Electrical & Electronic Equipment for Industrial Machinery

Electric Motors

Phuong-Tung Pham, Ph.D.

Department of Mechatronics
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

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CONTENTS
Motor Principle

DC Motor

3-Phase AC Motor

Single Phase AC Motor

AC Motor Drives

Motor Selection

Motor Troubleshooting

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 Motor Principle

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 Motor Principle
Electric motors are used to convert electric energy into mechanical energy.

An electric motor uses magnetism and electric currents to operate. There are
two basic categories of motors, AC and DC. Both use the same fundamental
parts but with variations to allow them to operate using two different kinds of
electrical power supply.

Magnetism is the force that creates rotation for a motor to operate.

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 Motor Principle
A similar type of magnetic field is produced around a current-carrying
conductor.
The strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the amount of current
flowing through the conductor and takes the form of concentric circles around the
wire.

When a current-carrying conductor is shaped into a coil, the individual flux

lines produced by each of the turns form one stronger magnetic field.
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying coil resembles that of a
permanent magnet.
As with the permanent magnet, these flux lines leave the north of the coil and
reenter the coil at its south pole.
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 Motor Principle
The polarity of the poles of a coil reverses whenever the current flow through
the coil reverses. An electric motor rotates as the result of the interaction of
two magnetic fields.

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Family tree of common motors

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 DC Motor

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 Brushed DC Motors
Direct-current motors (DC motors) are not used as much as alternating current
types because all electric utility systems deliver alternating current.

Direct-current motors are used where a wide range of precise torque and speed
control is required to match the needs of the application.
Such applications include cranes, conveyors, and elevators.

There are several types of DC

motors, classified according to
field type.
- Permanent magnet
- Wound-field motors
▪ Series (nối tiếp)
▪ Shunt (song song)
▪ Compound (hỗn hợp_
Major components of a DC motor.
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 Direct Current Motors

Important parameters used to predict DC motor performance:

• Speed: Refers to the rotational speed of the motor's shaft and is measured
in revolutions per minute (rpm).

• Torque: Refers to the turning force supplied by the motor's shaft. Torque
consists of force acting on a radius. The standard units of torque as used in
the motor control industry are pound-inches (lb-in), or pound-feet (lb-ft).

• Horsepower: Refers to the rate at which work is done.

As an example, 1 horsepower is equivalent to lifting 75kg to a height of 1 m in 1

second. One horsepower is also equivalent to 746 watts of electrical power. Therefore,
you can use watts to calculate horsepower and vice versa.

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 Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
Permanent-magnet DC motors (động cơ DC chổi than có stator là nam châm
vĩnh cửu) use permanent magnets to supply the main field flux and
electromagnets to provide the armature flux. Movement of the magnetic field
of the armature is achieved by switching current between coils within the
motor.

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 Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
PM motors produce high torque compared to wound-field motors. However
permanent magnet motors are limited in load-handling ability and for this
reason used mainly for low-horsepower applications.

• The direction of rotation of a PM DC

motor is determined by the direction
of the current flow through the
armature.
• Variable-speed control of a PM motor is
accomplished by varying the value of
the voltage applied to the armature.

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 Wound-field DC Motor
Wound-field DC motors (Động cơ DC tự kích từ) are usually classified as series
wound, shunt-wound, or compound-wound.

Series-wound DC motor consists of a series field winding connected in series

with the armature.
A series-wound DC motor has a low resistance field and low resistance
armature circuit. => when voltage is first applied to it, the current is high
The advantage of high current is that the magnetic fields inside the motor
are strong, producing high torque (turning force).

It’s ideal for starting very heavy mechanical loads.

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 Wound-field DC Motor
Shunt-wound DC motor consists of a shunt connected in parallel with the
armature.
The shunt field winding is made up of many turns of small-gauge wire and has
a much higher resistance and lower current flow compared to a series field
winding.
When the motor is starting and speed is very low, the motor has very little
torque. After the motor reaches full rpm, its torque is at its fullest potential.
One of the main advantages of a shunt motor is its constant speed.

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 Wound-field DC Motor
Separately excited shunt motor consists of a shunt connected in parallel with
the armature.
The field winding of a shunt motor can be separately excited or connected to
the same voltage source as the armature.

An advantage to separately exciting the shunt field is that a variable-speed DC

drive can be used to provide independent control of the field and armature.

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 Wound-field DC Motor

A compound-wound DC motor is a
combination of the shunt-wound and
series-wound types. This type of DC
motor has two field windings.

The shunt field gives this type of motor

the constant-speed advantage of a
regular shunt motor.

The series field gives it the advantage

of being able to develop a large torque
when the motor is started under a
heavy load.

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 Direction of Rotation

The direction of rotation of a wound DC

motor depends on the direction of the field
and the direction of the current flow through
the armature.

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 Counter Electromotive Force

Counter-electromotive force (sức phản điện

động) is the electromotive force (EMF)
manifesting as a voltage that opposes the change
in current which induced it.

The overall effect of the CEMF is that this

voltage will be subtracted from the terminal
voltage of the motor so that the armature motor
winding will see a smaller voltage potential.

Counter EMF is directly proportional to the

speed of the armature and the field strength.
That is, the counter EMF increases or decreases
if the speed is increased or decreased,
respectively.

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 Speed Control Methods of DC Motor Drives
Armature Voltage Control
This method prefers because it has high efficiency, good transient response and
good speed regulation. It provides speed control only below the rated speed
because the armature voltage cannot be allowed to exceed the rated value.

Field Flux Control

This method is used for controlling the speed above the rated value. Normally,
the maximum speed of the motor is twice the rated speed, and in the special
motor, it is six times the rated speed.

Armature Resistance Control

In this method, the speed is varied by wasting
power in external resistor that is connected in
series with the armature.
This method is mainly used in alternate load
application where the duration of low-speed
operation forms only a small portion of the total
running time. Parker DC590 Drive
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 Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) uses digital signals to control power

applications, as well as being fairly easy to convert back to analog with a
minimum of hardware.

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 Brushless DC Motor
Brushless DC motors do not use brushes!
The rotor is a permanent magnet; the coils do not rotate, but are instead fixed
in place on the stator. Because the coils do not move, there is no need for
brushes and a commutator.

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 Brushless DC Motor
Change the rotation speed
Brushed motor: Rotation is
achieved by controlling the
magnetic fields generated by the
coils on the rotor, while the
magnetic field generated by the
stationary magnets remains
fixed.
 To change the rotation
speed, you change the voltage
for the coils.
BLDC motor: it is the permanent magnet that rotates; rotation is achieved by
changing the direction of the magnetic fields generated by the surrounding
stationary coils.
 To control the rotation, you adjust the magnitude and direction of the
current into these coils.

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 Stepper Motor
A stepper motor (Động cơ bước) is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a
full rotation into a number of equal steps.
The motor's position can be commanded to move and hold at one of these steps without any
position sensor for feedback (an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is correctly sized
to the application in respect to torque and speed.

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 Stepper Motor

Stepper Motor Driver Types

There are different stepper motor drivers available on the market, which
showcase different features for specific applications. The most important
charactreristics include the input interface. The most common options are:
• Step/Direction – By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver changes its
output such that the motor will perform a step, the direction of which is
determined by the level on the Direction pin.
• Phase/Enable – For each stator winding phase, Phase determines the current
direction and triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
• PWM – Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-side FETs.

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 Stepper Motor
Stepper Motor Driving Techniques
1. Wave mode

2. Full-step mode

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 Stepper Motor
3. Half-step mode

4. Microstepping mode

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 Stepper Motor
Advantages
• Stepper motors do not require a sensor to detect the motor position and
Stepper motor control is pretty simple.
The motor does need a driver, but does not need complex calculations or tuning to
work properly. In general, the control effort is lower compared to other motors. With
microstepping, you can reach high position accuracy, up to approximately 0.007°.
• Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for holding
position, and also tend to have a long lifespan.

Disadvantages
• Can miss a step if the load torque is too high.
Using microstepping makes stepper motors even more likely to experience this issue.
• These motors always drain maximum current even when still, which makes
efficiency worse and can cause overheating.
• Stepper motors have low torque and become pretty noisy at high speeds.
• Stepper motors have low power density and a low torque-to-inertia ratio.
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 3-Phase AC Motor

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 Rotating Magnetic Field
The main difference between AC and DC motors is that the magnetic field
generated by the stator rotates in the case of AC motors. A rotating magnetic
field is key to the operation of all AC motors.

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 Speed of AC motor

The synchronous speed of an AC motor is the speed of

the stator's magnetic field rotation.
The actual speed is the speed at which the shaft rotates.
The nameplate of most AC motors lists the actual motor speed
rather than the synchronous speed.

Example: Determine the synchronous speed of a four pole AC motor connected to

a 60-Hz electrical supply.

S = synchronous speed in rpm

S = 120 f / P
f = frequency, Hz, of the power supply
= 120  60 / 4
P = number of poles wound in each of the
= 1800 rmp single-phase windings

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 Induction Motor
Induction motor (Động cơ không đồng bộ): No external voltage is applied to its
rotor. There are no slip rings or any DC excitation supplied to the rotor.

Squirrel Cage Rotor Wound-Rotor

(Rotor lồng sóc) (Rotor dây quấn)

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 Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

The rotor is constructed using a number of single bars short-circuited by end
rings and arranged in a hamster-wheel or squirrel-cage configuration.

The resistance of the squirrel-cage rotor has an important effect on the

operation of the motor.
A high-resistance rotor develops a high starting torque at low starting current.
A low-resistance rotor develops low slip and high efficiency at full load.

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 Induction Motor
Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
Typical squirrel-cage motor
speed-torque characteristics.
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In normal operation with a load the
rotor speed always lags the magnetic
field's speed allowing the rotor bars
to cut magnetic lines of force and
produce a useful torque.
Slip (Độ trượt) is the difference
between the speed of the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor in an
induction motor.
The slip increases with load and
is necessary to produce useful
torque.
The usual amount of slip in a 60-
Hz, three-phase motor is 2 or 3 %.
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 Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

➢ The motor normally operates

at essentially constant speed,
close to the synchronous
speed.
➢ Large starting currents
required by this motor can
result in line voltage
fluctuations.
➢ Interchanging any two of the
three main power lines to the
motor reverses the direction of
rotation.

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 Induction Motor

Wound-Rotor Induction Motor

The wound-rotor induction motor is a variation on the standard cage induction
motors. Wound-rotor motors have a three-phase winding wound on the rotor,
which is terminated to slip rings.

➢ The rotor slip rings connect to start-up

resistors in order to provide current and
speed control on start-up.
➢ The motor is normally started with full
external resistance in the rotor circuit that
is gradually reduced to zero, either
manually or automatically. This results in
a very high starting torque from zero
speed to full speed at a relatively low
starting current.
➢ Interchanging any two stator voltage
supply leads reverses the direction of
rotation.
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 Three-Phase Synchronous Motor
The synchronous motor (Động cơ đồng bộ): runs at a
constant speed from no load to full load in synchronism
with line frequency

➢ Three-phase AC voltage is applied to the stator

windings and a rotating magnetic field is produced.
➢ DC voltage is applied to the rotor winding and a
second magnetic field is produced.
➢ The rotor then acts like a magnet and is attracted by the
rotating stator field.
➢ This attraction exerts a torque on the rotor and causes it
to rotate at the synchronous speed of the rotating stator
field.
The rotor does not require the magnetic induction from the
stator field for its excitation. As a result, the motor has zero slip
compared to the induction motor, which requires slip in order to
produce torque.

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 Single Phase
AC Motor

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Most home and business appliances operate on single phase AC power.
A single-phase induction motor is larger in size, for the same horsepower, than
a three-phase motor.
Single-phase AC motors are generally available in the fractional to 10-hp range
and all use a solid squirrel-cage rotor.

Single-phase induction motor are not self-

starting

Once a single-phase induction motor is

running, it develops a rotating magnetic
field. However, before the rotor begins to
turn, the stator produces only a pulsating,
stationary field.

A single-phase motor needs an auxiliary

means of starting

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 Split-Phase Motor
A single-phase split-phase induction motor
uses a squirrel-cage rotor that is identical to
that in a three phase motor.
To produce a rotating magnetic field, the
single-phase current is split by two
windings, the main running winding and an
auxiliary starting winding, which is displaced
in the stator 90 electrical degrees from the
running winding.

Once the motor is running, the starting

winding must be removed from the circuit.

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 Split-Phase Motor

• Dual-voltage split-phase motors have leads that allow external connection for
different line voltages.

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 Split-Phase Capacitor Motor

The capacitor-start motor is a modified split-

phase motor.
A capacitor connected in series with the
starting winding creates a phase shift of
approximately 80 degrees between the starting
and running winding.
Higher starting torque and lower starting current
than the split-phase motor.

The job of the capacitor is to improve the

starting torque and not the power factor, as it’s
only in the circuit for a few seconds at the
instant of starting.

Dual-speed capacitor-start motors have leads that

allow external connection for low and high speeds.

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 Split-Phase Capacitor Motor

The permanent-capacitor motor has

neither a centrifugal switch nor a capacitor
strictly for starting.
It has a run-type capacitor permanently
connected in series with the start winding.
Typical starting torques for permanent-
capacitor motors are low, from 30 to 150% of
rated load, so these motors are not suited for
hard to-start applications.

The capacitor-start/capacitor-run motor,

uses both start and run capacitors located
in the housing connected to the top of the
motor.

Operate at lower full-load currents and

higher efficiency

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 Shaded-Pole Motor

Shaded-pole motors (Động cơ cực từ xẻ rãnh) have only one main winding and
no start winding or switch.

Starting is by means of a design that uses a

continuous copper loop around a small portion of
each motor pole.

Currents in this copper loop delay the phase of

magnetic flux in that part of the pole enough to
provide a rotating field.

Low starting torque and efficiency ratings

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 Universal motor
The universal motor (Động cơ vạn năng) is constructed like a series-type DC
motor with a wound series field (on the stator) and a wound armature (on the
rotor).
Universal motors can be operated with either DC or single-phase AC
Both the speed and direction of rotation of a universal motor can be controlled.
Reversing is accomplished just as in a DC series motor by reversing the current
flow through the armature with respect to the series field. Varying the voltage that
is applied to the motor controls the speed.
Universal motors have high starting torque, can run at high speed, and are
lightweight and compact.

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 AC Motor Drives

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 Change AC motor speed
AC induction motor speed
depends on the number of S = 120 f / P
motor poles and the frequency
of the applied power.

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 AC Motor Drives

AC drives connect to standard AC induction motors, and have capabilities of

adjustable speed, torque, and horsepower control similar to those of DC drives.

AC motor drive.
Rockwell Automation, rockwellautomation.com

Variable-Frequency Drive
A variable-frequency drive
(VFD) system, also known
as a variable-speed drive
system, generally consists
of an AC motor, a
controller, and an operator
interface.
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 AC Motor Drives

AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage

to be proportionally adjusted by the drive whenever
the frequency is changed.

Example: If a motor is designed to operate at 460 Volts

at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230
Volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus
the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a
constant value (460/60 = 7.67 in this case).

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 Motor Selection

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Motor Selection

Mechanical Design/Code
Current
Power Rating Letter

Load Motor
Requirements Torque
Enclosures

Full-Load
Efficiency Duty Cycle
Speed

Temperature
Frequency Size
Ratings

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 Motor Selection
❑ Mechanical Power Rating
The mechanical power rating of motors is expressed in either horsepower (hp)
or watts (W): 1 hp = 746 W.
Two important factors that determine mechanical power output are torque and
speed. Torque and speed are related to horsepower by a basic formula, which
states that:
Horsepower = Torque × Speed/Constant
❑ Current
Full-load amperes is the amount of amperes the motor can be expected to draw
under full-load (torque) conditions and is also known as the name plate
amperes.
Locked Rotor Current (Dòng hãm rotor) is the amount of current the motor can
be expected to draw under starting conditions when full voltage is applied and
is also known as the starting inrush current.
Service Factor Amperes is the amount of current the motor will draw when it’s
subjected to a percentage of overload equal to the service factor on the
nameplate of the motor
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 Motor Selection

❑ Design Letter
NEMA has defined four standard motor
designs for AC motors, using the letters A, B,
C, and D to meet specific requirements posed
by different application loads.

❑ Code Letter
NEMA code letters are assigned to motors
for calculating the locked rotor current in
amperes.

LR current (single-phase motors) = Code letter value × hp × 1,000/Rated voltage

LR current (three-phase motors) = Code letter value × hp × 577/Rated voltage
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 Motor Selection
❑ Starting Current kVA Code Letter
Example: A NEMA design motor is rated at 150 hp at 460V, 60 Hz. It has a
rated current of 153 A and a nominal efficiency of 96.2%. The locked rotor code
is G. Find the range of starting current that can be expected from this motor

Range for code G: 5.6-6.3 kVA/hp

Low value of starting current: 5.6 × 150 × 577/460 = 1054 A

High value of starting current: 6.3× 150 × 577/460 = 1085 A

LR current (single-phase motors) = Code letter value × hp × 1,000/Rated voltage

LR current (three-phase motors) = Code letter value × hp × 577/Rated voltage

❖ Motor can operate ±10% of rated voltage without significant change in

characteristics

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 Motor Selection
❑ Efficiency
Motor efficiency is the ratio of mechanical power output to the electrical power
input, usually expressed as a percentage. Power losses associated with the
operation of a motor include:
• Core loss
• Stator and rotor resistance losses
• Mechanical losses
• Stray losses
❑ Energy-Efficient Motors
The efficiency of electric motors ranges between 75 and 98%.
To be considered energy-efficient, a motor's performance must equal or exceed the
nominal full-load efficiency values provided by NEMA in publication MG-1.
❑ Motor size
❑ Frequency
❑ Full-Load Speed

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 Motor Selection
❑ Load Requirements

• Constant-torque loads
• Variable-torque loads
• Constant-horsepower loads
• High-inertia loads

❑ Motor Temperature Ratings

❑ Duty Cycle
• Continuous duty
• Intermittent duty
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 Motor Selection

❑ Motor Torque
• Locked-rotor torque (LRT)
• Pull-up torque (PUT)
• Breakdown torque (BDT)
• Full-load torque (FLT)

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 Motor Selection
❑ Motor Enclosures

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Nameplate

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 Motor
Troubleshooting

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 Troubleshooting
The basic motor system consists of the power supply, controller, motor, and
driven load. When a motor problem occurs, it’s first necessary to find which of
the parts of the system is at fault.

❑ The motor fails to start

• Blown fuse or open circuit breaker.
• Check the rating of the fuse or circuit breaker.
• Motor overload relay on starter tripped.
• Low voltage or no voltage applied to the motor.
• Mechanical overload.
• Defective motor windings.
• Burnt-out motor.

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 Troubleshooting
❑ The motor overheats
• Overload.
• Insufficient cooling.
• Ambient temperature.
• Bearings and alignment.
• Source voltage.
❑ Excessive motor noise and vibration
• Bearings
• Coupling mechanism
• Loose hardware.
❑ Motor produces an electric shock when touched
• Broken or disconnected equipment grounding conductor
❑ Motor overload protector continually trips
• Load too high
• Ambient temperature too high
• Overload protector may be defective
• Winding short-circuited or grounded
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Linear motor

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