environmental Science, NCBA publication, New Delhi.
 General Ecology – Kumar H.D et. al, Vikas publishing house Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi (1995)
 Fundamental Ecology, Odum E.P.III Ed, Saunders, (1971)
 Ecology – Culvinvux P, John Wiley and Sons, (1986)
 Ecology and Environment – P.D.Sharma, Rastogi Publications, Meerut India
 Ecology – Krebs J, II ed, Harper international
 The Ecology of Tropical lakes and Rivers Payne A.I. John Wiley (1986)

16
 UNIT 2: AIR POLLUTION

STRUCTURE

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition
2.3 Classification of Air Pollutants
2.4 Sources of Air Pollution and types
2.5 Effects of Air Pollution
2.6 Air Pollution Control Strategies
2.7 Summary
2.8 Keywords
2.9 Questions for Self Study
2.10 References for Further Reading

17
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to

 explain the composition of air;

 define air pollution;

 explain respiration, photosynthesis and decay cycle;

 discuss sources of major air pollutants;

 describe effects of air pollution

 discuss control strategies for air pollution

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the atmosphere, there are gases like nitrogen, oxygen carbon di-oxide and other gases are disturbed by
human activity then it will have adverse effects on life on the earth. The increase or decrease in the
composition of air will cause undesirable changes in the environment. Air pollution is due to a combination
of gaseous and particulate pollutants such as carbon di-oxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrogen di-oxide
released from industries and automobiles that burn fuel. Some gaseous pollutants are visible and some are
diffused to the atmosphere and invisible. Particulate pollution, on the other hand, such as soot and black
carbon, is always visible. Some of the aspects covered in the following sections.

2.2 DEFINITION
Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or
biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or
biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. Household combustion devices,
motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common sources of air pollution. Pollutants of major
public health concern include particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur
dioxide. Outdoor and indoor air pollution cause respiratory and other diseases and are important sources of
morbidity and mortality.
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollutant may be classified in many ways.
Classification of air pollutants based on origin
Based on the origin, air pollutants are classified in to primary air pollutants and secondary air pollutants.
Primary air pollutants are those that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Examples
like smoke, dust, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulate matter etc..
18
Secondary air pollutants are formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Examples are Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), ozone etc.
Classification of air pollutants based on state of matter
Based on the state of matter, air pollutants are classified in to gaseous pollutants and particulate matter.
Gaseous pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. They are carbon dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc. Particulate matter are suspended droplets, solid particles or mixtures
of the two.
Classification of air pollutants based on originate
Natural sources: These include volcanic eruptions, deflation of sand and dust, forest or wild
fires of natural vegetation, sulphur springs, natural geysers, organic and inorganic decays,
vegetative decays, marsh gases, cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers, photochemical reactions,
soil debris etc.
Man-made sources: These include human activities such as industries, factories, urban
centres, aircraft, nuclear experiments, automobiles, agriculture, domestic burning of wood and
burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, waste treatment plants and power plants.
Types of pollutants
Particulate Pollutants
Particulate pollutants such as soot and fly ash are released by various industries as by products of industrial
processes. They are blown away by wind when they come out of the chimneys and other outlets of
industries and mix with air.
Suspended particulate matter is also emitted by exhaust of polluting diesel vehicles and ill managed coal
fired power plants. In nature, forest fires, wind erosion and volcanic eruptions add suspended particulate
matter into air. Examples of particulate pollutants are soot, flyash from thermal power plants, cement dust,
petro coke from petroleum refineries.
Fluoride: Aluminium, steel and electrochemical plants, blast furnaces, brick kilns, coal combustion, tile
and glass etching factories add fluoride particles which settle on vegetation. They burn tips of leaves and
when cattle eat the vegetation they suffer from fluorosis resulting in loss of teeth, weight and lameness.
Humans also suffer from fluorosis. Volcanoes also release fluorides which form gaseous as well as
particulate pollutant.
Lead: Lead particles come into air from automobile exhausts. Lead is used as an antiknock agent in
automobile gasoline which contains tetraethyl lead. Paint, ceramic and pesticide industries also add lead
particles to the atmosphere. Manufacture of lead storage batteries and recycling of discarded batteries add
to lead pollution. Lead interferes with development of red blood corpuscles and causes anaemia (lack of
haemoglobin - the oxygen carrying pigment of blood). Lead is a cumulative poison and prolonged
exposure even in low concentration may damage kidneys and liver.
19
Dust: Particulate matter less than 10 microns in size is dust. It reaches lungs, deposits along the respiratory
tract and causes asthma or even lung cancer. Dust from stone crushers is another example of particular
pollutant.
Sodium chloride: Sodium chloride is used to remove snow in winter and remains in the environment.
Some sodium chloride is also added to the environment when waves of the sea spray it. Excess sodium
chloride has been found to cause defoliation (leaf falling), suppression of flowering and breaking of
terminal shoots of apple.
Agricultural chemicals: Chemical insecticides, herbicides and other pesticides are known to have
damaging effects on plants. They are toxic to animals and humans also. Residues of pesticides get
suspended as particulate matter in air.
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons which may be in the form of liquid droplets or gas pollute air. As liquid droplets they spill or
are added through seepage of oil fields and natural gas leakage. Methane is emitted in the swamps and
paddy fields by methanogenic bacteria. Methane (CH4) is also generated in stomachs of ruminant animals.
Incomplete combustion of fuels release 3, 4 benzopyrene, which causes lung cancer. Pesticides, paints and
solvents also release hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are a source of photochemical smog.
Gaseous Pollutants
SO2, CO2, nitrogen oxides are commonly added to the air by human activities. Excess of these have very
serious damaging effects on the physical environment as well as on humans.
SO2 and H2S : These are released into atmosphere through smelting of ores containing sulphur,
manufacture of H2SO4 petroleum refining, combustion of fossil fuels, paper making, burning of sulphur
containing refuse and in nature through volcanic eruptions. Plants exposed to SO2 and H2S show
defoliation (leaves falling off) and reduced growth. In humans, SO2 pollution causes headache, vomiting,
irritation of eye and respiratory passages. SO2 reacts with water to form H2SO4 which is washed down as
acid rain about which you shall study later in the chapter.
Nitrogen Oxides: Anaerobic breakdown of nitrogenous compounds by bacteria is the natural source of
nitrogen oxides. Burning fossil fuel also releases them. Power generators, automobile exhausts, explosives
and nitrogenous fertilizer industries and the other anthropogenic sources produce nitrogen oxides.
NO2: causes early dropping off of leaves and fruits in plants. Nitrogen oxides are one source of
photochemical smog, acid deposition and greenhouse effect. .
CO2 and CO: Combustion of oil, gas, coal and wood releases CO2 in the atmosphere. CO is released
chiefly from gasoline engines and burning of coal in defective furnaces. Motor vehicles with internal
combustion engines emit high levels of CO and hydrocarbons. Excess of CO2 can cause global warming,
CO causes photochemical smog and has a fatal effect when inhaled by humans.

20
CO poisoning: CO has a high affinity for haemoglobin. It combines with the blood pigment haemoglobin
to form carboxy-haemoglobin. The normal function of haemoglobin is to carry O2. But CO combines with
haemoglobin about two hundred times faster than O2. Tissues do not get oxygen and die due to lack of
oxygen. Carboxy-haemoglobin is dark red in colour, the victims of CO poisoning have dark red lips. Mild
CO poisoning causes lung disorders like bronchitis and emphysema. CO from cigarette smoke makes
haemoglobin
non functional in smokers.
Photochemical oxidants: Primary pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons mix in the
atmosphere and form secondary pollutants like peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone, under the influence
of UV radiation from the sun. Both PAN and O3 form photochemical smog. PAN and O3 are toxic to
plants. In humans they cause irritation of eyes coughing, headache, dry throat, respiratory problems and
haemorrhage.
Tobacco smoke: Smoke from burning cigarettes or bidis contains nicotine, aromatic hydrocarbons and tar.
These cause problems of blood pressure and heart, windpipe and lungs in the smoker as well as those
around the smoker. Cigarette smoke is also carcinogenic.
2.4 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION AND TYPES
The sources of air pollution are generally categorized as point, area, and mobile sources.
Point Sources: A point source is a stationary facility or process that emits a significant amount of
air pollution during manufacturing, power generation, heating, incineration, or other such activity.
For NATA, USEPA called this category "Major Sources," and included in it just those sources
which emit at least 10 tons per year of any one hazardous air pollutant (HAP), or at least 25 tons
per year total of any HAPs. Major point sources include power plants; refineries; municipal waste
incinerators; toxic waste transfer, storage and disposal facilities (TSDFs); TRI sources (facilities
that are required to report their emissions under the Toxic Release Inventory program); and other
sources that must report emissions under other state and federal programs.
Area and Other Sources: These are small sources of air pollution which by themselves may not
emit very much but, when their emissions are added together, account for a significant portion of
the total emissions of air toxics. Area and Other Sources includes small industrial sources that fall
below the "major source" threshold. Area sources are often too small or too numerous to be
inventoried individually. The following are grouped under area sources are as follows:
 Industrial processes such as chromium electroplating, surface coating of cans and paper,
metal parts cleaning, metal recycling, small chemical manufacturing plants, and bakeries
 Consumer products, such as personal care products, household products, adhesives and
sealants, automotive products, and coatings
21 such as paints
  Residential heating and fuel use
 Pesticide use
 Prescribed burns, and forest and wildfires, and structure fires
 Gasoline stations
 Dry cleaners
 Institutional and commercial heating
Mobile Sources: These are divided into two categories:
 On-road mobile sources are vehicles found on roads and highways, including cars, trucks,
buses, and motorcycles.
 Non-road mobile sources include aircraft, trains, lawnmowers, boats, dirt bikes,
construction vehicles, farm equipment, leaf blowers, and more

2.5 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

You are now familiar with the various atmospheric pollutants. Most of these are products of fuel
combustion. These pollutants have been released into atmosphere ever since human first started
burning wood and coal. Later on, pollutants are being released into air due to increased industrial
activity. The nature has not been able to remove all these pollutants because much more pollutants
are added than the nature can handle to maintain the balance. Therefore, pollutants have now
accumulated in the atmosphere to a proportion whereby atmospheric composition of air has been
significantly altered. It is the causes of physical phenomena such as photochemical smog, acid
rain, ozone depletion, greenhouse effect and global warming. These are damaging to plants,
animals and humans.
SMOG
Smog is a combination of fog, smoke and fumes released by mills and factories, homes and
automobiles. When sunlight falls on stagnant air under low humid conditions in the presence of
pollutants such as SO2 soot, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, photochemical smog is formed
(photochemical: chemical reactions in the presence of light). Smog stays close to the ground and
reduces visibility and causes irritation.
Photochemical smog is also called PAN smog due to the formation of peroxyacetyl nitrate or PAN
and ozone which are formed from hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of solar
radiation. PAN and ozone are called photochemical oxidants. Both of these are toxic irritants to
human lungs.

22
Smog formation is accompanied by Temperature inversion or Thermal inversion, Temperature
inversion causes smog to settle and remain near the ground till wind sweeps it away. Normally,
warm air rises up into atmosphere. When a layer of cool air at the ground level is held there by an
overlying layer of warm stagnant air. It is called temperature or thermal inversion
Exposure to smog causes respiratory problems, bronchitis, sore throat, cold, headache and
irritation to eyes (red shot eyes). Smog also damages crops and reduces crop yield
Acid Rain
Coal and oil burned by power plants and other industries release SO2 into air because coal and oil
contain small amount of sulphur. Automobile exhausts add SO2 and nitrogen oxides to the air.
Both SO2 and nitrogen oxides are converted into acids HNO3 and H2SO4 when they combine with
oxygen and water vapour in the atmosphere as per the following photo chemical reactions.
2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O  2H2SO4
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O  4HNO3
The acids, so formed are washed down from air to earth during rain or snow fall. It is called acid
rain or acid snow. The acids react with minerals present in soil to form sulphates and nitrates due
to acid rain.
Some of the effects of acid rain are listed below:
 Excessive acid concentrations are phytotoxic (toxic to plants). There have been widespread
death of trees in forests due to acid rain.
 Sea waters are rich in minerals and have great buffering capacity. But buffering capacity
of fresh water bodies is low and acid deposits have a toxic effect on the fresh water
ecosystems.
 Mature (capable of reproduction) fish survives in acid rain fed water bodies but fails to
reproduce. So there are no young fish in such waters.
 Exposed surfaces of buildings, statues get corroded. Limestone or marble (CaCO3)
structures are specially damaged.
The chemical reaction is like
CaCO3 + H2SO4  CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O.
 The sulphates are leached out by rain water.
 Acidic sulphate when present in the atmosphere causes laziness. Acidic mist falling on the
ground reduces visibility.
Green House Effect and Global Warming
23
The literal meaning and function of green house is to trap the heat. You must have seen delicate plants
being grown in a glass chamber which is comparatively warmer inside than outside. Glass permits solar
radiations to come in but restricts the outward movement of heat. The radiations get trapped inside the
glass chamber and raises the temperature. Gases such as CO2, NO2, CFCs (chloro fluorocarbons) allow sun
rays to pass through
them but then absorb and reradiate the heat back towards the earth. These are therefore termed as green
house gases.

Fig. 1.1. Green House Effect and Global Warming

Radiations (ultra violet) from the sun penetrate the earth’s atmosphere and reach earth. The
surface of earth partially absorbs the radiations. The rest is re-radiated as infrared radiation from
the earth’s surface. In polluted air, molecules of CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O and water vapours are
present. These gases can absorb infrared radiations but cannot absorb the ultra violet radiations.
Energy of these trapped radiations raise the temperature of earth and its atmosphere. Thus if
proportion of green house gases increases in the atmosphere heat trapped by them will raise the
temperature of the earth and will cause global warming.
The effects of global warming are:
 Rise in sea level: It is estimated that by the turn of the century a rise of 5°C in global
temperature will be due to effect of greenhouse gases if not checked now. Polar ice caps
would melt because of rise in temperature and add more water to sea. Moreover water
expands when it heats up. This will lead to rise of sea level. It will flood the low lying
coastal area and many cities will get submerged in water.
 Drought: A 3° C warming will result in 10% decrease in precipitation (rain fall) and this
will decrease rain fall causing drought conditions.
24
  Effect on plant growth: Drought will reduce photosynthesis in plants and lead to reduced
growth of plants.
 Effect on animals: Warmer conditions will encourage growth of pests.
 Water shortage: Increase in temperature will lead to increased evaporation leading to
shortage of water for agricultural, municipal and industrial use.
 Climatic changes : It has great effect on climate changes. For example, spring now occurs
about a week earlier than normal time.
 Increase in CO2Warmer conditions accelerate microbial degradation of organic matter
and add more CO2.
 Day and Night temperature : Night temperatures have increased more than day
temperature as green house gases prevent heat from escaping at night.
Depletion of ozone layer
The atmosphere has two layers, the stratosphere and troposphere. Stratosphere lies 15 km to 50
km above the surface of earth. The energy of the sun splits some molecular O2 in this layer to give
individual (O) atoms which combine with intact molecular oxygen to give O3. The layer of O3
forms a shield as it absorbs UV rays and prevent them from striking the earth. If UV rays
penetrate our atmosphere the life would not be possible as organisms cannot tolerate heavy doses
of UV radiation.
Troposphere is the atmospheric layer closest to the earth’s surface whose composition you have
already studied. Chloro fluorocarbons and halons released into the atmosphere have destroyed the
ozone shield and an ozone hole has been detected at the South Pole of Antartic and North Pole of
Arctic.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
Ozone layer depletion will allow more UV rays to enter the troposphere and will cause a series of
harmful effects such as:
 Plants and animals living on the surface will start dying.
 UV radiation will fasten the formation of smog
 Temperature of the earth will increase leading to rise in sea level and flooding of low lying
areas.
 More UV rays will directly fall on the skin of humans causing skin cancer.
 Leaves of plants will show chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll and yellowing).
Effects of Air Pollution on Humans 25
Air is mobile and impact of air pollution on ecosystems is reduced as wind blows away pollutants.
But when winds are calm, air pollution becomes not only damaging but life threatening. The
damaging effects of atmospheric pollution have been described along with the account on
pollutants. Long term exposure to moderate pollution causes more discase and death. Some
adverse effects of air pollution on humans are shown below:
Disease / Discomfort Caused by
Emphysema. Bronchitis CO, SO2, PAN, O3
Eye irritation, headache SO2, PAN, O3
Silicosis. Asbestosis Suspended particulate matter like silica, asbestos
Coronary artery disease Tobacco smoke
Anemia, kidney, liver damage Lead
Fluorosis, Skin Cancer Fluorides
Poisoning death CO

2.6 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGIES

The alarming rate at which the atmosphere is being polluted, soon there will be more ailing human
beings than healthy. The need of the hour is to put a quick check to atmospheric pollution.
Since most of air pollutants are emitted during combustion of fossil fuels, there are two practical
approaches for air pollution control which are discussed below :
(i) One approach is control undesirable changes in the air we breathe by observing the following
precaution :
(a) Limiting pollutants into air by using sulphur-free oil and coal, using catalytic
convertors in automobiles and avoiding burning of waste material.
(b) Taking stringent measures against release of emissions from industries.
(ii) The other approach is to use sources of energy other than fossil fuels such as wind, water,
solar power, etc. As electricity generation is a major source of air pollution, emissions of sulphur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and respirable suspended particulates (PM10) from power
plants cause air pollution.
Use bicycles and battery powered cars rather than vehicles with internal combustion engines.
Service vehicles should use lead free petrol.

26
Pollution prevention approaches to reduce, eliminate, or prevent pollution at its source, should be
considered. Examples are to use less toxic raw materials or fuels, use a less-polluting industrial
process, and to improve the efficiency of the process.
The Clean Air Technology Center serves as a resource on air pollution prevention and control
technologies, including their use, effectiveness and cost. Examples are mechanical collectors, wet
scrubbers; fabric filters (baghouses), electrostatic precipitators, combustion systems (thermal
oxidizers), condensers, absorbers, adsorbers, and biological degradation.
Controlling emissions related to transportation can include emission controls on vehicles as well
as use of cleaner fuels.
Strict measures for following Air Pollution (Control and Prevention) Act, 1981 and other laws
related to air pollution control can also a tool for air pollution prevention. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for setting National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for pollutants considered harmful to public health and the environment. Currently there
are six principal NAAQS pollutants; they are often called criteria pollutants.
Economic incentives, such as emissions trading, banking, and emissions caps can be used. These
strategies may be combined with the "command-and-control" type regulations which have
traditionally been used by air pollution control agencies.
Apart from which, using public transports, turning off the lights when not in use. recycle and
reuse techniques, no to plastic bags, reduction of forest fires and smoking, use of fans instead of
Air Conditioner, use filters for chimneys and avoiding usage of crackers etc can also be some of
the factors for air pollution control.

2.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learned air pollution definition, classification of air pollutants based on
various factors. Primary and secondary air have been discussed. Sources of air pollution include
point sources, mobile sources and area sources. Smog cools and settles down near the earth and
forms a blanket, while warmer air covers it. Thus there is a ‘temperature inversion’ with warm air
above and cool air below unlike in the normal conditions. SO2 and NO2 form acids which drop as
H2SO4 and HNO3 on statues and spoil them. This is called acid precipitation. Acid rain kills trees,
prevents reproduction in fish and causes poor visibility. Greenhouse gases are CO2, NO2, CH4,
chlorofluorocarbons and halons. They trap solar radiation and cause global warming. Global
warming due to greenhouse effect leads to drought, rise in sea level, lack of rain and water
shortage. There is a layer of ozone in stratosphere, which protects us from UV radiation by
27
absorbing it. Chlorofluorocarbons which are used in refrigerators and foam cups as aerosols and
halons used in fire extinguishers, when released into the air cause depletion of ozone shield which
protects us from harmful effects of solar radiations. It is feared that ozone depletion will have
damaging effects on humans such as causing skin cancer. Complete destruction of ozone layer
over an area is termed as ozone hole. Air pollution causes respiratory diseases such as emphysema
and bronchitis, eye irritation, fluoroisis, cancer and may even be fatal. Air pollution affects both
on physical structures and on humans causing various diseases. Air pollution can be controlled by
various approaches.
2.8 KEYWORDS
Air pollutants Primary pollutants
Secondary pollutants Sources of air pollution
Effects of air pollution Global warming

2.9 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. What is air pollution?
2. Classify the air pollutants and give examples.
3. What are the sources of air pollution?
4. Discuss the effects of air pollution on environment and health.
5. Describe the controlling strategies of air pollution.

2.10 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING

 Ibrahim A. Mirsal, 2008. Soil Pollution Origin, Monitoring & Remediation, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
 P. D. Sharma, 2012. Ecology and Environment. Rastogi Publications.
 SC Santra, 2011. Environmental Science, NCBA publication, New Delhi.
 General Ecology – Kumar H.D et. al, Vikas publishing house Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi (1995)
 Fundamental Ecology, Odum E.P.III Ed, Saunders, (1971)
 Ecology – Culvinvux P, John Wiley and Sons, (1986)
 Ecology and Environment – P.D.Sharma, Rastogi Publications, Meerut India
 Ecology – Krebs J, II ed, Harper international
 The Ecology of Tropical lakes and Rivers Payne A.I. John Wiley (1986)

28
 UNIT 3: NOISE POLLUTION

STRUCTURE

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition
3.3 Sources of Noise Pollution
3.4 Effects of Noise Pollution
3.5Standards. Measurement and Control of Noise Pollution
3.6 Summary
3.7 Keywords
3.8 Questions for Self Study
3.9 References for Further Reading

29
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to

 explain the composition of air;

 define air pollution;

 explain respiration, photosynthesis and decay cycle;

 discuss sources of major air pollutants;

 describe effects of air pollution

 discuss control strategies for air pollution

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Noise is one of the most persistent pollutants. A clock sound may be nice to listen during the day,
but may be an irritant during sleep at night.
Noise in industries such as stone cutting and crushing, steel forgings , loudspeakers, shouting by
hawkers selling their wares, movement of heavy transport vehicles, railways and airports leads to
irritation and an increased blood pressure, loss of temper, decrease in work efficiency, loss of
hearing which may be first temporary but can become permanent in the noise stress continues. It
is therefore of utmost importance that excessive noise is controlled. Noise level is measured in
terms of decibels (dB). World Health Organization (WHO) has prescribed optimum noise level as
45 dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.
Noise has increasingly become a nuisance in India, especially in urban areas. There are 70 noise
monitoring stations under the National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network established in 2011 in
seven cities: Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Lucknow and Mumbai.
3.2 DEFINITION
Noise can be simply defined as “unwanted sound’’. Noise can also be defined as “sound without
value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the recipient”.
It is generally higher in urban and industrial areas than in rural areas. Workers using heavy
machinery are exposed to high noise levels for long period of work hours every day. Intensity of
sound is measured in a unit called decibel or dB. The lowest intensity of sound that human ear can
hear is 20 dB.
3.3 SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution is a growing problem. All human activities contribute to noise pollution to varying
30
extent. Sources of noise pollution are many and may be located indoors or outdoors. Indoor
sources include noise produced by radio, television, generators, electric fans, air coolers, air
conditioners, different home appliances, and family conflict. Noise pollution is more in cities due
to a higher concentration of population and industries and activities such as transportation. Noise
like other pollutants is a byproduct of industrialization, urbanization and modern civilization.
Outdoor sources of noise pollution include indiscriminate use of loudspeakers, industrial
activities, automobiles, rail traffic, airplanes and activities such as those at market place, religious,
social, and cultural functions, sports and political rallies. In rural areas farm machines, pump sets
are main sources of noise pollution. During festivals, marriage and many other occasions, use of
fire crackers contribute to noise pollution.
Major causes / sources of noise pollution are discussed below:
1. Industrial Sources:
Progress in technology (industrialization) has resulted in creating noise pollution. Textile mills,
printing presses, engineering establishments and metal works etc. contribute heavily towards noise
pollution. In industrial cities like Kolkata, Ludhiana, Kanpur and other cities, often the industrial
zones are not separated from the residential zones of the city especially in the case of small scale
industries.
These operate from workshops located on the ground floors of the residential areas and cause
annoyance, discomfort and irritation to the residents exposed to the noise that is inevitably
produced. The situation is much better in modern planned cities like Chandigarh where the
industrial area is kept away from the residential areas and both are separated from each other by a
sufficiently wide green belt. Now smart city concept is to keep industries away from the city zone.
In Karnataka, some studies documented the noise in the stone quarrying industry is regarded as a major
annoyance and may lead to hearing loss and perhaps even cause adverse physiological and psychological
effect.
2. Transport Vehicles:
Automobile revolution in urban centres has proved to be a big source of noise pollution.
Increasing traffic has given rise to traffic jams in congested areas where the repeated hooting of
horns by impatient drivers pierce the ears of all road users. Noise from airplanes constitutes an
increasing serious problem in big cities like Delhi & Mumbai. Airport situated in the vicinity of
population centres and the air planes pass over residential areas. Heavy trucks, buses trains, jet-
planes, motor-cycles, scooters, mopeds, jeeps—the list of vehicles is endless but the outcome is
same - noise pollution. Bengaluru has a high vehicle
31 density during business hours, which could
become a major source of sound and noise.

Fig. 3.1: A picture showing vehicular traffic during business hours at Bengaluru city.
3. Household:
The household is an industry in itself and is a source of many indoor noises such as the banging of
doors, noise of playing children, crying of infants, moving of furniture, loud conversation of the
inhabitants etc. Besides these are the entertainment equipment in the house, namely the radio,
record-players and television sets. Domestic gadgets like the mixer-grinders, pressure cookers,
desert coolers, air- conditioners, exhaust fans, vacuum cleaners, sewing and washing machines are
all indoor sources of noise pollution.
4. Public Address System:
In India people need only the slightest of an excuse for using loud speakers. The reason may be a
religious function, birth, death, marriage, elections, demonstration, or just commercial advertising.
Public system, therefore, contributes in its own way towards noise pollution.

Fig. 3.2: A picture showing Public Addressing System.

32
5. Agricultural Machines:
Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers etc. have all made agriculture highly
mechanical but at the same time highly noisy. Noise level 90 dB to 98 dB due to running of farm
machines have been recorded in the state of Punjab.

Fig. 3.3: A picture showing Agriculture Machineries making noise pollution.

6. Defense Equipment:
A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery, tanks, launching of rockets,
explosions, exercising of military airplanes and shooting practices. Screams of jet engines and
sonic booms have a deafening impact on the ears and in extreme cases have been known to shatter
the window panes and old dilapidated buildings.

Fig. 3.3: A picture showing noise due to defense airplanes.

33
7. Miscellaneous Sources
The automobile repair shops, construction-works, blasting, bulldozing, stone crushing etc. are
other
sources of noise pollution.

3.4 EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

The effects of noise pollution have ill effects not only on the human beings but also on other
living and non-living things, which will be discussed below:
1. Repeated Interference with sleep:
In a social survey carried out amongst people living in the vicinity of London Airport, some 22
per cent said that they sometimes found difficulty in getting to sleep because of airport noises. In
areas where the noise level was particularly high, up to 50 per cent complained about the noise.
An even higher percentage said they were awakened by high intensity noises, usually early at
night when sleep was not yet deep. After people have been asleep for some hours, they do not
readily wake up, even when subjected to very loud noises. Different people have different depths
of sleep and they can adjust to nocturnal sounds. Undoubtedly, however, noisy conditions near
residential areas at night must be avoided lack of continuous sleep has as counteract it. Many
techniques for sound insulation are available today and can be applied at relatively modest
expense.
2. Effect on hearing or deafness:
These effects only become of real importance if the sounds are exceptionally loud. Continuous
exposure to noise levels much above 100 dB has an adverse effect on hearing ability within a
fairly short time. Many workers who are exposed to the noise of jet aircraft or very noisy
workshops for even moderate periods soon develop detectable hearing defects. Today it has
become the practice for workers in these situations to the equipped with ear protectors and
provided these are worn all the time hearing ability is not affected.
3. Effect on Communication or Speech Interference:
External sounds can interfere with conversation and use of the telephone, and well as the
enjoyment of radio and television programmes and like pastimes. It can thus affect the efficiency
of offices, schools and other places where communication is of vital importance. The maximum
accepted level of noise under such conditions in 55 dB. 70 dB is considered very noisy and serious
interference with verbal communications is inevitable.

34
4. Mental or Physiological Effects:
Many people complain that noise makes them mentally ill. Experiments have been performed to
attempt to confirm or disprove these claims. According to the H.M. Stationary Office report
Noise; noise certainly does not contribute in the least to mental illness. Doctors and scientist have
now medically confirmed that noise disturbs the biological organisms and their respective
functions of the humans. Fire crackers and other excessive and continuous explosives become
physically painful giving rise to neurosis, mental illness, cardiovascular diseases, stomach ulcers
and respiratory disorders reducing human life. Recent researches have concluded that short
exposures to noise (in excess of about 100 dB) leads to adverse effects on foetus, headache and,
dizziness, dilatoriness in intestines, stomach problems and effects on eye sights to the extent that
these at times become incurable.
5. Effects on Physical Health and working efficiency or Psychological problems:
Noise has little physical effect on the biological performance provided that the noise level is
below about 90 dB. Damage to the inner ear may result if continuous noise levels exceed about
100 dB as has been observed by the Doctors leading to physical illness. Psychiatrists and
psychologists have in recent researches have made observations that noise has certain relation
with physical health causing
tension resulting in problems such as speech interference, annoyance, fatigue, sleep interference
and emotional distress. Noise levels in industries causes interference in efficiency and
communication and raises possibilities of accidents. World Health Organisation has estimated
remarkable loss in the
industries annually.
6. Effects on other animals and other living things:
The effect caused by industries, railways, crackers, explosions and commotion in the cities,
aircrafts etc., can be felt on animals, birds, mice, fishes and domestic animals for they are
susceptible to various effects of due to exposure noise levels change their places. Birds avoid
migrating to places where noise level is above 100 dB. The noise emissions caused by supersonic
aircraft, railway noise emissions etc., may cause miscarriage in mammals and fishes as well as
birds are observed to have stopped laying eggs. Thus to sum up animals and other living things
become upset more than human beings and in the direct cause of ecological in balance.
7. Effect on non-living things:
Intense noise levels affect non-living things too. The noise booms cause cracks in national and
35
archaeological monuments as well as very high. Levels of noise are the cause of cracks in hills.
High intensity explosions can break glass panes and vibrations in the buildings. Research work at
India and abroad is being done so as to access its gravity on non-living things so that precautions
could be taken forehand to reduce impact thereof. For example, in mining activities, during
blasting cause huge sound that may causes damages to nearby buildings that appear as cracks and
other damages.

3.5 NOISE MEASUREMENT STANDARDS AND CONTRO OF NOISE POLLUTION

Standards of Noise Pollution:
The CPCB has laid down the permissible noise levels in India for different areas. Noise pollution rules
have defined the acceptable level of noise in different zones for both daytime and night time as shown in
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Noise Level Limits as per CPCB Ambient air quality standards

For ambient air quality. Automobiles, domestic appliance & construction equipment. Generator
sets, fire crackers have been notified under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Noise standards
for motor vehicles have also been notified under Central Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989. Noise
exposure limits for work zone area have been prescribed in the Model Rules framed under the
Factories Act, 1948.
Control of Noise Pollution:
The following methods are discussed to reduce noise Pollution:
1. Turn of Appliances at Homes and Offices:
Noise can have reduced by turn offing home and office appliances when not in use such as TV,
games, computers etc. it can create unnecessary stress on ears. We can save electricity also when
we turn them off.
2. Shut the door when using noisy machines:
The doors can be shut off while using noise machines, like dishwashers or washing machines for
36
rooms where it is kept or we can turn them on before leaving the house so that overlapping of
exposure to loud noises can be reduced.
3. Using of Earplugs:
Use of earplugs or earmuffs can bring down loud noises to a manageable level. Earplugs are small
inserts that fit into our ear canal. Earmuffs fit over the entire outer ear to form an air seal keeping
ears safe from loud noises. Especially in industries, where machineries make huge noise, using
earplugs can reduce the effect of noise.
4. Lower the volume:
We can listen to songs, radios, TVs in lower volume when listening from headphones or speakers.
Stay away from Noisy area: Noise producing industries, airports, vehicles should be far from
residential areas as it is very dangerous for infants and senior citizens.
5. Follow the limits of noise level:
Community law should check the use of loudspeakers, outdoor parties as well as political public
announcements.
6. Control of Noise level near sensitive areas:
There should be control on noise level (Silent zones) near schools, hospitals. Place noise limits
boards near sensitive areas.
7. Planting trees can used as green belt:
We can plant more trees as they are good noise absorbents. According to studies, it can reduce
noise
by 5 to 10 dB around them.

Fig. 3.4: The picture showing green belt around industry.

37
8. Create healthy noise to eliminate unwanted noise:
If we can’t eliminate unwanted noise coming from outside then we can create healthier noise such
as
music, singing birds or waterfalls in homes or offices.
9. Use Noise Absorbents in Noisy Machineries:
We can check for pieces of machinery which are creating noise due to vibrations and put some
noise
absorbents to reduce noise.
10. Use Proper Lubrication and Better Management:
We can use proper lubrication as well as better maintenance of machines to reduce noise pollution
and improve efficiency. It reduces friction between movable parts and helps to reduce noise.
11. Notify authorities about disobedience of noise rules:
We can notify government agencies if someone is not following rules and regulation regarding
noise levels.
12. Regularly check noise levels:
Regularly checking noise level in an industrial complex and indoor to keep noise level within the
limit. It is necessary to control the noises created around us. It is necessary to aware people around
us through various mediums. We can start from ourselves to spread awareness about noise
pollution and its effects on human and the environment. Limit for noise at daytime is 55 dB and in
the night it is 30 dB to avoid health effects.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has proposed a new set of fines between Rs 1,000
and Rs 1 lakh for those who violate norms restricting noise pollution under the Noise Pollution
(Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. Unremitting loud construction activity, loudspeakers at
functions and processions, honking at odd hours — all contributors to noise pollution and
violations under the law — can, thus, burn holes in the pockets of those who violate the norms.
The list of new fines were proposed by the CPCB in a June 12, 2020 report filed with the National
Green Tribunal (NGT) in response to a set of ongoing cases over noise pollution.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has proposed a new set of fines between Rs 1,000
and Rs 1 lakh for those who violate norms restricting noise pollution under the Noise Pollution
(Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. Unremitting loud construction activity, loudspeakers at
functions and processions, honking at odd hours — all contributors to noise pollution and
violations under the law — can, thus, burn holes in the pockets of those who violate the norms.

38
The list of new fines were proposed by the CPCB in a June 12, 2020 report filed with the National
Green Tribunal (NGT) in response to a set of ongoing cases over noise pollution.

Fig. 3.4: Noise Regulation in India.

39
3.6 SUMMARY
This unit gives you the definition of noise pollution and sources of noise pollution. The sources
are industrial, transport sector, household, public addressing, agricultural machines, defense and
others. Noise pollution interferences with sleep disturbances, deafness and speech, mental and
physiological and psychological effects. Noise level limits are set by Central Pollution Control
Board for day and night time with reference to industrial, commercial, residential and silence
areas. This unit also described the measures to control noise pollution.
3.7 KEYWORDS
Noise Pollution Sound pressure
Noise level limits Noise measurement
Sources of Noise pollution Noise control measure

3.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY

1. Define noise pollution
2. What are the sources of noise pollution? Explain.
3. Describe the effects of noise pollution.
4. Explain the noise level limits prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board.
5. Discuss the measures for controlling noise pollution.

3.9 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING

 Ibrahim A. Mirsal, 2008. Soil Pollution Origin, Monitoring & Remediation, Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
 P. D. Sharma, 2012. Ecology and Environment. Rastogi Publications.
 SC Santra, 2011. Environmental Science, NCBA publication, New Delhi.
 General Ecology – Kumar H.D et. al, Vikas publishing house Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi (1995)
 Fundamental Ecology, Odum E.P.III Ed, Saunders, (1971)
 Ecology – Culvinvux P, John Wiley and Sons, (1986)
 Ecology and Environment – P.D.Sharma, Rastogi Publications, Meerut India
 Ecology – Krebs J, II ed, Harper international
 The Ecology of Tropical lakes and Rivers Payne A.I. John Wiley (1986)
40
 UNIT4: SOIL POLLUTION

STRUCTURE

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definition
4.3 Causes of Soil Pollution
4.4 Types of Soil Pollution
4.5 Effects of Soil Pollution
4.6 Controlling Strategies of Soil Pollution
4.7 Summary
4.8 Keywords
4.9 Questions for Self Study
4.10 References for Further Reading

41
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to

 define soil pollution

 describe the causes of soil pollution

 explain types of soil pollution

 discuss controlling strategies of soil pollution

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil constitutes the upper most layer of the earth crust and support plants and animals. Like water
and air pollution, soil also gets polluted. First we understand the soil. Soil is the uppermost layer
of the earth’s crust. It is a mixture of many solid, liquid and gaseous substances having both living
and non living matter such as mineral particles, decaying organic matter, microbes along with
water and air contained in pore spaces.
Components in Soil Percentage
Organic mineral matter 45%
Organic matter 5%
Soil water 25%
Soil air 25%
Formation of soil is a very slow process starting from breakdown of bed rock into mineral
particles caleed weathering. This process is called pedogenesis, that means modification of
mineral matter through interactions between biological, topographic and climatic factors. This
process may take 200 to some thousand years to form one inch of top soil depending upon the
local conditions of the area. The process of soil formation is very slow, hence the soil is
considered as non-renewable resource. This causes the problem of soil pollution and more acute.
Soils are rich in nutrients and holds the plants and support animals as their habitat. Soils consists
of macro and micro nutrients which are essential for plant growth. Soils having macro and
microfauna including microorganisms, which are functioning in the soil ecosystem for turnover
the nutrients through decomposition. Soils also protected by plants for controlling the soil erosion.
Soil composition

4.2 DEFINITION
Soil pollution can be defined as ‘ the addition of substances to the oil, which adversely affect
42
physical, chemical and biological properties and reduces the productivity.

4.3 CAUSES AND TYPES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution is an extremely complicated process. This may occur directly by dumping and
disposal of wasters, application of agro-chemicals and also indirectly by air pollution such as acid
rain and fly ash.
The main causes of soil pollution is described below:
Industrial wastes:
Both the solid and liquids wastes of industries are dumped over the soil. The wastes contain a
number of toxic chemicals such as mercury, lead, copper, nickel, zinc, cadmium, cyanides,
thiocyabatesm chromates, acids, alkalies, organic substances etc. Soils are also polluted by mining
activities.
Pesticides:
There are many chemicals available in the market to kill the pests are called pesticides, chemicals
used to kill the insects are called pesticides, which are harmful to the crops. Similarly, weedicides
to control weeds, rodenticides to kill rodents, fungicides to kill fungi in order to improve the
productivity in agriculture,, horticulture, and forestry. The chemicals which are used for increase
in productivity kill all the microorganisms and disrupt the food chain. Many of the pesticide
residues are absorbed by plants and reach the higher level organisms affect the entire animals in
the food chain though biomagnification.
Fertilizers and Manures:
Chemical fertilizers are added to the soil for increasing the crop yield. Excessive use of chemical
fertilizers decreases population of useful bacteria a crumb structure of the soil, it is also increases
the salt content of the soil and reduces productivity of the soil.
The excretory products of humans and livestock and digested sewage sludge used as manure
causing the soil pollution. the pathogenic microorganisms contained in these wastes contaminates
the soil and vegetable crops and cause health hazards for the humans and domestic animals
Discarded materials:
The discarded materials are dumped hugely into the soil by human activities like asphalt, rugs,
leather, plastics, glass, food wastes, paper and carcasses. The addition of theses wastes into the
soil contamination.
Radioactive wastes:
43
Radioactive elements from mining activities and nuclear power plants reach the soil through water
pollution contaminate the soil, as they have serious effects on human health.
Other Pollutants:
Many air pollutants like dust, air pollutants causing acid rain, and water pollutants ultimately
reach the soil, and als some toxic chemicals reach the soil through weathering of rocks causing
soil pollution
4.5 EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
Impacts of soil pollution are not restricted to soil and its biota but are carried over to every aspect
of the environment. It affect every organism from the small soil organism to humans. A few of the
adverse effects are as follows:
Effect on Human health
Humans dependent on the land for food. Soil pollutants accumulated in the food chain enter the
higher organism causing chronic poisoning, and leading to various diseases. The uktimate receiver
is the man causing serious effects on reproductive health, birth and developmental defects,
neurologic effects, malnutrition, and mutations in the cells of the body leading to cancers; all these
are on the increase today. Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the
contamination of it has major consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown on polluted
soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass these on to us. This could explain the sudden
surge in small and terminal illnesses. Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-
up of the body, causing congenital illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured
easily. In fact, it can sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a
long period of time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are
unable to grow in it.
Effect on Growth of Plants
Plants will not be able to adapt to sudden changes occurring in the soil. Fungi and bacteria found
in the soils cannot bind the soil due to chemical changes and this causes soil erosion. Large tracts
of land become barren; unable to support any life on it. Even the plants that do grow on these
lands will absorb the toxins and transfer to the food chain. The ecological balance of any system
gets affected due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt
when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria
found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil
erosion. The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local

44
vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health.
Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms
of life.
Decreased Soil Fertility
The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil
yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality
nutrients and may contain some poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in people
consuming them.
Effect on landscape and Odour pollution
Huge piles of refuse and garbage being open dumped and littered over an area spoils the serenity
of the landscape. The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and
causes serious effects on health of some people. The unpleasant smell causes inconvenience to
other people.
Changes in Soil Structure
The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms, insects and microbes) in the soil can lead to
alteration in soil structure. Apart from that, it could also force their predators to move to other
places in search of food.
Effect on Ecosystem and Biodiversity
Soil pollution can lead to the lack of biodiversity in an ecosystem. The life of bird, insect,
mammal and reptile species that live in the soil can get affected by pollution. The soil is an
important habitat.
Contamination of Water Sources
When it rains, surface run-off carries contaminated soil into water sources causing water
pollution. Pollutants can also infiltrate down to contaminate ground water. The contaminated
water is thus unfit for both animal and human consumption. It will also affect aquatic life since the
organisms that live in these water bodies will find their habitats inhabitable.
Soil Degradation
Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor management, usually
for agricultural, industrial or urban purposes. It is a serious environmental problem. Soils are a fundamental
natural resource, and are the basis for all terrestrial life. Avoiding soil degradation is crucial to our well-
being.
Soil degradation is the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality. It can be the loss of organic
matter, decline in soil fertility, and structural condition, erosion, adverse changes in salinity, acidity or
45
alkalinity, and the effects of toxic chemicals, pollutants or excessive flooding. Soil degradation can
involve:

 water erosion (includes sheet, rill and gully erosion)

 wind erosion
 salinity (includes dryland, irrigation and urban salinity)
 loss of organic matter
 fertility decline
 soil acidity or alkalinity
 structure decline (includes soil compaction and surface sealing)
 mass movement
 soil contamination (including effects of toxic chemicals and pollutants).
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a gradual process of movement and transport of the upper layer of soil (topsoil) by
different agents – particularly water, wind, and mass movement – causing its deterioration in the
long term. In other words, soil erosion is the removal of the most fertile top layer of soil through
water, wind and tillage.
According to a Pereira and Muñoz-Rojas (2017) synthesis, soil erosion is one of the major causes,
evidence of, and key variables used to assess and understand land degradation. Soil erosion is a
consequence of unsustainable land use and other disturbances, such as fire, mining, or intensive
agricultural uses. The loss of soil may have serious impacts on the quantity and quality of soil
ecosystem services, with serious economic, social, and political implications.
Radioactive soil pollution
Accidental releases, nuclear weapons testing, and inadequate practices of radioactive waste
disposal are the principal human activities responsible for radioactive contamination as a new and
global form of soil degradation.
These radioactive elements persist in the soil affect the biota including adverse effect on human
health.
4.6 CONTROLLING STRATEGIES OF SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution can be controlled by following measures:
A. Prevention of soil erosion:
1. Conservational till farming or no-till farming: Traditionally, land is ploughed to
make a planting surface. This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion. The no-
46
 till farming method makes minimum disturbance to the top soil by making slits in the
unploughed soil. Seeds, fertilizers and water are injected in these slits.
2. Contour farming: In this method, crops are planted in rows along contours of gently
sloped land. Each row acts as a small dam to hold soil thereby slowing water runoff.
3. Terracing: In this method, steep slopes are converted into a series of broad terraces that
run across the contour. This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by controlling
runoff.
4. Alley cropping or Agro-forestry: This method involves planting crops in strips or
alleys between rows of trees or shrubs that provide fruits and fuel wood. Hence, when the
crop is harvested, the soil will not be eroded as the trees and shrubs remain on ground
holding the soil particles.
5. Wind breaks or shelter belts: In this technique, trees are planted in long rows along
the boundary of cultivated land which block the wind and reduce soil erosion. Wind breaks
help in retaining soil moisture, supply wood for fuel and provide habitat for birds.
B. Ways to minimize the soil acidification process:
1. The use of less acidifying farming practices: Retain crop residue, no nitrate residue, less
tillage etc.
2/ Applications of agricultural lime: The addition of lime raises the soil pH to some
prescribed value (pH 6.0 to 7.0).
C. Remedies to correct salt affected soil
1. Deep Tilling: Deep tilling can improve drainage for soils with high salt levels. This
method works by breaking up hard soils or rocklike soil layers that prevent the downward
flow of water. But is usually temporary, as some parts of the soil may harden and reseal.
2. Flushing Soil and Preventing Evaporation: Flushing the soil is the process of
irrigating the area with a low-salt water and washing the salt below the root zone; provided
soils have good drainage. When water evaporates on a dry soil surface, it leaves salt
behind. Mulching can help in retaining soil moisture.
3. Chemical remediation: Modifying salty soils with sulphur, lime or calcium can help in
removing or replacing the sodium in the soil. But several factors like area's groundwater,
soil condition, geological factors etc. should be pondered before applying chemical
remediation.
4. Combination of methods: A combination approach can be more effective. Starting
47
 with correct amendment and working it in, using deep tilling. Then flushing the soil with
water to leach the salt from the surface. Repeating this process, if needed.
5. Land reclamation: Land reclamation incorporates activities centered towards restoring
the previous organic matter and soil’s vital minerals. This may include activities such as
the addition of plant residues to degraded soils and improving range management.
Salinized soils can be restored by salt level correction reclamation projects and salinity
control. There is a project funded by the World Bank for reclaiming saline lands in
Maharashtra, affecting 1,000 villages in the State. A significant percentage of the lands are
in the farmer’s suicide-prone Vidarbha region.
D. Sustainable Practices:
Number of sustainable practices can be applied in order to prevent spreading of desertification.
Such as following :

1. Checking overgrazing- Fewer animals in the same area will allow plants to grow back.

2. Integrated farming - Keep animals and grow crops. Use the manure from the animals
to replace soil nutrients where the crops grow. Swap the place where the crops grow
and the animals graze from time to time.

3. Plant more trees - These will protect the soil surface from the impact of rain and the
effects of wind. The roots will bind the soil together and trap water.

4. Build earth dams - These are small dams which follow the contours of the soil. When it
rains, the water does not run off the surface, but is trapped and infiltrates the soil
E. Production and use of natural fertilizers:
To prevent harmful effects of chemical fertilizers, biological routes of soil fertility are being
adopted. Organic farming should be practiced.
F. Education: Education is an important tool that needs to be utilized in order to help people to
understand the best way to use the land. By educating them on sustainable practices, more land
will be saved from being getting polluted.
Also there are some processes where we can control soil pollution as follows:
 Transfer of solid and other wastes should be constructed at various points in cities for bulk
transfer of refuse to discharge places.
 Pneumatic pipes should be laid for collecting and disposing wastes.

48
  Special pit or low lying areas should be identified and sanitary land fill should be
constructed for dumping of industrial wastes.
 Recycling of paper, glass and some kind of plastics is the best solution for controlling the
sol pollution. as these can be recycled and can be reused. For example, 17 trees can be
saved by recycling one tone of paper. Thereby conserving the natural resources as well as
control the soil pollution
 Animal refuse ad agricultural wastes can be used for production of biogas.
 Reducing the use of chemical fertilizers can be achieved with the use of biofertilizers.
 Instead of using pesticides biological pest control methods can be followed to control soil
pollution.
 Improving the mining technologies and transportation of extracted materials can reduce
the dust deposition on crops and causing other soil pollution.

4.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, meaning of the soil and its composition is explained. The causes and types of soil
pollution is also discussed. The effects of soil pollution on human health, plants and soil fertility is
given here. Soil erosion and degradation is studied in this unit. Few controlling measures of soil
pollution is also discussed.

4.8 KEYWORDS
Composition of soil Causes of soil pollution
Types of soils Effects of soil pollution
Soil erosion Soil degradation
Till and Non-till farming Contour farming
Terrace agriculture Land reclamation
Sustainable agriculture
4.9 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1. Define soil.
2. Write the composition of soil.
3. What are the causes of soil pollution
4. Discuss the sources of soil pollution
5. Describe the effects of soil pollution.
49
 5. Write in detail the controlling measures for soil pollution.
4.10 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING
Das P. C., 2015, Manures and fertilizers. Kalyani Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Gupta A. K. and Varshney M. L. Practical manual for Agricultural. Chemistry, Kalyani
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Nagornny V. D. and Raghav J. S. Rept. 2015, Soil Fertility Management Kalyani
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhiss
Soil Science Simplified, Khonke and Franzmeier, Waveland Press.
Soils and Soil Fertility, Troch, F.R. and Thompson, L.M., Oxford Press.
Soil Fertilizer Handbook, The Fertilizer Institute, Washington, D.C. PPI & others.

50