What is Biology?

Cell Theory

 The study of living organisms, divided into many specialized fields that cover their 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution. 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
3. All cells came from pre-existing cells
Robert Hooke
Organelles
 17th century – began the study of cells
 Discovered cell in 1665 from a cork  All of the life processes of a living cell involve transformation of energy and matter.
 Named “cell” from Latin Cella.  The source of this life energy is the molecules undergoing chemical activities within the
cell.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek  A living cell performs the following life processes:
 Observed motile objects under microscope 1. Nutrition is the process by which cells obtain food molecules to support their other
 Found the sperm of animals and humans are cells activities.
 Discovered fertilization that disproved spontaneous generation 2. Digestion is the process by which food particles are broken down into smaller soluble
 Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit of life, but were unsure what this units suitable for cell use with the help of enzymes.
was. 3. Absorption is the process by which cells absorb water, minerals and other materials
essential to life from their environment.
Henri Dutrochet 4. Biosynthesis is the process by which all cells organize complex chemicals from simple
 “The cell is the fundamental element of organization.” building units or substances.
 Also claimed that cells were not just a structural, but also a physiological unit 5. Excretion is the process by which by-products of all cell activities which are not
needed for further cell functioning are eliminated.
1804 6. Egestion is the process by which insoluble, non-digested particles are eliminated by
the cell.
 Karl Rudolph and Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link were awarded the price of “solving the
7. Secretion is the process by which substances that are synthesized by the cells are
problem of the nature of cells”
expelled from the membrane. This elimination process helps in the functioning of the
 Proved that cells have independent cell walls
body.
Cell Theory 8. Movement is a process which includes the locomotion of cell by means of special
structures like cilia or flagella.
1839
9. Irritability is the process by which cells respond or react to external factors or
 Theodor Schwan states that along with plants, animals are also composed of cells. conditions around them. Cells can alter their functions in response to changes their
environment.
1839
10. Respiration is the process of breaking down food molecules into chemical energy
 Matthias Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells. needed by all cells in order to function.
 Schleiden’s theory of free cell formation through crystallization was disproved by Robert 11. Reproduction is a process by which a cell copies or replicates its DNA and increases its
Remark, Rudolf Virchow and Albert Kolliker. number by cell division. It gives rise to new cells as a result, organisms grow.
 Virchow added the third tenet: Omnis cellula e cellula
All the cellular organelles are functioning well in order to support life. There is no least or
more important part because all are equally essential. Everybody will suffer even if one organelle
fails to perform its function.
Organelles  They transport proteins from one part of the cell to another that is why they are called as the
transport center of the cell.
Cell Parts and Functions
 E.R in plants and animals form a network of tiny canals through the cell. These canals are
 The principal parts of a cell are: formed by two parallel membranes. They connect the nuclear membrane and the plasma
o Cell membrane membrane thus serving as passageway for food substances.
o Cytoplasm  Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
o Nucleus o Smooth- ribosome free and functions in detoxification of lipids.
o Rough - contains ribosomes and releases newly made protein from the cell.
Nucleus
 Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell. These are very essential since all the
 Covered with a membrane that allows materials to pass in and out. functions and processes in plant and animal cell requires protein. Even all the organelles inside
 It’s often called the “control center” of the cell because it contains DNA. the cell are made up of proteins making ribosomes very important.
 Nucleolus - where the ribosomes are formed and this structure can be found both in plants
Golgi apparatus
and animals.
 Receive proteins and other compounds from the ER.
Cell membrane
 They package these materials and distribute them to the plant and animal parts of the cell.
 A semi-permeable membrane that facilitate the movement of molecules inside and
Lysosome
outside the plant or animal cell.
 It allows only chosen substances to enter or leave cell which can protect the cell from harmful  Contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break things down. Lysosomes pick up bacteria, food,
substances. and old organelles in plant and animal cell and break them into small pieces that can be
reused.
Cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
 A viscous fluid or jelly like material where organelles are embedded.
 Its jelly like feature secures the organelles in plants and animals so that they remain in place.  A series of fibers made from proteins.
 It provides structure to the cell and gives it its shape.
Mitochondria
Cell wall
 The “powerhouses” of cells.
 They produce much of the energy a plant or animal cell needs to carry out its functions.  A rigid organelle composed of cellulose that gives plant cell its box-like shape.
 They are the centers of cellular respiration, a process in which energy-rich ATP (Adenosine  Consist of several distinct layers.
Triphosphate) that functions in energy storage and transfer is produced.
Centriole
Vacuole
 Paired organelles found only in animal cell.
 A vacuole is the storage area of the cell.  They are located together near the nucleus, at right angles to each other.
 Stores water, food, and waste.  They are essential in building cilia and flagella and also as spindle fiber during cell division.
 Animals have a very small vacuole while plants as the producers through the process of
Chlorophyll
photosynthesis have a big central vacuole.
 Rigid Structure in plant cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of tunnels throughout the cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic Vs. Eukaryotic Cell (typical bacterial cell
wall includes
Cells
peptidoglycan)
 The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one or two types of cells: Plasma membrane No carbohydrates and Sterols and carbohydrates
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic generally lacks sterols that serve as receptors
o Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consists of prokaryotic cells. present
o Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consists of eukaryotic cells. Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton
Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S); smaller
Prokaryotic Cells size (70S) in organelles
Chromosome (DNA Single circular Multiple linear
 No Nucleus Arrangement) chromosome; lack chromosomes with histones
 Its DNA simply resides in the middle of the cell (in the cytoplasm); DNA in an unbound
histones
region called the nucleoid Cell division Binary fission Mitosis
 Simple structure Sexual reproduction No meiosis Involves Meiosis
 No membrane-bound organelles
 Much smaller than eukaryotes
Cell Modification
Eukaryotic Cells

 Has a Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the cell’s DNA; DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous
nuclear envelope.
 Internal structures organized into compartments
 Cytoplasm contains specialized structure called organelles.
 Larger than prokaryotes – usually 10 times bigger

Characteristics Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Size of cell Typically 0.1-5.0 mm in Typically 10-100 mm in
diameter diameter
I. Apical Modification (surface)
Nucleus No nuclear membrane True nucleus, consisting of
 Cell modification is found on the apical surface of the cell.
or nucleoli nuclear membrane and nucleoli
Membrane-enclosed Absent Present; examples include  It is specialized to carry out functions that occur at these interfaces, including secretion,
organelles lysosomes, Golgi complex, absorption, and movement of luminal contents.
endoplasmic reticulum, 1. Cilia and Flagella
mitochondria and  Cilia are projections, usually short, hair-like structures and a type of organelle seen on the
chloroplast apical surface of epithelial cells. This assists in the movement of material over the epithelial
Flagella Consist of two protein Complex, consist of multiple surface in a manner parallel to the surface of the epithelium.
building blocks microtubules 2. Villi and microvilli
Glycocalyx Present as a capsule or Present in some cells that  Villi are finger-like projections that arise from the epithelial layer in some organs. They help
slime layer lack a cell wall to increase surface area, allowing faster and more efficient absorption.
Cell Wall Usually present; When present, chemically  Microvilli are smaller projections than villi, which function primarily on molecules'
chemically complex simple efficient absorption. (seen in small intestine and lungs)
 3. Pseudopods ANIMAL, PLANT, AND SPECIALIZED CELLS/TISSUES
 Temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells. It bulges
What makes up an organism?
outward to move the cell or engulf the prey. It primarily consists of actin filaments and may
also contain microtubules and intermediate filaments. Pseudopods are used for.  𝑪𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒔 → 𝑻𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒆 → 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏 → 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏 𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 → 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒎
4. Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM)
 Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a structural scaffold that directs cell adhesion and migration, as Similarities of Animal and Plant
well as regulating cellular growth, metabolism and differentiation signals (Scott-Burden, 1994;  Nucleus
Bosman and Stamenkovic, 2003).  Plasma Membrane
II. Basal Modification (base)  Ribosomes
 Cell modification is found on the basal surface of the.  Mitochondria
1. Desmosomes/ Hemidesmosomes cell basement membrane
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 These allow for strong attachment between cells or to a basement membrane.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Desmosomes attach to the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton made up of keratin
 Cytoplasm
protein.
 Cytoskeleton
 Hemidesmosomes are similar to desmosomes in terms of function, however, they attach the
 Golgi apparatus
epithelial cell to the basement membrane rather than the adjacent cell.
 Lysosome
III. Lateral Modification (sa singit singit)
 Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell. These are tight junctions, adhering Differences of Animal and Plant
junctions, and gap junctions.
 Plant cell: Chloroplast, Cell Wall, Vacuole
 These structures consist of protein complexes and induce connectivity between adjacent
 Animal Cell: Centriole
epithelial cells, between cells, and ECM. They can contribute to the barrier function of
epithelia and control paracellular transport. Specialized Cells/Tissues of Animals
1. Tight Junctions
 Tight junctions have several different functions. Their most important functions are to help I. Epithelial tissue
cells form a barrier that prevents molecules from getting through, and to stop proteins  This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as coverings or as linings of organs
in the cell membrane from moving around. Tight junctions are often found at epithelial and cavities.
cells, which are cells that line the surface of the body and line body cavities. a. cuboidal—for secretion;
2. Adherens Junctions b. Simple columnar—for secretion and active absorption;
 Protein complexes that occur in cell-to-cell junctions in epithelial and endothelial tissues, c. Simple squamous—for exchange of material through diffusion;
usually more basal than tight junctions. It fastens cells to one another. d. Stratified squamous—multi-layered and regenerates quickly; for protection;
3. Gap junctions e. Pseudo-stratified Columnar—the lining of the respiratory tract; is usually lined with
 To connect cells together so that molecules may pass from one cell to the other. This cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification that sweeps the mucus).
allows for cell-to-cell communication and makes it so that molecules can directly enter II. Muscle Tissue (MYOCYTES)
neighboring cells without having to go through the extracellular fluid surrounding the  These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers that allow the body to move
cells. voluntarily or involuntarily. The movement of muscles is a response to signals coming from
nerve cells.
a. skeletal—striated; Voluntary movements
b. cardiac—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction;
involuntary
 c. smooth—not striated; involuntary c. Intercalary Meristem
III. Connective Tissue  This meristem is located in between permanent tissues. They are responsible for
a. Blood growth in length of the plant and increasing the size of the internode, they result
 Made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains water, salts, and in branch formation and growth.
dissolved proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for defense II. Permanent tissues
(WBC), and platelets for blood clotting.  Plant tissues that contain nondividing cells that was derived from meristematic tissues.
b. Connective Tissue Proper (CPT) 1. Simple Permanent tissues
 Made up of loose connective tissue that is found in the skin and fibrous  A group of cells which are similar in origin; similar in structure and similar in
connective tissue that is made up of collagenous fibers found in tendons and function. They are of three types; Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.
ligaments. a. Parenchyma
 Adipose tissues are also examples of loose connective tissues that store fats, which  (para - 'beside'; chyma - 'in filling, loose, unpacked') is the bulk of a substance.
function to insulate the body and store energy.  In plants, it consists of relatively unspecialized living cells with thin cell walls.
c. Cartilage This tissue provides support to plants and also store food.
 Characterized by collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate. b. Collenchyma
 Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage  A cellular tissue that, along with parenchyma, composes the bulk of plant tissues.
functions as a cushion between bones. Like parenchyma, collenchyma cells are living cells.
d. Bone  They have cellulose cell walls and are filled with water – which helps the plants to
 Mineralized connective tissue made of bone-forming cells called osteoblasts which keep their shape
deposit collagen. c. Sclerenchyma
IV. Nervous Tissue  The main function of sclerenchyma is to provide mechanical support and
 These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and glial cells that function as strength to the plants. They provide structural support to the plant organs.
support cells.  They form protective coverings around nuts and seeds.
 These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals throughout the animal body. 2. Complex Permanent tissues
 The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells, which work together as a
PLANT TISSUES
unit.
 In plant tissues, the primary function is to give structural support to the plant, as plants are  Complex tissues help in the transportation of organic material, water and minerals
stationary. Plant tissues can be divided differently into two types; Meristematic tissues and up and down the plants. That is why it is also known as conducting and vascular
permanent tissues. tissue. The common types of complex permanent tissue are: Xylem and Phloem.
I. Meristematic Tissues a. Xylem
 It consists of actively dividing cells that lead to the increase in length and thickness of the  Consists of a variety of specialized, water-conducting cells known as tracheary
plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions, such as in the elements. A vascular tissue that conveys water and dissolved minerals from the
tips of stems or roots. roots to the rest of the plant and provides physical support also.
a. Apical meristem b. Phloem
 It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increases the length of the  It is composed of various specialized cells called sieve tubes, companion cells,
stem and root. This meristem is responsible for the linear growth of an organ. phloem fibers, and phloem parenchyma cells. This are tissues in plants that
b. Lateral meristem conduct foods made in the leaves to all other parts of the plant.
 This meristem consist of cells, which mainly divide in one plane and cause the organ
to increase in diameter and grows. Lateral meristem usually occurs beneath the
bark.
 CELL DIVISION (MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS)  Synthesis
- is the longest and the most essential stage of interphase. It is due to the complexity of
 One of the basic characteristic of all living organisms is the ability to reproduce. It is either
the replication of genetic material which results to the duplication of DNA prior to the
asexually in unicellular organisms or sexually in multicellular organism. Sexual reproduction
cell division process.
requires fertilization resulting to a fertilized egg cell called zygote. All the cells in our body
o replication of DNA
came from the division of the pre-existing one.
o Synthesis of proteins associated with DNA
 In prokaryotes, cell division can be observed through binary fission. While in the eukaryotes,
 Gap 2
cell cycle consists of two distinct phases: Interphase and Mitotic phase. Cell cycle is a means
- (Gap2 phase/Growth 2 phase) is the final stage where the cell prepares itself for cell
for the continuity of life. So before the cell divides it spends most of its life in the period of
division process, and also ensures that the DNA replication completes.
cell growth called Interphase with three sub-stages: G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase followed
o synthesis of proteins associated with mitosis
by M phase or Mitotic phase.
CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS
Cell Cycle
 Verify whether all the cellular activities are accurately completed at each stage of
 The series of events that occur in a cell to prepare cell division and to produce two new
interphase.
daughter cells.
 In eukaryotic cells, there are three major checkpoints that control the cell cycle process.
 Cell grows.
They are:
 DNA is replicated.
o G1 checkpoint at the G1/S transition
 Mitotic cell division produces daughter
o G2 checkpoint at the G2/M transition
cells identical to the parent.
o Spindle checkpoint, transition from metaphase and anaphase
 Repeat. 1. G1 checkpoint
2 MAJOR PHASES:  Cell’s size (Does the cell large increase its size or large enough for cell division?)
 Nutrients (Does the cell have enough reserve energy and nutrients for cell division?)
I. Interphase (3 stages)  DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
 DNA is not condensed  Molecular signals (Does the cell receives growth factors and other signals from
II. Mitosis (4 stages + cytokinesis) neighbouring cell?)
 Nuclear division & division of cytoplasm 2. G0 phase
 DNA condensed  If the cell does not comply with the following factors, cell cycle will stop and enters the G0
phase called the resting state. Some cell stays in G0 phase permanently, while others
Interphase
proceed to divide if the condition of the cell improves.
Non-dividing state with 3 sub-stages: 3. G2 checkpoint
 DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
 Gap 1
 DNA replication (Is the DNA replication completed in the S phase?)
- (Gap1 phase/Growth 1 phase) the cell increases in size; protein synthesis also occurs  If there is an error, the cell will pause at the G2 phase and allow for some repairs. If the
enable the cell to increase the amount of cytosol. damage is within the DNA, the cell cycle will paused and let the cell complete the DNA
replication or repair it. But if the damage cell is irreparable, the cell will undergo apoptosis or
o cell grows in size cell death. It is the self-destruction mechanism of the cell to ensure that the damaged DNA is
o Organelles replicated not passed on the daughter cells and also important in preventing cancer. There are some
cells that never or rarely divide like matured cardiac muscle and nerve cell that permanently
retains in G0.
4. Metaphase checkpoint or Spindle checkpoint 4 sub-phases:
 Occurs at metaphase stage of mitosis. It is regulated by Anaphase-promoting complex  PMAT
(APC). It checks whether all chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle fibers 1. Prophase
and its alignment at the metaphase plate. If there are mistakes, the cell delays it anaphase 2. Metaphase
process. 3. Anaphase
MITOSIS 4. Telophase
 Division of somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) in eukaryotic organisms.
Followed by Cytokinesis
 A single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
 Daughter cells have same number of chromosomes as does parent cell. I. Prophase
Three Major Events
 Chromosomes condense
 Spindle fibers form (spindle fibers are specialized microtubules radiating out from
centrioles)
 Chromosomes are captured by spindle
II. Metaphase
 Chromosomes align along the equator of the cell, with one chromatid facing each pole
III. Anaphase
When the cell is not dividing…  sister chromatids separate
 DNA molecules are in extended, uncondensed form = chromatin  Spindle fibers attached to kinetochores shorten and pull chromatids towards the poles.
 Cell can only replicate and transcribe DNA when it is in the extended state.  free spindle fibers lengthen and push the poles of the cell apart
IV. Telophase
When the cell is preparing for division…
 Spindle fibers disintegrate
 DNA molecules condense to form chromosomes prior to division.  Nuclear envelopes form around both groups of chromosomes
o Each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA  Chromosomes return to their extended state
o Easier to sort and organize the replicated DNA into daughter cells  Cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter nucleus into a separate cell
V. Cytokinesis (Plant vs. Animal Cell)
 Plant cells undergo cytokinesis by forming a cell plate between the two daughter nuclei.
 Animal cells undergo
cytokinesis through the
formation of a cleavage
furrow. A ring of microtubules
contract, pinching the cell in half.

Genetics Terminology

 SEXually reproducing eukaryotes have two types of body cells…

1. somatic cells (a.k.a. body cells)
2. sex cells (a.k.a. gametes, germ line, germ cell)
MEIOSIS  Centriole pairs also replicate.

 The form of cell division by which gametes, with half the number of chromosomes, are Meiosis I (four phases)
produced.
 Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by one-half.
 Diploid (2n) → haploid (n)
 Four phases:
 Meiosis is sexual reproduction.
a) Prophase I
 Two divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II).
b) Metaphase I
Fertilization c) Anaphase I
d) Telophase I
 The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a
I. Prophase I
zygote.
 Longest and most complex phase (90%).
 A zygote is a fertilized egg
 Chromosomes condense.
 Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come together to
Meiosis form a tetrad.
 Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and non-
 Sex cells divide to produce gametes (sperm or egg).
sister chromatids).
 Gametes have half the # of chromosomes.
 Occurs only in gonads (testes or ovaries). Homologous Chromosomes →
o Male: spermatogenesis
 Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in shape and size.
o Female: oogenesis
 Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the same inherited traits.
 Meiosis is similar to mitosis with some chromosomal differences.
 Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on homologues.
Spermatogenesis  Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
a. 22 pairs of autosomes
b. 1 pair of sex chromosomes

Karyotype →

 A method of organizing the

chromosomes of a cell in relation to
number, size, and type.
 Humans have 23 Sets of Homologous
Chromosomes
 Each Homologous set is made up of 2 Homologues.

Interphase I Autosomes (The Autosomes code for most of the offspring’s traits)

 Similar to mitosis interphase.  In Humans the “Autosomes” are sets 1 – 22

 Chromosomes replicate (S phase).
21 Trisomy – Downs Syndrome
 Each duplicated chromosome consist of two identical sister chromatids attached at their
centromeres.
 Sex Chromosomes VII. Metaphase II
 same as metaphase in mitosis
 The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring.
VIII. Anaphase II →
 If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a female.
 same as anaphase in mitosis
 If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y” chromosome it will be a male.
 sister chromatids separate
 In Humans the “Sex Chromosomes” are the 23rd set IX. Telophase II →
Crossing Over →  Same as telophase in mitosis.
 Nuclei form.
 Crossing over (variation) may occur between non-  Cytokinesis occurs.
sister chromatids at the chiasmata.  Remember: four haploid daughter cells
 Crossing over: segments of non-sister chromatids produced.
break and reattach to the other chromatid. o gametes = sperm or egg
 Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.
II. Metaphase I →
 Shortest phase
 Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
 INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random.
2. Variation
3. Formula: 2𝑛
Example:
2n = 4 then n = 2
Thus 22 = 4 combinations
III. Anaphase I →
 Homologous chromosomes separate and move
towards the poles.
 Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
IV. Telophase I → Mitosis
 Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes.  Clone
 Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells  Same genetic information in parent cell and daughter cell.
are formed.  Give me another one just like the other one!
V. Meiosis II Meiosis
 No interphase II (or very short - no more DNA
replication)  Daughter cells different from parent cell and from each other.
 Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis  Daughter cells have ½ the number of chromosomes as somatic cell.
VI. Prophase II  Shuffling the genes
 same as prophase in mitosis
Cell Cycle Malfunction Risks 2. Hydrophobic Tails
 Not attracted to water
Cancer
 Composed of carbon-hydrogen chains
 Is the result of the unregulated process of the cell cycle due to the breakdown of the  Are directed away from these watery fluids
mechanisms that controls the entire process. It happens during the synthesis phase, 3. Extracellular Fluid
wherein the cell cannot determine the changes in the DNA sequence that code for the specific  Watery fluid outside of cell
regulatory molecules. 4. Intracellular Fluid
Oncogenes  Watery fluid inside of cell
 Are the genes that cause the cell to become cancerous.  Molecules embedded within the plasma membrane help it perform its functions.
 Hydrophobic and hydrophilic forces determine the orientation of proteins in the plasma
Proto-oncogenes membrane.
 Are the genes that code for positive regulators during cell cycle. When these normal genes There are six primary types of membrane proteins, each of which performs a different function.
are altered by mutation it can be an oncogenes leading to cancer cells formation.
Function of Plasma Membrane Molecules
Tumor suppressor genes
1. Carbohydrate Chains
 Are healthy normal genes that slow down cell division, helps to repair DNA mistakes and  Provide a “fingerprint” for the cell, so it can be recognized by other cells.
also cell apoptosis or cell death. It codes for the negative regulator protein, when activated 2. Cholesterol
can prevent the cell from uncontrolled division. But when tumor suppressor gene does not  Helps the membrane retain its flexibility
work properly, cell division will be out of control and it can also lead to cancer. 3. Receptor Proteins
 Bind to external chemicals in order to regulate processes within the cell.
Plasma Membrane
4. Recognition Proteins
 Every cell is bordered by a plasma membrane.  Provide a “fingerprint” for the cell, so it can be recognized by other cells.
 Plasma Membranes are made up of two layers that are filled with a variety of pores, molecules, 5. Transport Proteins
and channels.  Provide a passageway for molecules to travel into and out of the cell.
 They are the “gatekeepers” of the cell. 6. Enzymatic Proteins
 Accelerate intracellular and extracellular reactions on the plasma membrane.
Functions of Plasma Membrane
The Plasma Membrane “Fluid Mosaic”
 Take in food and nutrients.
 Dispose of wastes.  Proteins
 Build and export molecules.  Short, branched carbohydrate chains
 Regulate heat exchange  Cholesterol
 Regulate flow of materials in and out of cell.
Movement through the Cell Membrane
Phospholipid Bilayer: Structure
I. Passive Transport
1. Hydrophilic Head  The spontaneous diffusion of molecules across a membrane
 Attracted to water  It occurs when molecules move across a membrane without energy input. Molecules
 Composed of a glycerol linked to phosphorus-containing molecule move down their concentration gradients.
 Extends toward the intracellular and extracellular fluid.  Two types of passive transport: Diffusion and Osmosis
 A. Diffusion B. Secondary Active
 A solute is dropped in the water, the molecules move randomly and bumping into each  An indirect method many transporter proteins use for fueling their activities
other until it causes them to end up evenly distributed.  The transport protein simultaneously moves one molecule against its concentration gradient
a) Simple Diffusion while letting another flow down its concentration gradient
 Molecules pass directly through the plasma membrane without the assistance of  No ATP is used directly.
another molecule.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
b) Facilitated Diffusion
 Most molecules can’t get through plasma membranes on their own.  Used for bulk transport of particles.
 Molecules move across the plasma membrane with the help of a carrier molecule.  Many molecules are just too big to get into a cell by passive or active transport.
 Carrier molecules
 Transport proteins Phagocytosis
B. Osmosis
 A type of endocytosis by which cells engulf large particles.
 A type of passive transport by which water diffuses across a membrane, in order to
1. The plasma membrane forms a pocket-like vesicle around a large particle.
equalize the concentration of water inside and outside the cell. The direction of osmosis
2. The particle is transported into the cell in a vesicle.
is determined by the total amount of solutes on either side of the membrane.
a) Tonicity Pinocytosis
 The relative concentration of solutes outside of the cell relative to the inside of the cell.
 The process of cells taking in dissolved particles and liquid
1) Isotonic Solution
o Solute concentrations are balanced Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
o Water movement is balanced.
2) Hypotonic Solution  A type of endocytosis by which cells engulf specific particles.
o Solute concentrations are lower in the extracellular fluid  Liver cells use receptor mediated endocytosis to ingest low-density lipoprotein, or LDL.
o Water diffuses into the cell 1. LDL binds to receptor proteins that reside in the plasma membrane of the liver cells.
o Unlike plant cells, animal cells may explode in hypotonic solutions because they 2. The plasma membrane forms a vesicle and engulfs the LDL.
don’t have a cell wall to limit cellular expansion. (burst) 3. LDL is broken down into useful molecules such as estrogen and testosterone.
3) Hypertonic Solution
Exocytosis
o Solute concentrations are higher in the extracellular fluid.
o Water diffuses out of cells. (shrink)  The method by which cells export products for use in another location.
II. Active Transport 1. Molecules are packaged in a vesicle within the cell.
 In active transport, cells use energy to move small molecules. 2. The vesicle fuses with the cell’s plasma membrane.
 Molecules can’t always move spontaneously and effortlessly in and out of cells. 3. Vesicle contents are released for use throughout the body.

Two Types of Active Transport (Differ only in the source of the fuel) ADP and ATP

A. Primary Active What Is ATP?

 Uses energy directly from ATP
 It occurs when the movement of molecules into and out of a cell requires the input of  ATP stands for: Adenosine Triphosphate
energy.  ATP is the energy currency of all cells (including plants and animals). It supplies you with
 Active transport in the stomach increases your ability to digest food. energy.
 ATP is a type of nucleic acid (like DNA and RNA).
 ATP contains high energy phosphate bonds that store and release energy.  To constantly supply the cell with energy, the ADP is recycled, creating more ATP which
carries much more energy than ADP.
Where does ATP come from?
Steps in the ADP-ATP Cycle
 ATP comes indirectly from the food that we eat.
 Molecules of carbohydrates (glucose) and lipids are broken down through the process of  To supply cells with energy, a “high energy” bond in ATP is broken. ADP is formed and a
cellular respiration to produce ATP. phosphate is released back into the cytoplasm.

An ATP Molecule is composed of the following: 𝐴𝑇𝑃 → 𝐴𝐷𝑃 + 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

 A Nitrogenous Base – Adenine  As the cell requires more energy, ADP becomes ATP when a free phosphate attaches to the
 A Sugar – Ribose ADP molecule. Then energy needed to create an ATP molecule is much less than the
 Three phosphate groups amount of energy produced when the bond is broken.

Chemical Structure of ATP 𝐴𝐷𝑃 + 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝐴𝑇𝑃

How is the bond broken?

 HYDROLYSIS (Adding H2O) Assisted by the enzyme ATPase.

How Does That Happen?

 An Enzyme

How is ATP Re-Made?

How Do We Get Energy From ATP?
 The reverse of the previous process occurs.
 Another Enzyme is used!
 ATP Synthase

Enzymes

These are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies.
They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes. Our bodies
naturally produce enzymes.

Types of Enzymes

ADP-ATP Cycle 1. Lyase

 It is an enzyme that can break down covalent bonds, often creating new double bonds.
 Cells break phosphate bonds between the last two phosphate groups in a molecule of 2. Ligases
ATP as needed to supply energy for most cellular functions, when this happens a molecule  It is an enzyme which can create a new covalent bond between two molecules.
of ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate become available for reuse. 3. Isomerases
 When any of the phosphate bonds are broken or formed, energy is involved.  It is an enzyme which can convert one molecule into one of its isomers.
o Energy is released each time a phosphate is removed from the molecule.
o Energy is stored each time a phosphate attaches to the molecule.
 4. Hydrolases II. Pharmaceutical industries
 They all use one molecule of water in their reaction and generally carry the name of the  With the invasion of new technologies and the unique characteristics of enzymes, the different
substrate: types of enzymes are used as drugs. These drugs specifically bind to the target and also have
a. estrases (cleave ester bonds) an incomparable potential and advantages compared to ordinary small molecular drugs.
b. nucleases (cleave nucleic bonds)  Applications of some important therapeutic enzymes, which are widely used in the production
c. proteases (cleave peptide bonds) of drugs for the treatment of various dreadful diseases and other infectious diseases,
d. phosphatases (cleave phosphate bonds) including allergies, food and cyanide poisoning, gout, heart attack, inflammation, leukaemia,
viral and bacterial infections, plague formations, skin ulcers, thrombosis and a lot more.
5. Transferases
III. Textile industries
 It is an enzyme which can transfer a functional group from one molecule to another.
 Enzymes play an important role in removing impurities, providing a stonewashed effect, in
6. Oxidoreductases
ethanol production to break down the starch and cellulose into fermentable sugars.
 It is an enzyme that catalyses a redox reaction.
IV. Other applications
Most Important function of enzymes are:
1. Enzymes are the natural tools of nature and are essential to all forms of life existing on the
 Enzymes play a crucial role in various body functions including the biological process such planet earth.
as absorption of nutrients, digestion, breathing, excretion, reproduction, the function of the 2. Enzymes are used to produce and improve nearly 400 to 500 everyday consumer and
liver and kidney and a lot more. commercial products.
3. Enzymes are powerful tools that help sustain a clean environment in several ways by
Application of enzymes producing environmentally friendly products.
 There are approximately 1300 different enzymes found in human cells, which include 4. They are also used in numerous technical applications such as in laundry to remove stains and
increase the life of fabrics, in the recycling of paper and paper products to remove ink and in
amylase, pepsin, trypsin, pancreatic lipase, ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease. All these
the production of dishwashing soaps and detergents.
enzymes are involved in the different chemical processes such as the breakdown of large
5. Enzymes are used in producing a variety of foods products, beverages processing, animal
starch molecules, proteins, fats and other nucleic acids.
nutrition, textile industries, household goods, biofuels and other fuels for automobiles,
I. Food processing industries cleaning products and also in energy generation plants.
 Application of enzymes in the process of food processing is a very old practice, which has
been used by our ancestors and these include a very simple process. Conclusion
 Enzymes are used by the food industries for processing raw materials for the production of
numerous and common products such as bakery products, dairy products, meat products, fruit
1. Enzymes area unit molecule biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate and change state in
products, beer and wine.
chemical reactions.
 Enzymes are broadly used in the production of alcoholic beverages and certain food products.
2. Enzymes are involved in various metabolic processes within the cells and the presence of
 Other than the production, these enzymes are also used in improving the quality of food
enzymes, helps in faster metabolic activities like sustaining life.
products, such as improving the quality of the food, taste, flavour, colour, etc. The applications
3. The set of enzymes created during cell metabolism determines which metabolic pathways
of enzymes include:
occur within the cells.
4. Enzymes help by providing environmentally friendly products to consumers, which are
1. Addition of α-Amylase and glucoamylase for improving the quality of the food. manufactured using less energy, water and raw materials and also by generating less
2. Addition of peroxidase for the colour and nutritional quality of the food. waste.
3. Addition of lipase, xylanase and glucose oxidase for the improvement of the flavour. 5. In plants, the biological process of photosynthesis would not be possible without the
enzymes. Here, enzymes play a vital role in regulating the temperature and are also
involved in controlling the reactions of carbon fixation.
 6. In animals, especially in the ruminants or grass-eating animals or herbivores, the cellulase  The rate of a chemical reaction increases as the substrate concentration increases. Enzymes
enzymes, existing in their stomach helps to break down the plant cellulose into smaller can greatly speed up the rate of a reaction. However, enzymes become saturated when the
and easily absorbable nutrients to produce energy for their further metabolic process. substrate concentration is high.
B. Temperature
FACTORS THAT AFFECT ENZYME ACTIVITY  Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows down a
reaction. However, extremely high temperatures can cause an enzyme to lose its shape
 Three Factors: (denature) and stop working.
1. Environmental Conditions C. pH or power of hydrogen or potential for hydrogen.
a. Extreme Temperature are the most dangerous – high temps may denature (unfold)  A scale used to specify how acidic or basic a water-based solution is. Acidic solutions have a
the enzyme. lower pH, while basic solutions have a higher pH.
b. pH (most like 6-8 pH near neutral) D. Substrate Concentration.
c. Ionic concentration (salt ions)  An increase in substrate concentration leads to an increase in the rate of an enzyme-
2. Cofactors and Coenzymes catalyzed reaction. As the enzyme molecules become saturated with substrate, this increase
 Inorganic substances (zinc, iron) and vitamins (respectively) are sometimes need for in reaction rate levels off. The rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction increases with an
proper enzymatic activity. increase in the concentration of an enzyme.
 Example: Iron must be present in the quaternary structure – haemoglobin in order for it to pick
up oxygen. OXIDATION-REDUCTION PROCESS

3. Enzyme Inhibitors  Bound to some enzymes is an additional chemical component called the cofactor, which is
a. Competitive inhibitors a direct participant in the catalytic event and thus is required for enzymatic activity. A
 These are chemicals that resemble an enzyme’s normal substrate and compete cofactor may be either a coenzyme—an organic molecule, such as a vitamin or vitamin-
with it for the active site. derived molecule—or an inorganic metal ion such as zinc.
b. Non-competitive inhibitors
 Inhibitors that do not enter the active site, but bind to another part of the
enzyme causing the enzyme to change its shape, which in turn alters the active site.

Enzyme Activity

How fast an enzyme is working?

 Rate of reaction = Amount of substrate changed (or amount product formed) in a given
period of time.

There are several factors that affect the rate of enzymatic reactions: temperature, pH, enzyme
concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators.

A. Enzyme concentration  An apoenzyme is an enzyme that lacks a needed cofactor. A holoenzyme is an enzyme with
 Increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the reaction, as long as there is substrate its required cofactor; it functions the same as an enzyme.
available to bind to. Once all of the substrates is bound, the reaction will no longer speed up,
since there will be nothing for additional enzymes to bind to.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION PROCESS Genetic Disorders

 There is what we call a specific type of chemical
reaction, the oxidation-reduction reactions (or
redox reactions for short).
Significance of mitosis for sexual reproduction:
 Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction indirectly.
 It allows the sexually reproducing organism to grow and develop from a single cell into a
sexually mature individual.
 This allows organisms to continue to reproduce through the generations.

Significance of Meiosis and Chromosome:

 In these reactions, electrons are
transferred from one reactant to another.  Number Chromosomes are the cell's way of neatly arranging long strands of DNA.
So, simply put, electrons are lost from one  Non-sex cells have two sets of chromosomes, one set from each parent. Meiosis makes
substance and gained by another. sex cells with only one set of chromosomes. For example, human cells have 46
chromosomes, with the exception of sperm and eggs, which contain only 23 chromosomes
 Cellular respiration which is the ultimate
each.
source of energy in human beings
 When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the 23 chromosomes from each sex cell combine to make
encompasses a series of redox reactions. So,
a zygote, a new cell with 46 chromosomes. The zygote is the first cell in a new individual.
the food that we eat is transformed into
energy by redox reactions only. Significance of Meiosis for Diversity:
Biochemical processes that break things down from  One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the diversity it produces within a population.
larger to smaller are called catabolic processes. That variety is a direct product of meiosis.
On the other hand, synthesizing large molecules from  Every sex cell made from meiosis has a unique combination of chromosomes. This means
smaller ones (for example, making proteins from amino that no two sperm or egg cells are genetically identical.
acids) is referred to as anabolism.  Every fertilization event produces new combinations of traits. This is why siblings share
DNA with parents and each other, but are not identical to one another.

Aberrations That Alter Chromosome Number:

 During cell division, chromosomes sometimes disappear.

 This occurs when there is some aberration in the centromere, and spindle fibers cannot
attach to the chromosome to segregate it to distal poles of the cell.
 Consequently, the lost chromosome never properly groups with others into a new nuclear
envelope, and it is left in the cytoplasm, where it will not be transcribed. Also, chromosomes
don't always separate equally into daughter cells.
 This sometimes happens in mitosis, when sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase.
One daughter cell thus ends up with more chromosomes in its nucleus than the other.
 Likewise, abnormal separation can occur in meiosis when homologous pairs fail to
separate during anaphase I. This also results in daughter cells with different numbers of
chromosomes.
Nondisjunction results in daughter cells with unusual chromosome numbers.
Some possible factor that could contribute on chromosome abnormalities:
 arise from errors in meiosis, usually meiosis I;
 occur more often during egg formation (90% of the time) than during sperm formation;
 Become more frequent as a woman ages.
Disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle:
 Incorrect DNA copy
o (e.g., cancer)
 Chromosome Abnormalities
o Chromosomes are attached to string-like spindles and begin to move to the
middle of the cell (e.g., Down syndrome, Alzheimer’s, and Leukemia)
 Aneuploidy
o It is the gain or loss of whole chromosomes. It is the most common chromosome
abnormality. It is caused by non-disjunction, the failure of chromosomes to
correctly separate:
o Homologues during meiosis I or
o Sister chromatids during meiosis II
 Effects on Organelles - During normal mitosis, damaged organelles have a chance to
repair and recover between cell divisions, but they don’t have this opportunity when cell
division doesn’t stop. Cells with damaged organelles can die. Which are organelles that
provide energy to the cell, can trigger the release of “executioner” enzymes.
 Mosaicism
o Some cells may have a mutant version of a gene while others have the normal
version of the same gene. Geneticist refers to this condition as mosaicism. The
individual may not be affected by the mutations, but if the genotype is widespread
and harmful enough, the mutation can have a major impact.
o Two examples of diseases linked to mosaicism are hemophilia, a blood-clothing
disorder, and order Marfan syndrome, which produces unusually long limbs.
 Turner syndrome
o A condition that affects only females, results when one of the X chromosomes (sex
chromosomes) is missing or partially missing.
o Turner syndrome can cause a variety of medical and developmental problems,
including short height, failure of the ovaries to develop and heart defects.
 Trisomy 18 / Edwards syndrome
o It is a chromosomal condition associated with abnormalities in many parts of the
body. Individuals with trisomy 18 often have slow growth before birth (intrauterine
growth retardation) and a low birth weight. Affected individuals may have heart
defects and abnormalities of other organs that develop before birth. Other
features of trisomy 18 include a small, abnormally shaped head; a small jaw and
mouth; and clenched fists with overlapping fingers.
 Huntington's disease
o It is a progressive brain disorder caused by a single defective gene on
chromosome 4 — one of the 23 human chromosomes that carry a person's entire
genetic code. This defect is "dominant," meaning that anyone who inherits it from a
parent with Huntington's will eventually develop the disease.