Zahid Final Thesis

BIOLOGY OF RED FLOUR BEETLE (Triboliumcastaneum)
(Hbst.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) ON DIFFERENT

WHEAT VARIETIES
Submitted by
ZAHID IQBAL
Registration No. 2019- GU-2350
Supervisor (s)
DR. MUHAMMAD SHAHID NISAR

Associate Professor
Department of Plant Protection, GU, DG Khan
DR. ASGHAR ABBAS

Department of Pathobiology, MNSUAM
Submitted to the Ghazi University
In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN
ZOOLOGY
Place of Work
General Lab, Department of Plant Protection, GU, DG Khan
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
GHAZI UNIVERSITY, DERA GHAZI KHAN, PUNJAB,
PAKISTAN
September, 2023
DECLARATION
The work reported in this thesis was carried out by me under the supervision
of Dr.Muhammmad Shahid Nisar, Associate Professor Department of Plant
Protection, Ghazi University Dera Ghazi Khan. I hereby declare that the title of the
thesis entitled “Biology of Red Flour Beetle (Triboliumcastaneum) (Hbst.)
(Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on different wheat varieties” and the contents of the
thesis are the product of my research and no part has been copied from any
published source (except the references, standard mathematical or genetic models
/equations /formulas /protocols, etc). I further declare that this work has not been
submitted for the award of any other degree /diploma. The University may take
action if the information provided is found inaccurate at any stage.
_____________
Zahid Iqbal
2019-GU-2350
The Controller of Examinations,
Ghazi University,
Dera Ghazi Khan
We, the Supervisory Committee, certify that the contents and form of thesis
submitted by Zahid Iqbal, Reg. No. 2019-GU-2350 have been found satisfactory,
and recommend that it be processed for evaluation by the External Examiner (s) for
award of the degree.
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:
Supervisor 1:
___________________
Dr. Muhammad Shahid Nisar
Supervisor 2:
___________________
Dr. Asghar Abbas
Chairman Signature with Stamp
___________________
Dr. Asma Noureen
Chairman
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah and His blessing in completing this thesis.
I thank God for all the opportunities, trials and strength that have been showered on
me to finish writing the thesis. I experienced so much during this process, not only
from the academic aspect but also from the aspect of personality. My humblest
gratitude to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) whose way of life
has been continuous guidance for me.
First and foremost, special appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr.

Muhammad Shahid Nisar, Associate Professor, Department of Plant Protection,
Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan for his supervision and constant support. His
invaluable help of constructive comments and suggestions throughout the
experimental and thesis works have contributed to the success of this research. It has
been a great pleasure and honor to have his as my supervisor.
I am highly grateful to Dr. Khizar Samiullah, Associate Professor,

Department of Zoology, Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan for facilitating me to
carry out this research work. I am also thankful to Dr. Asma Noureen, Assistant
Professor and all the teachers of my academic career, who provided me their
shoulder to rise above and there will be shareholder of each and every success of my
life.
Last but not least, sincere thanks to all my friends Muhammad Luqman
Tauhidi and Suleman Saeed and others for their kindness and moral support during
my study. Thanks for the friendship and memories. To those who indirectly
contributed to this research, your kindness means a lot to me. Thank you very much.
-----------------
Zahiq Iqbal
DEDICATIONS
To
My affectionate and loving
PARENTS
Through whom I acquired indefatigable temperament,

Morality and determination for achieving objectives in
every walk of life
MY LOVING BROTHERS
Who gave hope and strength to meet with the challenges

of life
SISTERS
For their care, affection and cooperation

CONTENTS
Chapter No. Title Page No.
List of Figures i
List of Tables ii
List of Abbreviations
Abstract Iii
1 Introduction 1
Objectives
2 Review of Literature 6
3 Material and Methods 29
4 Results 31
5 Discussion 63
Summary 37
Conclusion 70
References 71
LIST OF FIGURES
Sr. No. List of Figures Page No.
Fig. 1 Mean Comparison for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle

in various wheat cultivars
Fig. 2 Mean Comparison for Egg Hatching Percentage of Red flour
beetle in various wheat cultivars
Fig. 3 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar I) of Red flour
Fig. 4 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar II) of Red flour
Fig. 5 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar III) of Red flour
Fig. 6 Mean Comparisonfor Larval Period (Instar IV) of Red flour
Fig.7 Mean Comparisonfor Larval Period (Instar V) of Red flour
Fig. 8 Mean Comparisonfor Larval Period (Instar VI) of Red flour
Fig. 9 Mean Comparisonfor Total Larval Period of Red flour beetle
Fig. 10 Mean Comparison for Pupal Period of Red flour beetle in
various wheat cultivars
Fig. 11 Mean Comparisonfor Total Developmental Period of Red
flour beetle in
Fig. 12 Mean Comparison for Larval Length (Instar VI) of Red flour
Fig. 13 Mean Comparisonfor Male Pupal Length of Red flour beetle
Fig. 14 Mean Comparisonfor Female Pupal Length of Red flour
beetle in various
wheat cultivars
Fig. 15 Mean Comparison for adult male length of Red flour beetle
in various
wheat cultivars
Fig. 16 Mean Comparison for adult female length of Red flour beetle
in various
wheat cultivars
7
LIST OF TABLES
Sr. No List of Tables Page No.
4.1(a) ANOVA Table for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle in various
wheat cultivars
4.1(b) Mean Comparison Table for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle in
4.2(a) ANOVA Table for Egg Hatching Percentage of Red flour beetle in
4.2(b) Mean Comparison Table for Egg Hatching Percentage of Red flour
4.3(a) ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar I) of Red flour beetle in
4.3(b) Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period(Instar I) of Red flour
4.4(a) ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar II) of Red flour beetle in
4.4(b) Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar II) of Red flour
4.5(a) ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar III) of Red flour
4.5(b) Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar III) of Red
flour beetle in various wheat cultivars
4.6(a) ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar IV) of Red flour beetle in
4.6(b) Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar IV) of Red flour
4.7(a) ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar V) of Red flour beetle in
4.7(b) Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar V) of Red flour
4.8(a) ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar VI) of Red flour beetle in
4.8(b) Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar VI) of Red flour
4.9(a) ANOVA Table for Total Larval Period of Red flour beetle in
4.9(b) Mean Comparison Table for Total Larval Period of Red flour beetle
4.10(a) ANOVA Table for Pupal Period of Red flour beetle in various
wheat cultivars
4.10(b) Mean Comparison Table for Pupal Period of Red flour beetle
4.11(a) ANOVA Table for Total Developmental Period of Red flour
8
4.11(b) Mean Comparison Table for Total Developmental Period of Red
4.12(a) ANOVA Table for larval length (Instar VI) of Red flour beetle in
4.12(b) Mean Comparison Table for larval length (Instar VI) of Red flour
4.13(a) ANOVA Table for male pupal length of Red flour beetle in various
wheat cultivars
4.13(b) Mean Comparison Table for male pupal length of Red flour beetle in
4.14(a) ANOVA Table for female pupal length of Red flour beetle in
4.14(b) Mean Comparison Table for female pupal length of Red flour beetle
4.15(a) ANOVA Table for adult male length of Red flour beetle in various
wheat cultivars
4.15(b) Mean Comparison Table for adult male length of Red flour beetle in
4.16(a) ANOVA Table for adult female length of Red flour beetle in various
wheat cultivars
4.16(b) Mean Comparison Table for adult female length of Red flour beetle
9
ABSTRACT
A study on the biology as well as morphological measurement of T. castaneumon
registered five different wheat cultivars like AAS-11, NARC-11, Ujala-16, Millet-11
and Faisalabad-08 was conducted in the Laboratory of Entomology, Ghazi University,
D.G. Khan, atmaintained temperature and relative humidity of 28-32 oC and 60-
70%R.H., respectively.Parameters studied in this experiment were larval period, pupal
period and total developmental period as well as length of different developmental
stages. This experiment was performed by following the completely randomized
design (CRD) with four repeats of each wheat cultivar, using LSD for mean
comparison.The findings indicated that significant differences were observed in
trailed cultivars of wheat with respect to incubation period of red flour beetle.
Maximum incubation period (6.00 and 5.25 days) was demonstrated by flour beetles
nourished in flours of Faisalabad-08 andMillet-11, respectively, while Ujala-16
cultivar depicted minimum incubation period (4.25 days) of red flour
beetle.Similarly,maximum egg hatching percentage was observed by cultivarUjala-16
(97.5%) while Faisalabad-08 cultivar depicted minimum egg hatching percent of
67.5%. The maximum total larval period was inFaisalabad-08 with 24.75 days and
Ujala-16 showed minimum total larval period of 14.25 days. Faisalabad-08 depicted
maximum pupal period of 5.75 days and Ujala-16 demonstrated minimum pupal
period of 4 days. Total developmental time period of red flour beetle was noticed
maximum (36.5 days) inFaisalabad-08 followed by Millet-11 (31.25 days) and
NARC-11 (29.75 days), AAS-11 (26.25 days) and Ujala-16 (22.5 days). According to
morphometric parameter, maximum larval length of sixth instar (6.00 mm) was
noticed in Ujala-16 and AAS-11 followed by Millet-11 (5.9 mm),NARC-11 (5.85
mm) and (5.8 mm) Faisalabad-08. Non-significant variation was observed among all
trailed cultivars with respect to male and female pupal as well as adult length.This
study concluded that how various wheat cultivars may impact the viability of T.
castaneum as well as their morphometry and development.
10
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Tribolium castaneum Herbst is the most devastating pest of stored goods and
has a global distribution. The most frequent pest of wheat flour is this one.
Additionally, it seriously harms prepared cereal items like cornflakes, pasta, biscuits,
beans, nuts, and dried fruits, pulses, and other cereal products. Though its pest status
is regarded as secondary and requires earlier infestation by an internal feeder, it is
frequently the most frequent specie in the complex of pest attacking storage wheat. It
can also easily spread to other grains that have been damaged during harvesting. Both
larvae and adults spend their whole life phases outside the seed kernels and consume
only dust of seed dust as well as damaged or broken seeds; they don’t consume sound
grains that have not been harmed (Karunakaran et al., 2004). When there is a strong
attack of beetles, the flour change into grey with an unpleasant scent, rendering it
unfit for human use. Due to its strong reproductive potential, this insect causes
significant loss in storage (Prakash et al., 1987). Despite the possibility of an allergic
reaction, they are not known to spread disease (Alenko et al., 2000).
A healthy food that provides the essential nutrients for a balanced diet is
provided by Wheat, Triticum aestivum L. (Family: Gramineae), and other cereals
(Peter and Hey, 2015). Wheat is cultivated throughout a variety of agro-ecological
zones and develops significant genetic variation. From the time it grows in the field
until it is eaten by people, this cereal is damaged. Losses can also be brought on by
improper handling practices during storage, inadequate storage structures, and other
physical issues. In Pakistan, more than 23 insect species attack wheat grains when
they are in storage (Ali et al., 2009).
Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Red flour beetle), is a widespread as same as

dangerous pest of seeds (mainly cereal) and the goods made from them (Khattak et
al., 1999). In many areas of Pakistan, T. castaneum (Herbst) is the main barrier to the
profitable storage of wheat. Dry-fruits, bran,pulses, dust of grain, and prepared cereal
foods are among the stored food items that adult beetles and their larva consume on
(Dars et al., 2009). Unlike other pests of the pantry like Indian Meal Moths and
Drugstore Beetles, flour beetles do not consume the complete grain kernels.As
11
scavengers, flour beetles only eat grain when the seed protective coat has been
damaged. The female flour beetle directly lays her eggs on products like flour, cereal,
dry pet food, and others. In food processing facilities, food mills, and commercial
storage spaces, they might result in large financial losses. Despite not biting or
stinging, these beetles have eating mouthparts (Li &Arbogast, 1999). In cases of
severe attack, the cereal flour becomes mouldy and brownish, emits a foul stench, and
is no longer fit for human consumption (Atwal, 1976). Every type of cereal was
susceptible to insect infestation. In comparison to other cereals, wheat had much
higher percent weight losses and mean progeny production (Lohar et al., 1997).
T. castaneum is a worldwide pest of goods that are kept in storage (Nenaah,

2014). It is a member of the Tenebrionidae family of darkling beetles. More than
10,000 species of tiny beetles belong to the family Tenebrionidae, and over 100 of
them are pests of various stored goods (Sallam, 2008). Tenebrionids are those one
who are Tenebrio, a term that eventually came to imply literally "seekers of dark
places."
Tenebrionidae family species that infest stored goods have a range of adult
tints, from Blackish to Reddish-Brown and Dark-Brown (Singh &Prakash, 2015).
According to Hill (2002), adults have a length of 2.3–4 mm and are reddish-brown in
color (Mahroof and Hagstrum, 2012; Baldwin and Fasulo, 2014). The antennae are
made up of eleven segments, with the final three antennal segments being
significantly larger than the remaining four in T. confusum (Clubbed) (Anon.
2012).Lower surface(ventral side) of the front femur in the males, there is a setaceous
lesion. A backward outgrowth of the head, whose width is nearly equal to the distance
between the compound eyes when viewed from the ventral region of the head, divides
the compound eyes in part horizontally (Good, 1933). The adult possesses functional
hind wings that are employed for flight in contrast to its closest species, T. confusum
(Hill, 2002; Ridley et al., 2011), and its lateral thorax sides are curved as opposed to
T. confusum's straighter sides.
According to Devi and Devi (2015), eggs are pale, very small (microscopic),
and cylindrical, with traces of flour adhering to the surface with the help of sticky
material that coats the egg shell (Li and Arbogast, 1991).
12
The larvae are tiny with Brownish-White color, and when grown fully attain
the size of 4 to 5 mm in length, campodeiform, slender, strongly sclerotized,
cylindrical and tinted yellowish with thin appearance and having 6 to 7 larval instar
stages (Rees, 1996; Anon, 2012). They are fairly active feeders that live in some sort
of concealment and hide in product cracks, which they use as cover when they are
disturbed.
T. castaneum pupae are unlike those of all other complete metamorphosis

(Holometabolous) insect populations in that they lack a cocoon, are dormant, and do
not feed. It eventually turns a yellowish tan before turning brown in the end. It
possesses sclerotized legs, well-developed eyes and fine hairs on the dorsum (Beeman
et al., 2012). There is a difference in pupal length between the sexes.
In the tropics, Tribolium castaneum, Hbst. (belongs to order Coleoptera

andFamily: Tenebrionidae) is a significant pest of various storage goods. Since
Tribolium castaneum cannot feed on or attack sound grains, it is frequently regarded
to as a secondary pest (Howe, 1956). Tribolium castaneum may consume full kernels
but prefers the embryo. Additionally, it exhibits an exceptional adaptation, supported
by the presence of an organ in its body that resembles a cryptonephridial kidney,
which permits its establishment in extremely low humidity conditions (Richards et al.,
2008). It is also a polyphagous and global pest.
According to Padin et al., (2002) and Faroni and Sousa (2006), these insects
harm grains by decreasing their mass and/or volume, their physiological quality and
ability to germinate, and by raising their temperature and water content. The flour gets
stained and grey where these pests are prevalent in high numbers, and it moulds more
quickly than clean flour. Sometimes the flour is infused with the foul-smelling,
pungent odour produced by the quinones (insect scent glands), giving it a disagreeable
flavor and smell (Good, 1936). In a process known as "conditioning," quinone
chemical secretions build up in the medium in proportion to duration and density, and
the beetles use these chemical secretions as markers of demographic factors including
population density (El-Desouky et al., 2018).Recent studies show that females
consider both the present and the future state of the competitive environment when
deciding where to lay their eggs (Halliday et al., 2019).
13
The most widely used methods for managing insect pests are chemical
controls (Golshan et al., 2014). Insect pest control for stored goods using synthetic
pesticides has also long been recognized as one of the most cost-effective methods
stated by Wang et al., 2009. Both phosphine and methyl-bromide are the fumigants
that are mostly employed to protect stored products from T.castaneum. But numerous
different environmental issues have been brought on by the widespread use of
insecticides, the majority of which have broad-spectrum activity. Animals and
humans may be at risk from chemical residues found in or on agricultural goods
(Zacharia, 2011). It's crucial to consider other methods of control because these
chemicals might pollute the environment and are hazardous. These techniques can
significantly contribute to the decline of insect populations, according to studies.
Different levels of T. castaneum infestation can be seen in different wheat types. On
whole grains or flour derived from these grains, the levels of infection have been
researched. These studies primarily used whole grain. According to Fatima et al.,
(2010), biochemical traits of cultivars were likewise related to infestation levels.
Because they contain more carbohydrates and less protein than vulnerable cultivars,
some cultivars are more resistant to R. dominica infection.
According to different researchers like Kitinoja &Gorny (1999), Musa (1984),

Tindall &Proctor (1980), and others, who reported that deficits related with post-
harvest food during storage are significant and associated from a variety of factors.
The cultivation, the storage equipments conditions, as well as postharvest processing
types, all affect the amount of deficits regarding pulses, cereals, and oilseeds that are
stored. Present investigation was carried out since there is little information on the life
processes (biology) of the T.castaneumon wheat. To create sensible pest control plans,
it is first required to ascertain the fundamental life cycle of this insect, including the
number of larval instars. In order to offer a suitable management strategy, the current
work is being done to investigate the morphological measurements of the different
developmental phases of this pest.
14
Objectives
● To evaluate the different developmental periods (incubation, larval, pupal and
total development) of this pest.
● To find out the preferred variety of this pest in terms of short developmental
period.
● To find out the preferred variety of this pest in terms of short developmental
period.
● To study the morphological measurement of different developmental stages
of this pest like last larval length, male and female pupal length, adult male
and female length.
15
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Sinha (1969) reported that 39 different genotypes of grain (cereal)cultivated in
Western areas of Canada (during 1965-1966), reproduction of five global species of
stored-grain insects was identified. It was believed that an insect's ability to reproduce
was inversely related to a cereal's ability to resist that insect. Sitophilus granarius (L.),
the granary weevil, and Rhysopertha dominica(F.), the smaller grain borer, didn’t
reproduced on intact grains(in case of hulled oats), while S. granarius did so on the
genotype Vicar (hulless).Crushed oats were the ideal environment for the
development and reproduction of the rust-beetle, Cryptolestcs ferrugineus, the red
flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum(red flour beetle), and T. confusum(confused flour
beetle).Between two cereal kinds, there were variations in the insect species rates of
multiplication. The cereal Triticum dicoccunt (Schübl.) was the most vulnerable to
broken-grain feeders and the least resistant to whole-grain feeders of the cereals
studied. The presence as well as the type of hull on grains (cereal) may be connected
to the degree of tolerance by a genotype to sound grain (whole)feeding insects.
Jamil and Aslam, (2000) tested 9 wheat genotypes (Pak-81, Rawal-87,

Inqilab-91, Chakwal -86, Khyber-87, C-591, Sariab-92, Bakhtawarand Faislabad-85)
in 1999–2000 for resistance to Tribolium castaneum using three different methods
(confinement, free choice and antixenosis). Sariab-92 and Bakhtawar were recorded
asvery vulnerable, while Chakwal-86 was shown to be (susceptible/check). The
benchmark Chakwal-86 was not considerably different from Inqilab-91, Khyber-87,
or Faisalabad-85. It turns out that Rawal-87 and Pak-81 were just moderately
resistant. The Red flour beetle was shown to be sensitive to partially resistant to C-
591.The findings indicated that there was variation among the many wheat varieties,
and none of them were fully resistant. Although total immunity could not be achieved,
some genetic qualities may be combined to create types with resistant characteristics.
The current findings further demonstrate that the susceptible variety is highly
advantageous, allowing for the rapid and widespread laboratory culture of red flour
beetle that may be required in subsequent scientific investigations.
Shafique et al., (2006) researched in a lab setting (28°C and 60% RH), on the
Tribolium castaneum beetle's free-choice eating preferences as well as larvae
16
development in various commodities. The findings exhibited that a substantially
maximum beetle count accepted Grade-2 flour with 30%, followed by Grade-1 flour
with 15.14%, Maida with 9.71% and Bran with 9.43%, for feeding. The beetle's
lowest feeding preference was 2.1% (for dry wheat) and 2.4% (for tempered wheat).
The new emerging larvae in all treatments developed quickly after being released. To
become imago, however, each of the 50 larvae required 24 days (for Grade -1, -2 and
Bran flour), 25 days (for fine and maida flour), and 28 days (for Suji flour).Only
23.33 and 37 larvae, respectively, reached adulthood in 70 days in dry and tempered
wheat due to the delayed larval growth in wheat grains. The weight loss induced by
the growing larvae was highest for flour Grade-l with 3.41 percent and lowest for dry
wheat with 0.41 percent. The correlations (r) among various T. castaneum
characteristics and wheat products were substantial and positive.
Ali et al., (2009) stated that Tribolium castaneum (Hbst.), a flour beetle, is the
main problem that prevents Pakistan's numerous geographical regions from storing
wheat profitably. The ten wheat types were put to the test in a lab setting for their
ability to resist the red flour beetle at this time. The purpose of this study was to
assess the degree of tolerance in locally as well as regionally wheat genotypes against
such harmful biotic restriction. The effectiveness of three diagnostic methods,
including infestation percentage, frass mass and the adult total number which
emerged, was to be evaluated. Examining the results showed that only Marvi-2000,
out of all evaluated types, was notably identified as being generally tolerable with
significant degree as well as employed in next coming breeding programmes. Pest
countwas discovered to be a sensitive indication in G.A. 2002, a variety that was
statistically vulnerable as opposed to tolerant and other varieties. For management
purposes, Entomologists and Plant breeders should focus more on utilizing Marvi
2000 as a host grain resistant to insects.
Ahmed et al., (2010) studied the life phases as same as physiology of the
insects on an iron overload in the fortified flour. The aim of existing investigation was
determining the biology of Tribolium castaneum(red flour beetle, Hebrst), and the
effects of pre-mix iron-fortified flour (available commercial basis)as well as varied
quantities of post-mix iron-fortified wheat. Two successive generations of the beetle's
larvae and pupae were compared to the control group for terms including larva and
pupa time period, overall growth time, egg laying and larvae masses. Additionally, the
17
carbohydrate digesting (amylase) and protein digesting enzyme (protease) actions in
the beetle's (gut) were assessed in pre- and post-mixed flours. The findings
demonstrated that, as compared to the control, larvae death rate become increase in
two sources of iron flour(pre-mix).Only the first generation of larvae saw a reduction
in weight. In comparison to other post-mix concentrations and the control treatment,
the larval mortality was considerably higher in the flour that had 30-ppm of post-mix
iron fortification. The T. castaneum larvae showed a rise in amylases and a fall in
protease activity when fed on two sources of pre-mix and different quantities of post-
mix iron-fortified flour.
Fatima et al., (2010) checked the anti-biosis of 3 varieties of wheat (salt

stressed) viz. Sehar -2006, Shafaq and Inqlab -91) by using three various salinity
levels like 8, 12 and 16 dSm-1).Three different types of grains were crushed and put
through an 80 mesh screen. With the inoculation of 10 male and female pupae from
prior grown flour beetles on 3 types with their certain salt levels, life cycle metrics
such as duration of larvae and pupae same as survivals, fecundity, egg hatching and
adult emergence were observed. One control group had plant grains that received
solely distilled water irrigation. Results showed that different types considerably
increased their larval duration at varied salt levels, with significant differences
between the treatments for each variety. In Shafaq, the mean longest larval duration
was found to be 33, 33.33 and 30.33 days @ 8, 12 and 16 dSm -1 salt level longer than
the control with 31days. Regardless of salt content, T. castaneum on wheat cultivars
varied in fecundity as well as egg hatching.In a different experiment, responses of the
LU- 26S,Sarc- 1, Sarc-2, Sarc- 3, Sarc- 4, Sarc- 5, Sarc- 6, Sarc- 7 and Sarc- 8 to T.
castaneum's biological indicators revealed a substantial difference in the eggs count,
hatching rate, larvae as well as pupae survival. Sarc -1 formed 126 eggs, Sarc -2
formed 128.75 eggs and Sarc-3 formed 132.25 eggs, which was much fewer eggs than
Sarc 5, which formed significantly more eggs count of 151.75. The percentage of eggs
that hatched was much greater in Sarc-5 with 58.42% than it was 39.38%in Sarc-6.
Larval survival was higher in Sarc -1 with 52.25% and much lower in Sarc-7 with
36.99%. Pupal survival was greater in Sarc-8 with 42.11% and much lower in Sarc-1
with 20.54%.According to the findings, wheat types that are salt stressed have a major
impact on T. castaneum's biology.
18
Xue et al., (2010) researched in a lab setting, focused at growth, comparative
retention as well as fertility of Tribolium castaneum, (the Red flour beetle, Hbst.), on
various six kinds of flour, starches and flour mixyeast. Ninety percent of particles in
the starches were under 15 - 58 micrometer in size, whereas under 133 micrometer in
the case of the flour. Flour Beetle larvae were feed on a flour, starchesand flour with
Brewer's yeast (five percentof w.t.) as diet for 30 days at 28°C and 65% relative
humidity to measure their weight increase, head capsule,lengthand width. When
compared to larvae raised on starches, those raised on flour and yeast exhibited
greater survival. Larvae fed on starches were unable to progress past the second and,
very rarely, third instar. In dual-choice experiments, beetle adults didn’t exhibit any
liking for cereal (flour) over carbohydrate (starch). On all starches, one female beetle
(T. castaneum) oviposit less than 3 eggs on time period of 15-days, but in case of
flour (97 eggs) and flour + yeast(109 eggs) oviposited by one female beetle. These
preliminary investigations indicate that carbohydrates (starch) are weak growth
commodities and investigation further proceed to enhance larvae survival as well as
growth by including particular nutrients in carbohydrates (starch). Adults found
carbohydrates to be just as appealing as flour, but they don't seem as a good
commodity for fecundity. It was demonstrated in early tests that eating on an
appropriate diet is necessary to induce oviposition by switching adult subjects
between carbohydrates (starch)as well as flour and contrast to each other. These
intriguing first results imply that starches may be able to control the growth as same
as multiplication of beetles(a pest which is cosmopolitan as well as destructive in
grain-processing factories).
Ali et al., (2011) investigated the resilience for various seeds (of wheat)
against the assault by beetle (Tribolium castaneum Hbst). In order to assess the
changes in resistance among the assembled materials, 15 wheat types were gathered
from local resources and studied in the lab. The investigated types showed a variety in
infestation rates and a differentially significant tolerance to insect invasion. Red flour
beetle attack was extremely tolerant to Barani 70 wheat variety seed, but Wafaq 2001
was more vulnerable than other trailed kinds. This discovery of resistance gives
researchers the chance to concentrate their efforts on creating wheat varieties with
high yields, acceptable grain quality, and resilience to physical and biological
challenges.
19
Khanzada et al., (2011) used thirty different wheat types in the current study
to examine each variety's resistance to the Tribolium castaneum. All of these types
grains were purchased from the Tandojam (Nuclear Institute of Agriculture's Plant
Breeding and Genetics Division). The experiment was run in a lab setting with a
constant temperature and R.H. Thousand grains stored in plastic jars served as the
benchmark for samples of each variety utilized in the experiment. Each jar received
ten male and female of freshly adult beetles in equal count of similar age from a stock
that had been kept in the lab. None of the genotypes tested showed complete
resistance to T. castaneum infestation when the findings were evaluated based on
development of adult population, grain infestation percentage, grain damage, and
frass output. Entire types attained deficits, but the levels of tolerance fluctuate greatly.
Barani 70 and Bhittai suffered the least damage, while T21 and T16 suffered the most,
based on the development of the pest population, the percentage of damage, and the
production of frass. These types were therefore named the most tolerant and sensitive,
respectively.
Wong &Lee, (2011) evaluated 8 food items viz. flour of wheat, atta, rice,
custard powder, self–rising flour, tapioca starch, maize flour, and potato starch for
their effects against Tribolium castaneum development which was kept at maintained
conditions (29 to 31°C and 66 to 70% R.H.).The experiment's apparatus was
disassembled, and beetle (adult) counts were taken of the five male and female (T.
castaneum) that had been raised on the corresponding diets for 28 days. In a different
experiment, the insects were left in each type of flour or starch for 7 days so they
could breed and lay their eggs before being taken out. Beginning from the emergence
day and continuing everyday for 140 days, pupae and adult emergence were counted.
Maximum count of beetles was observed in food item which is made up of protein
(positive relation) while minimum count of beetle was depicted in diet comprised of
carbohydrate (negative relation)on the basis of imminent analysis of the chemistry of
each meal. In comparison to the other diets, T. castaneum larval growth to the pupal
and adult stages developed much more quickly in atta flour, and beetles raised on atta
flour generated the most offspring. There were fewer adults that emerged from the
diets containing wheat flour, self-rising flour, and rice flour, and there were none for
the other diets. Beetles that were raised on diets that resulted in a small number of
offspring had a substantially slower pace of development.These findings demonstrate
20
how dietary variations might impact the viability of these insects as well as their
growth and development.
Al-Iraqi and Abdulla (2012) investigated the biology of the Tribolium

castaneum on fourteen types of commonly used spices under carefully controlled
conditions (Temp. and R.H.). The outcomes depicted that type of spices employed as
food for the insect's breeding had an impact on a variety of its biological
characteristics. Anise was a better choice for a meal than the other spices, leading to a
low developmental period of 35.51 days and the lowest mortality rate of 26.66%, as
opposed to cubeb, which had the longest developmental period of 49.75 days and a
greater mortality rate of 90%.Red and black peppers were unsuited for the beetle,
which resulted in a 100% mortality rate for the early-instar larvae.
Almaši and Poslončec, (2014) performed an experiment under laboratory

circumstances (22 to 25°C and 40 to 60% R.H.), the effects of wheat (spelt and
common), as well as their commodities, towards the multiplication and immature of
Tribolium confusum (confused flour beetles,Du Val) were investigated. Over the
course of six months, this experimentation was arranged in four times repeats of four,
ten as well as twenty beetles each. Confounded flour beetle reproduction varied
greatly depending on the type of wheat and the end product. The spelt wheat
(Triticum spelta L.) species had the highest rate of reproduction. The most larval
beetles of 23469 were found on spelt wheat flour. Common wheat kernels had a
higher number of progeny beetles of 7044 than spelt wheat kernels of 5469.On spelt
wheat pasta, just 4 juvenile beetles were discovered while there were none on
ordinary wheat pasta. Up to a certain point, storage time enhanced the number of
offspring, but beyond that, the quantity of insects became more important. During the
first four months, there were more insects, but they became fewer after that and died
off at a higher rate. Offspring numbers were influenced by starting population density,
but they did not increase proportionally as initial population density increased. When
comparing wheat species, common wheat showed increased mortality. Regarding the
product, pasta had the highest fatality rate, followed by kernels, while flour had the
lowest.
Kayode et al.,(2014)examined the effects of four cereals like Wheat (Triticum

aestivum), Maize (Zea mays), Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and Millet (Pennisetum
glaucum) flouron the growth and development of T. castaneum at ambient tropical
21
laboratory conditions of 30°C and 75% of relative humidity. Researchers looked at
the anti-nutrients, mineral profiles, and nearby components of the four types of flour
and how they affected the development of the flour beetle. The results showed that the
ash percentage in the flours ranging from 1.05% (in maize) to (2.59%) in millet, while
the protein content ranging from 10.91% (in millet) to 17.23% (in wheat flour). The
moisture content of the grain flours ranging from 7.64% (in wheat) to 9.24% (in
maize). The four grain flours, however, provided T. castaneum with enough nutrients
to develop. At 56 days after infestation, millet flour had the highest number of larvae,
indicating that it is the best type of flour for oviposition and egg incubation. In
contrast, maize flour had the lowest number of larvae, which was considerably
loweras compared to the number of emerging larvae in the other flour types. Millet
had the highest pupa count while maize flour had the lowest. The highest and lowest
numbers of emergent adult Tribolium were found in millet and maize, respectively.
According to research on host preference (choice and no-choice), maize flour was the
least favored food while millet flour was the most preferred. Maize flour was the least
acceptable food source, while millet flour was the most vulnerable to T. castaneum,
according to the color of the flour, its anti-nutrient composition, and the population of
the immature forms of the flour beetle.
Mostakim and Khan, (2014) discovered how different coffee, Coffea arabica,
concentrations (12.50, 25, and 50 percent), affected the Tribolium castaneum, and its
growth and development. The larval and pupal stages were greatly prolonged by
coffee. Following treatment, the beetle's pupal recovery and adult emergence both
decreased significantly. The beetle suffered the most damage from the meal that
included 50% coffee. For the control of the red flour beetle, coffee extract may be an
effective botanical pesticide.
Rustamani et al., (2014) determined non-living (a-biotic) parameters as same

as their impact on the T.castaneum population among different diets(of cereal). This
study conclusion will be useful in managing the pest in various food materials. White
flour, Corn flakes, Biscuits and Semolina were employed in the current investigation
to examine the red flour beetle's preferred diet. The findings showed that during the
study period, White flour had the largest mean population of Tribolium castaneum
followed by Semolina, Corn flakes and Biscuits. A relatively stronger association of
0.596 was found between the insect population in White flour and the temperature.
22
Vapor-pressure replica regarding number of T. castaneumas well as total
observational duration was proposed using several linear and non-linear regression
models. For confirming the link within number of T. castaneumas well as
temperatures over the data collection period, a geometric curve was proposed.
Devi and devi, (2015)conducted a study on the biology of Tribolium

castaneum on wheat flour from January to July (2013), 29°C (room temp.) and 59
percent(relative humidity). On first day of egg laying on the wheat flour, the daily egg
laying was noticed. A female deposited 24 eggs every day on average. Eggs had an
incubation period of four to five days, seven instars of larvae, and a total immature
stage developmental period of 70-83 days(mean of 76.5 days). In wheat flour,
pupae phase occurs. The un-mated adult male periodvaries (45 - 67 days)as same as
75 - 89 days were recorded as un-mated female period, whereas pupal phase varied
from 6 - 9 days with a mean of 7.5 days. A beetle's entire life span was between 164
to 194 days.
Metwaly et al., (2015) tested eight cultivars of Egyptian flour wheat to see
how susceptible they were to Rhyzopertha dominica and Tribolium confusu. A free
choice method for insect adult attraction was conducted at specific intervals (ranging
0.125 – 5.0 days) after attackin first trail. Results regarding days demonstrated that
less count (5.00) of R. dominica adults were attracted in sakl-8 type while maximum
population (22.67) of R. dominica adults were attracted in sids-1 type. The following
varieties can be grouped in ascending order by R. dominica's attracted numbers: sakl-
8, sakl-1, Bacanora, Debeira, Giza-168, Giza164, sids-6, and sids-1. The results for T.
confusum, which were obtained in descending order, might be comparable.
Significant disparities between the numbers of the eight varieties were shown by
statistical analysis. First progeny count as well as length of each stage (from immature
to adult) was calculated in the second experiment. According to the D.I (Dobie Index)
with reference to R. dominica, the resistant variants (sakl-8, Debeira, Bacanora, and
sakl-1) were identified. A moderate level of resistance is present in the sids-1 and
sids-6 variants. With the exception of sakl-8 and sids-1, all types of T. confusum
displayed some level of resistance. Of the two examined bug species, the minimum
D.I. was displayed by variety Bacanora. Results can help managers of stored grains to
better appreciate the potential variations among wheat varieties vulnerability against
infestation caused by T. confusum as same as R. dominica.
23
Rajput et al.,(2015) evaluated thirty currently evolved and ancient wheat
cultivars in lab settings for their resistance to the population expansion and grain
weight loss brought on by the Trogoderama granarium. In each jar holding a standard
sample of 1000 grains of wheat, twenty freshly emerged of about 10 hour old Khapra
beetle larvae were released. There were three repeats of the experiment. The
evaluation was based on percent %,weight loss, and pest population growth. Triticum
aestivum T13, which contained (370.67) individuals, had the biggest population
buildup, and T18, which contained (277) adults, was on second. Triticum aestivumTJ-
83 had adult (54.67) of Khapra beetles per treatment, while T1 Barani 70 had the
lowest population(38) adults. Nearly ten times more pests were present in the most
susceptible cultivar as compared to the least susceptible cultivar. Variety T13 saw the
most infestation rate of 97.23 percent and 44.26 percent of weight loss. The T1 Barani
70 variety, which saw a 6.99 percent of weight reduction, had the lowest infestation
rate of 18.46 percent. Additionally, there was a roughly six-fold difference in weight
loss between the most and least vulnerable cultivars. As the most tolerant and
sensitive types, respectively, these were chosen.
Saljoqi et al., (2015) undertook a study in 2009 to test 10 various wheat

cultivars (irrigated)towardstored pest, (Angoumois grain moth,Sitotroga cerealella),
under lab.circumstances (28°C temp., 60% R.H., 12L h.:12D h.). The types were rated
based on their developmental period, S. cerealella progeny total number, grain
infestation percentage, weight reduction %age,grain (size) and the chemistry
(chemical composition) of the grains. The findings showed no one of the applied
cultivars was totally tolerant for S. cerealella’s attack. Their responses, however,
differed considerably. Minimum weight loss percent was recorded in Fakhre-Sarhad
with 3.87 percent subsequent by Uqab with 7.610 percent, Sehar with 7.78 percent,
Shafaq with 9.19 percent and Dera 98 with 9.24 percent were found to be significantly
tolerant, while significant susceptible varieties were Pirsabak 2004 with 13.39
percent, Pirsabak 2005 with 13.82 percent, Raj with 14.10 percent, Saleem 2000 with
14.44 percent and Pirsabak 2008 with 27.75 percent. The connection between percent
weight reduction and fat was un-favorable and non-significant. Protein level and
percent weight reduction had a highly significant negative association, although
moisture and crude fibre had a highly significant positive correlation.
24
Sarwar, (2015) investigated the resistance of twelve advanced local wheat
Triticum aestivum germplasms, including 10 lines and 2 varieties against Tribolium
castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Each line/variety's healthy seeds were kept
in dry condition and put in tiny glass jars. By calculating the percentage of
infestation, weight losses, frass mass, T. castaneum emergents, and the percentage
of germination of a certain wheat line, the severity of the pest damage symptom on
the seeds was determined. Consequences showed entire wheat genotypes were
vulnerable toward flour beetle, whereas NIAMB -2, NIAMB -3, and NIAMN -1
genotypeswere much more sensitive in comparison to rest of the genotypes because
they had the most T. castaneum damage. It was noted that Khirman, NIAMB 01,
and NIA MN 08 performed quite well in terms of insect infestation tolerance.
These findings are being used to build better wheat varieties and to manage the
impact of several parameters that affect grain productivity in order to breed pest
resistance in sensitive types. According to the findings of this study, executives
who oversee the storage of grains should be aware of any potential variations in
wheat types vulnerability and tolerance to insect development.
Wahedi et al., (2015) stated that Red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum,Hbst.)
(O:Coleoptera,F:Tenebrionidae) is a significant global pest of grains that are kept in
storage. Three male-to-female ratios like 5:5, 3:7and 7:3 were raised by using four
different types of flour viz. Millet, Wheat, Maize and Sorghum. The experiment was
focused on the several life stages, including larva as well as pupa growth and
formation of adults. Results demonstrated a substantial difference in T. castaneum
stages (larva, pupa, and adult) formation between Maize grains as same as other
grains with various sex ratios. Therefore, in Nigeria and other African regions where
facilities to keep T. castaneum at bay are lacking, farmers, food handlers, and families
should de-emphasize the processing and storage of ready-to-use flour, particularly
maize, for extended periods of time.
Sreeramoju et al., (2016) reported that today’s advanced replica process for
the investigation of evolution and development is the red flour beetle, Tribolium
castaneum. Tribolium, a holometabolous organism like Drosophila, has a more insect-
like style of development than Drosophila, making it a popular target for research on
the evolution of development. Insect life cycles demonstrated adaptations for
surviving in cold and dry environments. The holometabolous group goes through
25
some of the most intricate transformations ever observed in the animal realm and
contains different larval and pupal stages.
Hassan et al., (2017) study compared the weight loss and population
expansion of Tribolium castaneum, Hbst. (O: Coleoptera,F: Tenebrionidae) and
Trogoderma granarium everts (O: Coleoptera,F: Dermestidae) in various wheat
byproducts and kinds during the summer of 2015. Semolina saw the greatest weight
loss from T. castenum, while Wheat bran experienced the least. Semolina had the
fewest larvae while Wheat flour had the most. Semolina had the least amount of
adults and Wheat bran had the most adult count. T. castaneum caused the least weight
loss in Meraj and the most in Sehar among wheat varieties. Sehar had the most larvae,
whereas Merja had the lowest larval count. These variables were exclusively
examined in wheat types for T. granarium. Fareed lost the most weight (5%) while
Meraj lost the least (3%). Fareed had the most larvae of 26.75, and Meraj had the
fewest (21). These findings are crucial for the control of these damaging storage
insect pests.
Naga et al., (2017) reported that none of the wheat types tested positive for
immunity to Tribolium castaneum. In Raj -4083 and Raj -1482, the maximum growth
time of 30.83 days on each variety against this insect was noted. In Raj 4120, the
minimal developing time of 29.67 days was noted. Raj 1482 produced the fewest
adults of 68.83%. Raj 4083 with 155.50%, Raj3765 with 163.17%, and Raj 3077 with
175.67% were next in line. Raj 4120 produced the most adults of 223%, followed by
Raj 1972 of 219%, Raj 3777 of 218% and Raj 1555 of 216.83%. Raj 4120 had the
largest weight decrease of 5.53 percent, while Raj 1482 had the least weight loss of
1.27 percent. To demonstrate the weight loss brought on by T. castaneum, Raj -1972,
Raj-1555, Raj -6560, Raj -3777, Raj -4037, Raj -3765, Raj -3077, and Raj -4083
(varieties) stood in the middle of the order. Raj 4120 has the highest growth index of
18.22 followed by Raj 1972 with 17.97 and Raj 3777 with 17.95. Raj1482 has the
lowest growth index of 13.73, subsequent by Raj 4083 with 16.37. Other varieties
growth indices were determined to be in the middle order.
Safian and Batool, (2017)determined the comparative bio-chemical basis of

vulnerability of 6 commercially used wheat genotypes to the (Sitotroga cerealella,
Olivier) Angoumois grain moth, (O: Lepidoptera,F: Gelechiidae), as well as the
construction of its life table at temp. of 28+1°C with R.H. of 65+5% under
26
lab.situations (16h.L: 8h.D). The totalS. cerealellacount (emergence), percent
damage, and % mass reduction, male :female (emerging ratio)with S.I. (susceptibility
index), thousand Seeds mass, rigidness and chemistry (chemical composition) of
trailed wheat genotypes were used to analyze the results. S. cerealella life table
parameters for susceptible as well as resistance in wheat genotypes were examined.
According to the S.I., Sirin (genotype) recorded as the least vulnerable while Pirsbak
2005 (genotype) was the most vulnerable. Based on protein (11.15%) and
carbohydrate content(72.54%), the variety Sirin was found to be the least susceptible,
whereas variety Pirsabak2005 (protein content of 12.68% and carbohydrate content of
75%) was found to be extremely susceptible. According to biological parameters,
total reproduction activity in Pirsabak2005 was increased as compared to sirin while
intrinsic rate of rise was likewise larger on genotype (Pirsabak 2005) as compared to
sirin. In terms of resistance doubling time, Pirsabak2005 was nearly half of sirin
(genotype), implying that grain moth may multiply significantlyon Pirsabak 2005
(genotype). In conclusion, the comparatively less vulnerable wheat genotype
(Sirin)may be employed to boost and diversify bases of resistance to S. cerealella in
wheat.
Sial et al., (2017)stated that by enhancing the nutrient quality of their culturing
media, it is possible to greatly accelerate the growth and development of insects in lab
cultures. Including extras in the food medium is one method to accomplish this. Red
flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum,(Hbst.) (Order: Coleoptera, Family:
Tenebrionidae), which serves as a replica insect for numerous scientific research, is
cultured using this method frequently. Yeast is frequently added to food to increase
beetle output and encourage egg laying. The goal of this study is to examine different
alternatives to yeast, including agar agar and folic acid, at 3 dosages (10%, 6.66% and
3.33%), to improve T. castaneum laboratory culturing.The results showed that adding
yeast to the food medium at a rate of 6.66 percent produced the most adults, while
substances like agar-agar as same as folic-acid formed maximum adults along longer
larva duration (of 5 days) when added at rates of 10 percentas well as 3.33 percent,
respectively. The experiment shows that yeast is the best supplement for increasing
the number of flour beetles, although agar-agar and folic- acid may be substituted
when master stocks in laboratories must be maintained critically without rapid
growth.
27
Din et al., (2018) executed a test in the Entomological Research Institute's
Stored Grain Laboratory in Faisalabad between 2015 and 2016. To assess the feeding
preference and biology of flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), 5 wheat genotypes i.e.
Pasban-90, Shafaq-06, Sehar-06, Faisalabad-08, and Lasani-08,examined in a lab
setting. Sehar 06 had the most eggs with 250, subsequent by Pasban 90 (211), Shafaq
06 (201), Lasani 08 (199) and Faisalabad 08 (190) eggs. In terms of development
time, Faisalabad-08 observed with the most amount of development time. The
development times of flour beetle in several wheat genotypes were FSD-08 (53 days),
Lasani -08 (45 days), Pasban -90 (42days), Shafaq -06 (37 days) and Sehar -06 (33
days). The biotic potential of T. castaneum was found in 0.0712 (Sehar 06), 0.0614
(Shafaq 06), 0.0549(Pasban90), 0.0507 (Lasani 08), and 0.0430 (Faisalabad 08).The
intrinsic rate of rise for wheat genotypes were 0.1070 (Sehar -06), 0.1032 (Shafaq -
06), 0.989 (Pasban -90), 0.08656 (Lasani -08) and 0.07952 (FSD-08) against T.
castaneum.
Sanaa et al., (2018) reported that the greatest physical way for effectively
eradicating several insect life stages is to heat up storage grains as same as grain
commodities. The survival of various phases (pupa, new larva, old larva and adult) of
T. castaneum subjected to temperatures of -5, -10, 40, 50, 60 oC for various exposure
periods of 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min. was studied. New and old larva
was significantly heat vulnerable phases with LT 50as well as LT95than pupa as same as
adult phases at 60oC (Max. temperature). The phases which could withstand the heat
best at 60oC were pupae and adults. The death rate was higher for the beetles exposed
to 60oC and -10oC than for beetles maintained at the two earlier tested temperatures.
Older larvae, younger larvae, adults, and pupae all had varying degrees of cold
tolerance at -5 and -10oC. Results showed that there were no appreciable differences
among treated-samples and the un-treated (control).Finally, it was determined that
exposing time, rise in heat as same as cold temperature, and the phases of insect were
all positively connected with the effects of both treatments (heat and cold) on the
death of the examined beetle.
Talpur et al., 2018 performed an experiment on eight different wheat cultivars

in a lab. The observational data collection process began on 7 thApril (2016), and it
continued through 11thAugust (2016). The Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle,
28
Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) experienced significant fortnightly population
fluctuations, with the population at its lowest point (15+1.73) on the first observation
(7th April, 2016) and gaining maximum count (51.66+1.20) on the last observation
11th April, 2016). Tribolium castaneum was found to be most abundant (51.66+1.20)
in genotype (Sindhu) when recorded 11thAugust and least abundant was in TD-1
genotype (7thMarch).Additionally, less count of flour beetle were equally observed for
the cultivars Sarsabz (8.59) and Hammal (8.53) at minimum (20 oC) and maximum
(38oC) temperatures with relative humidity of 40.70%. The ANOVA demonstrates
that there were considerable variations in T. castaneum populations among wheat
cultivars during all observational dates. Maximum weight reduction was 96 percent
but average weight reduction was 85.61 percent. The population of T. castaneum
showed a substantial and positive link with the lowest as well as highest R.H. (relative
humidity) levels, as same as a linear relationship with temperature and relative
humidity.
Islam et al., (2019) stated that red flour beetles and other pests that attack
stored grains can be effectively controlled with botanical oil. This study’s primary
goal was to identify the specific plant oil’s direct harmful effects. The toxicity of five
native plants against the red flour beetle was investigated in this study using their seed
oils. These plants were Pogamia pinnata (Karanja), Swietenia mahagoni (Mahogoni),
Azadirachta indica (Neem), Aphanamixis polystachya (Pithraj), and Sesamum
indicum (Sesame). A wheat seed germination test was also utilized in this study to
examine the effectiveness of the botanicals. According to this study, sesame oil has
the strongest harmful and repulsive properties. The findings indicated that, up to 90
days after treatment, none of the plant oils had a negative impact on the ability of
seeds to germinate. Since all of these native plants are widespread in the nation,
farmers may readily include them into their grain storage facilities to control stored
grain pests.
Maroufpooret al., (2019)investigated the biological life processes of flour

beetle, T. castaneum on 3 traditional genotypes of wheat flour
(Sardari,Aza2,Homa).Biological life processes including reproduction, growth from
egg phase until adult phase, male as same as female lifetime. Females raised in the
Azar2 genotype had significantly longer adult pre-egg layingand egg laying time
intervals than those raised on the Sardari and Homa varieties. Although, there was no
29
significant difference in case of mean egg laid by female(T. castaneum)grown in 3
types of wheat, Homa variations had a greater daily fecundity than Azar2 and Sardari
variants. The difference in wheat (flour) types had a significant impact on total
progeny time of flour beetle. According to the findings of current investigation,
Sardari genotype is regarded as resistant genotype with respect to beetle development
as well multiplication and may be taken into IPM for controlling such a destructive
storage pest.
Pradeep and Jadhav, (2019) researched to determine how three different types
of flour affected developing phases of Tribolium castaneum Herbst (red flour beetle).
In developmental duration experiment, the number of days was counted on each
separate flour meal. It was discovered that the average (mean) egg incubation period
was 5.5 days (wheat), 6 days (sorghum), and 7 days (rice).Similar to this, it was
discovered that entire developmental period comprised of larva, pupa and incubation
were 36 days (wheat), 37 days (sorghum) and 40 days (rice). Similar results were
reported for the average weights of larvae aged 1-4 weeks, which were 5.71mg for
wheat (flour), 5.27 mg for sorghum (flour) and 4.58 mg for rice (flour).For mean
weights of 1-2 days old pupa, 65mg in wheat flour, 63mg in sorghum flour and 62mg
in rice flour while in case of adults (1-2 days) the mean weights were 61mg (wheat),
60mg (sorghum) and 58 mg (rice).
Salman et al., (2019) reported that wheat cultivars are susceptibility to

infestation by specific insect pests. The Rhyzopertha dominica yielded the highest
weight of 49.90 g after damage from a total of 50 g of each variety in the non-choice
test, followed by Sids-1, Beny Sewif-5, and Giza 168 but Sids 12, on the other hand,
provided minimum mass following infestation(48.97g), with large variations amongst
other wheat varieties. Additionally, Sids 12 experienced the largest percentage of
weight losses of 2 percent where as Sids 1, Beny Sewif-5, and Giza 168 experienced
the smallest percentage losses of 0.2 percent over a single generation. Same pattern
was seen after two generations. Beny Sewif-5 and Sohag 5 provided increase masses
(49.9 g) in free choice test after infestation in both progenies. When compared to
other wheat varieties, the Sids 12 produced the lowest weight following damage
(48.50g)after one generation and after two (47.60g), respectively. Sids 12 showed the
greatest weight decrease over one and two generations, with losses of 2.06 and 5
percent, respectively. In a no-choice test, Triticum aestivum showed the same pattern
30
as Rhyzopertha dominica, yielding masses of 49.7 and 49.08gm in each of the two
progenies. While, there were considerable variances between varieties, the Sids1
induced maximum mass loss (of 3.5%) after firstprogeny and after second progeny
(5.5%).Beny-Sewif5 and Giza168 provided maximum masses after attack in free
Choice test, representing 49.55 (after one) and 49.35g (after two) generations,
respectively, with statistically different weights between varieties. Additionally, the
Sids1 and Sids12 produced the greatest weight decreases, with 3.6 percent and 5.9
percent after one and two generations and a notable variation between varieties.
Shelja et al., (2019) performed an experiment in the laboratory for assessing

the preference of Tribolium castaneum (Rust red flour beetle, Herbst) to various color
cues during the years 2015-17.After 1, 2 and 3 days of insect releasing, the preference
of adult Tribolium castaneum to various colour cues was assessed using a multi-
choice and a single-choice test.In a multi-choice test conducted 3 days after release, T.
castaneum showed the highest preference for Violet with 13.8 percent, followed by
Indigo with 12.2 percent and Green color cues of 2.13 percent, which were the least
preferred. In contrast, in a single-choice experiment, T. castaneum showed the highest
preference for Violet with 25.8 percent, Indigo (25.27%), and Green color cues of
15.87 percent, which were the least preferred.
Agarwaland Agashe, (2020) stated that numerous studies are currently being
conducted with the goal of comprehending the mechanisms and procedures driving
host-micro-biome interactions and forecasting the ecological and evolutionary
consequences. We must combine data from a variety of species to make
generalizations about these interactions and comprehend how they come about.
Tribolium castaneum, a common generalist pest of stored grains, was used as a model
insect for our analysis of the micro-biome of key insects. The flour acts as the beetles
habitat, food and supply of microorganisms during their whole life cycle, serving a
variety of needs. We identified important determinants of the T. castaneum micro-
biome, developed techniques to alter it, and evaluated the effects on host fitness. We
demonstrated that the micro-biome of T. castaneum is derived from microorganisms
acquired from flour and fluctuates according on flour availability and beetle density.
Beetles benefit from their micro-biome in several ways for their fitness, including
increased reproduction, egg survival, and lifespan, as well as decreased cannibalism.
31
On the other hand, the micro-biome has a little impact on growth rate and does not
increase disease resistance. Importantly, the advantages do not come from more
modern resources like finger millet, sorghum, or corn, but only from bacteria in the
ancestral resource viz. wheat flour. Notably, under any of the examined settings, the
micro-biome is not necessary for beetle survival and development. Because it closely
mimics the host specie’s natural niche, the red flour beetle provides a workable model
system for understanding the evolution, ecology, and processes of host micro-biome
interactions.
Alison and Campbell, (2020)stated that consumer demand has resulted in an

increase in the flours with low gluten level; nevertheless, little is known regarding
how vulnerable such flours are easier for infestation, creating additional issues for the
proper control of storage commodity pests. In order to determine the risk, we
measured the egg laying as well as development of Tribolium castaneum (flour
beetle) in various 18 flours viz. garbanzo, barley, buckwheat, quinoa, amaranth,
cassava, teff, rye, coconut, millet, oat, maize, sorghum, rice, spelt, potato, almond and
wheat (commercially available). Teff flour contained maximum average eggs count
deposition, with high egg laying rates also observed for buckwheat ,rice, wheat,
barley, spelt, rye, sorghum, and flour. Quinoa, potato, cassava and amaranth had the
lowest egg laying rates. In teff as same as wheat, the maximum mean adult progeny
count was observed, subsequent by buck-wheat, rye, oat, spelt and millet, according
to eggs holding capacity, put it in various flours then assessing the potential to
complete the adult phase. Teff, barley, sorghum, buckwheat, spelt and wheat showed
the best percentage development when one egg was dropped straight into flours. Teff,
sorghum, wheat and spelt flours took the minimum time for fifty percent of one egg to
mature into adult phases, whereas buckwheat, maize, spelt, barley and sorghum took
the shortest amount of time for 90 percent of eggs to develop into adults. The large
differences between the various flours suggest varying levels of risk of insect
infestation. It is very important to understand what type of feeds insects prefer for
their survival, is essential for creating IPM measures as customer interest in these
alternative flours grows and they become more common in food facilities.
Astuti et al., (2020) reported that during the storage period, the red flour beetle
can seriously damage maize that has been stored. Whole grain and flour versions of
maize are often preserved. This experimentation mainly focused on the feeding-
32
preference as well as Tribolium castaneum growth on different maize genotypes
comprised of Pertiwi3, Pioneer21, Bisma,Pioneer29and Bisi18in sound grain
(whole)as same as flour form. Moreover, the research regarding infestation on both
forms of storage maize is narrow. From February to March of year 2016, this
experiment was executed at the Plant Pest Lab in restricted conditions. Bisi18,
Pioneer21,Pertiwi3, Pioneer29 and Bisma genotypesin sound grain as well as flour
form were the feeds used for treatment. The adult presence, adult death rate, eggs
count, larvae count, pupae count, first progeny formation, egg, larva, pupa and adult
development durations, from egg to adultas well as total life cycle period were the
variables that were observed. Analysis of variance was used to analyze the data, then
5% LSD was applied. The findings demonstrated that T. castaneum favored Pioneer-
21 flour as compared to other trailed varieties, including 13.33 adults and 145 eggs,
for egg laying and colonization. Similar to this, as T. castaneum populations grew, the
Pioneer-21 flour produced the most eggs, larval stage, pupal stage, and F 1 offspring
with eggs (196), larval stage (179.67), pupal stage (83.67) and adult stage (73.33),
respectively. Additionally, Pioneer-21 flour had the quickest egg, larva, pupa, egg-
adult, and life cycle development times, which were, respectively, 5.5, 26.77, 5.97,
38.23, and 41.87 days. Pioneer-21 maize has high protein content, making it a good
choice for T. castaneum growth.
Jamil et al., (2020) executed an investigation in a laboratory conditions during

2014. The confused flour beetle’s identity and mode of injury were investigated in a
lab setting during study observations of its life cycle. More species belong to the
Coleoptera order than any other, making up over twenty-five percent of all discovered
animal life morphologies. There are around 0.4 million beetle species and new species
are identified periodically. Beetles make up about 40% of all described insect species.
Numerous beetles are to blame for numerous illnesses found in stored goods. The goal
of the current research was to gather information on the confused flour beetle’s life
cycle and manner of damage.
Muhammad et al., (2020)stated that in Nigeria, Tribolium castaneum,

considered as significant storage insect pest of dried flour of wheat. The study
evaluated comparative alternative for T. castaneum growing in eight different wheat
varieties de-hulled-fine flour. The experiment was carried out in a laboratory at the
University of Maiduguri's, Department of Biological Science in year 2017 (from 24
33
February to 20 April) under conditions of ambient temperature and relative humidity
of 24°C and 30.7% R.H., respectively. Findings indicated that the influence of
variation on T. castaneum's biology was not substantial; thus, growing times of the
larva, pupa and adult phases were comparable across the eight varieties, closely
ranging from 8.3 to 9.0 days, 30.0 to 32.7 days and 35.7 to 37.3 days, respectively.
The larval, pupal, and adult stages have typical growth times of 9, 30.8 and 36.4 days,
respectively. The peak population of larva, pupa and adult was also examined in eight
various wheat genotypes.The population of larvae (47 to 100.7), pupae (32.3 to 62),
and adults (21.7 to 47), which varied from among the various wheat varieties, showed
a significant difference, according to the results. Debeira consistently had the greatest
population of larvae, pupae, and adults, whereas nabuq4 and imam had the lowest.
The populations of the cultivars (faris30, soonot5, reyna19 and nejmah) were likewise
maximum than those of nabuq4 and imam genotypes. Growth rates of the adult and
larval populations in 8 distinct genotypes of wheat were also examined. Larvae
showed a polynomial development style, with population growth being stronger and
more rapid in faris30, nejmah, debeira and soonot5 than in nabuq4 and imam during
the build-up period from 10 to 28 DAI. The outcome showed a population drop from
28 to 55 DAI @ 0.4162 to 1.0739 larvae. Debeira had the largest rate of larval
population decline, while nabuq 4 had the lowest, closely followed by imam. The
adult population increased@ 10.816 to 25.810 beetles each day, following a sigmoid
(logarithmic) pattern. Faris30 experienced the fastest growth rate, followed by
soonot5 and debeira. In contrast, imam had the lowest growth rate, while nabuq 4 was
right behind it. Eight genotypes susceptibility against flour beetle infestation was also
evaluated in the study, and the susceptibility index varied significantly (7.57 to
11.31%). According to the findings, the varieties imam and nabuq-4 were much less
vulnerable than nejmah, debeira and soonot5. According to the aforementioned
findings, nabuq 4 and imam were the least susceptible wheat varieties, whereas
debeira, nejmah, and soonot 5 were the most susceptible.
Randhawa et al., (2020) tested seventeen old and recently released wheat
types for resistance to the Rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst).
Thisevaluation was arranged in four times of repeats. In contrast to variety PBW660,
which was found to be extremely sensitive, wheat types like PBW175 as same as
34
PBW1-zinc were demonstrated as tolerant against flour beetle infestation with
maximum chance of germination.
Nisaret al., (2021) tested the resistance of several wheat cultivars to Tribolium
castaneum (Hbst.), a laboratory experiment was carried out at the Department of Plant
Protection, Ghazi University Dera Ghazi Khan. With four replications, a completely
random design was used with six different wheat cultivars viz. sehar06, millat11,
punjab11, ujalla15, Fd08, and galaxy13. The grains were ground into flour, and a
known amount of flour was combined with 20 eggs of beetle. The %age of egg-
laying, larvaand pupa survival, and hatching of eggs were all recorded. The data
generated in this manner were examined using analysis of variance.The findings
showed that every variety was vulnerable to the red flour beetle infestation and that no
variety had complete resistance. All six wheat cultivars showed significant
differences. In comparison to other varieties, the Faisalabad 08 variety had a lower
hatching percentage. As a result, Fd08 cultivar was identified as significant resistant
whilst ujalla15 cultivar was discovered to be the most sensitive due to the highest
hatching percentage.
Sekar et al., (2021) reported that the most effective treatment, which also had
the lowest weight loss after 60 days of storage, was neem leaf powder, according to
the current study on the botanical management of the Tribolium castaneum(Rust Red
flour Beetle Herbst), on stored wheat during 2020-21. The study conducted by the
Entomology Department, observed a mean adult mortality rate of 67.22%. The next
best medication for preventing adult emergence is Tulsi and Eucalyptus. However,
compared to other methods of preventing adult death rate of 30.56 percent, grain
weight reduction and adult emergence caused by T. castaneum, Turmeric Rhizome
powder was the least effective. In addition, the chemical pesticide Fenvalerate, which
was used as a control, produced better results than herbal powders, with a mean adult
death rate (72.78%) of T. castaneum.
Sundar et al., (2021) examined the biology of the flour beetle in a laboratory
study, on three distinct colored sesame genotypes including Swetha (White), GT-10
(Black) and YLM-17 (Brown). With the longest incubation period of 6.48 days,
longest larval life (of 37.22 days), and highest adult lifetime(of 33.20 days) of all the
genotypes tested, GT-10 was the least favored variety. The shortest egg laying
(incubation) period (of 4.70 days), shortest larval time interval(of 32.83 days)while
35
lowest adult lifetime(of 22.74 days) were all obtained for the highly favored genotype
White colored (Swetha). On GT-10, the head capsule's width was measured at its
narrowest during each moult, measuring from 0.15mm, 0.17mm, 0.25mm, 0.31mm,
0.36mm and 0.39 mm, respectively. The average progression factor, both observed
and estimated, was calculated to be 1.223 and 1.227, respectively. Which show that a
geometric progression in growth was followed by an increase in head width during
subsequent instars that was near to Dyar’s law. There were statistically significant
impacts on the breadth, length and head capsule width of the various larval moults
when T. castaneum was fed on three distinct types of sesame seeds (White, Black and
Brown).The findings of this study showed that, in comparison to the White-colored
variation (Swetha), the Black variety (GT-10) was the least suited for the growth of T.
castaneum.
Carvalhoet al., (2023) assessed that how Tribolium castaneum affected the
quality and technological suitability of wheat flour for manufacturing bread. This
assessment main aim is to determine whether it is possible to employ insect-infested
flours in place of conventional insecticides and flour waste after pests have been
removed. Red flour beetle studies were conducted using wheat flour and 500, 1000,
and 2000 adults per kilogram (N1, N2, and N3, respectively) for two weeks. We looked
at the color, total water content, starch rate, protein level, mineral makeup as well as
acidity of the flour. It was possible to characterize the technological characteristics of
the various doughs of bread. The findings demonstrated that the acidity of the infested
flours was significantly higher @ 0.3g H 2SO4 per 100g (N1, N2, and N3) than the
control with 0.1 g H2SO4 per 100g, that the total starch content decreased, from 78g in
control) to 70g per 100g dm (N 3), and that the protein content did not significantly
change, going from 7g per 100g in control to 8g(N 2). Flour infested represented
darker greyish color differences. While the bread crust was lighter, the degree of
infestation had a small impact on the gelatinization capabilities of starch, with a
temperature reduction of roughly about 5°C.Rheological analysis showed that the
contaminated flours had no effect on the structure of the doughs. The insects slightly
reduced the dough’s extensibility both before and after fermentation. The
corresponding breads retained their softness for a longer period of time without
noticeably changing in volume. These findings support the tolerance of insects to
grains and their derivatives, reducing the need for hazardous insecticides and food
36
waste. This purports to be a contribution to loss, prevention and control, decision
support systems, and pest management with regard to stored goods.
37
Chapter 3
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Experimental Site:
A study on the biology as well as morphological measurement of T.

castaneumon different wheat varieties (AAS-11, NARC-11, Ujala-16, Millet-11 and
Faisalabad-08) was conducted in the Laboratory of Entomology, Ghazi University,
D.G. Khan, at maintained temperature and relative humidity of 28-32 oC and 60-
70%R.H., respectively.
Mass Culture:
T. castaneum was collected from seed market of D. G. Khan. The culture was
maintained on sterilized wheat flour which kept in plastic jar of 3 kg capacity.
Releasing of Red Flour Beetle:
Male and female of equal sex ratio was released in each jar and covered with
muslin cloth for mating. The adult females were observed regularly at interval of eight
hours for their oviposition.
Incubation Period and Hatching Percentage:
After mating, the female moth laid eggs on the wheat flour. On the following
day for collecting eggs, a 50 mesh sieve was used to separate the adults and eggs from
the flour. Ten collected eggs were taken in petri dish and observed the incubation
period and hatching percentage of eggs were daily recorded.
Larval Period:
Then the ten newly hatched first instar grubs were carefully collected with the
help of soft camel hair brush and were transferred in jars containing 30 mg of wheat
flour supplied as food in each jar. Each stage of grub was studied carefully with the
help of microscope and noted the duration of each larval instar.
i. Pupal Period:
After the completion of larval period, pupal duration was recorded.
ii. Total Developmental Period:

38
The total developmental period was measured by the sum of incubation
period, total larval period and pupal period.
iii. Morphometric Parameter:
For this parameter, simple scale was used for measuring the length of last
larval instar, male and female pupae as well as adult male and female. For this
purpose, 5 specimens were taken for measuring the length of different stages of T.
castaeum.
Statistical Analysis:
This experiment was performed by following the completely randomized

design (CRD) with four repeats of each wheat variety (Treatment), using one way
ANOVA and LSD-Test for mean comparison.
39
Chapter4
RESULTS
In this chapter, the consequences of this experimental study by using statistical
analysis are discussed and shown below.
4.1 Incubation Period:
Significant differences were observed in trailed cultivars of wheat with respect

to incubation period of red flour beetle. Maximum incubation period (6.00 and 5.25
days) was demonstrated by flour beetles nourished in flours of C 4Faisalabad-08 and
C1Millet-11, respectively. Statistical same outcome was observed in the C 2 NARC-11
and C3AAS-11 cultivars with red flour beetle incubation period of 4.50 days and 4.75
days, respectively. C5 Ujala-16 cultivar depicted minimum incubation period (4.25
days) of red flour beetle.
Table 4.1(a). ANOVA Table for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle in
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 7.7 1.925 5.5 .0063**
Error 15 5.25 0.35
Total 19 12.95
Mean=4.95 CV= 11.95% Level of Significance = 0.05
LSD0.05=0.891
Table 4.1(b). Mean Comparison Table for Incubation Period of Red flour
Incubation Period
Cultivars
(Days)
C1Millet-11 5.25 ab
C2NARC-11 4.50 bc
C3AAS-11 4.75 bc
C4Faisalabad-08 6.00 a
C5Ujala-16 4.25 c
40
Incubation Period (Days)
6a
6
5.25 ab
5
4.75 bc
4.5 bc
4.25 c
4
Days
0
C1 Millet-11 C2 NARC-11 C3 AAS-11 C4 Faisalabad- C5 Ujala-16
08
Cultivars
Fig. 1 Mean Comparison for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle in

41
4.2 Egg Hatching Percentage:
Highly significant variations were demonstrated by trailed cultivars as given in
ANOVA table. Maximum egg hatching percentage was observed by cultivarC5 Ujala-
16 (97.5%) followed by C3AAS-11 (92.5%). Statistical similar consequence was
noticed between C2 NARC-11 and C1Millet-11 with egg hatching percent of 87.5%
and 82.5%, respectively.C5 Ujala-16 demonstrated highly significant variation as
compared to other trailed cultivars with respect to maximum egg hatchingand
similarly C4Faisalabad-08 cultivar depicted highly significant variation with respect to
minimum egg hatching percent of 67.5%.
Table 4.2(a). ANOVA Table for Egg Hatching Percentage of Red flour
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 2120 530 21.2 .0000***
Error 15 375 25
Total 19 2495
LSD0.05=7.535
Table 4.2(b). Mean Comparison Table for Egg Hatching Percentage of

Red flour beetle in various wheat cultivars
Cultivars Egg Hatching (%)
C1Millet-11 82.5 c
C2 NARC-11 87.5 bc
C3AAS-11 92.5 ab
C4Faisalabad-08 67.5 d
C5 Ujala-16 97.5 a
42
Egg Hatching (%)
120
100 97.5 a
92.5 ab
87.5 bc
82.5 c
80
67.5 d
Hatching %
60
40
20
0
C1 Millet-11 C2 NARC-11 C3 AAS-11 C4 Faisalabad-08 C5 Ujala-16
Cultivars
Fig. 2 Mean Comparison for Egg Hatching Percentage of Red flour beetle
43
4.3 Larval Period (Instar I):
All trailed cultivars depicted statistically same consequence with reference to
larval period of first instar except C4Faisalabad-08 which demonstrated maximum
duration of larva of first instar. C5 Ujala-16 cultivar represented minimum days of
larval period for first instar (2.25 days) subsequent by C 3AAS-11 (2.5 days) and C2
NARC-11 (2.75 days). After C4Faisalabad-08, maximum larval period of first instar
was noticed in flour of C1Millet-11 (3 days).
Table 4.3(a). ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar I) of Red flour
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 5.3 1.325 6.11 .0040**
Error 15 3.25 0.216
Total 19 8.55
LSD0.05=0.701
Table 4.3(b). Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar I) of Red
Larval Period
Cultivars
(Instar I) (Days)
C1Millet-11 3b
C2 NARC-11 2.75 b
C3AAS-11 2.5 b
C5 Ujala-16 2.25 b
44
Larval Period (Instar I) (Days)
4
3.75 a
3.5
3b
3
2.75 b
2.5 b
2.5
2.25 b
2
Days
1.5
0.5
0
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 3 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar I) of Red flour beetle
45
1.4 Larval Period (Instar II):
C4Faisalabad-08 andC5 Ujala-16 cultivars were significantly varied from

each other with respect to maximum larval period of second instar in
C4Faisalabad-08 and minimum larval period of second instar in C 5 Ujala-16. Non-
significant differences were observed between C 2 NARC-11 and C1Millet-11 with
larval period (second instar) of 3.5 days.C 3AAS-11 also had minimum larval
period of 2.75 days after C5 Ujala-16 cultivar.
Table 4.4(a). ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar II) of Red flour
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 7.7 1.925 6.416 .0032**
Error 15 4.5 0.3
Total 19 12.2

LSD0.05=0.825
Table 4.4(b). Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar II) of
Larval Period
Cultivars
(Instar II) (Days)
C1Millet-11 3.5 ab
C2 NARC-11 3.5 ab
C3AAS-11 2.75 bc
C5 Ujala-16 2.5 c
46
Larval Period (Instar II) (Days)
4.5
4.25 a
3.5 ab 3.5 ab
3.5
3
2.75 bc
2.5 c
2.5
Days
1.5
0.5
0
C1 Millet-11 C2 NARC-11 C3 AAS-11C4 Faisalabad-08C5 Ujala-16
Cultivars
Fig. 4 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar II) of Red flour beetle
4.5 Larval Period (Instar III):
Statistically same outcome was recorded among C 4Faisalabad-08 (3.75 days),

C1 Millet-11 (3.5 days) and C2 NARC-11 (3.00 days) in case of larval period (Instar
47
III). Minimum larval period of third instar was 2.00 and 2.5 days observed in C 5
Ujala-16 and C3AAS-11, respectively.
Table 4.5(a). ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar III) of Red flour
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 8.2 2.05 6.47 .0031**
Error 15 4.75 0.316
Total 19 12.95

LSD0.05=0.848
Table 4.5(b). Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar III) of
Larval Period
Cultivars
(Instar III) (Days)
C1Millet-11 3.5 a
C2 NARC-11 3 ab
C3AAS-11 2.5 bc
C5 Ujala-16 2c
48
Larval Period (Instar III) (Days)
4
3.75 a
3.5 a
3.5
3 ab
3
2.5 bc
2.5
2c
2
Days
1.5
0.5
0
Cultivars
Fig. 5 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar III) of Red flour beetle
49
4.6 Larval Period (Instar IV):
Non-significant variation was recorded among C 4Faisalabad-08,C2 NARC-11

and C1Millet-11 with larval period of fourth instar of flour beetle was 3.5 days, 3.25
days and 3.00 days, respectively. Also, statistical same outcome was recorded
between C3AAS-11 and C5 Ujala-16 with larval period of 2.75 days and 2.25 days,
respectively. In this regard, minimum larval period was observed in cultivarC 5 Ujala-
16 and maximum in C4Faisalabad-08.
Table 4.6(a). ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar IV) of Red flour
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 3.7 0.925 4.269 .0167*
Error 15 3.25 0.216
Total 19 6.95

LSD0.05=0.701
Table 4.6(b). Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar IV) of
Larval Period
Cultivars
(Instar IV) (Days)
C1Millet-11 3.00 a
C2 NARC-11 3.25 a
C3AAS-11 2.75 ab
C5 Ujala-16 2.25 b
50
Larval Period (Instar IV) (Days)
4
3.5 a
3.5
3.25 a
3a
3
2.75 ab
2.5
2.25 b
2
Days
1.5
0.5
0
Cultivars
Fig. 6 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar IV) of Red flour beetle
51
4.7 Larval Period (Instar V):
According to mean comparing Table, fifth larval instar completes within 2.5
days (minimum) in C5 Ujala-16 followed by 3.25 days in C3AAS-11, 3.75 days in C2
NARC-11.But maximum larval period of fifth instar was noticed in flour of
C4Faisalabad-08 (4.5 days) and C1Millet-11 (4.00 days).
Table 4.7(a). ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar V) of Red flour
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 9.3 2.325 6.340 .0034**
Error 15 5.5 0.366
Total 19 14.8

LSD0.05=0.912
Table 4.7(b). Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar V) of

Larval Period
Cultivars
(Instar V) (Days)
C1Millet-11 4 ab
C2 NARC-11 3.75 ab
C3AAS-11 3.25 bc
C5 Ujala-16 2.5 c
52
Larval Period (Instar V) (Days)
4.5 a
4.5
4 ab
4
3.75 ab
3.5
3.25 bc
2.5 c
2.5
Days
1.5
0.5
0
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 7 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar V) of Red flour beetle
53
4.8Larval Period (Instar VI):
The increase larval duration of sixth instar was observed in flour of

C4Faisalabad-08 with 5 days while the decrease larval period of sixth instar was
recorded in C5 Ujala-16 with 2.75 days. Statistical non-significant results were
observed among cultivars likeC2 NARC-11, C1Millet-11 and C3AAS-11 with larval
period of 4.25 days, 4 days and 3.5 days, respectively.
Table 4.8(a). ANOVA Table for Larval Period (Instar VI) of Red flour
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 11.3 2.825 9.416 .0005***
Error 15 4.5 0.3
Total 19 15.8

LSD0.05=0.825
Table 4.8(b). Mean Comparison Table for Larval Period (Instar VI) of
Larval Period
Cultivars
(Instar VI) (Days)
C1Millet-11 4.00 b
C2 NARC-11 4.25 ab
C3AAS-11 3.5 bc
C5 Ujala-16 2.75 c
54
Larval Period (Instar VI) (Days)
5a
5
4.25 ab
4b
4
3.5 bc
3
Days
2.75 c
0
Cultivars
Fig. 8 Mean Comparison for Larval Period (Instar VI) of Red flour beetle
55
4.9 Total Larval Period:
All cultivars depicted highly significant variation except C 2 NARC-11 and

C1Millet-11 with respect to total larval period of red flour beetle. Maximum total
larval period was observed in C4Faisalabad-08 with 24.75 days. In contrast, C5 Ujala-
16 showed minimum total larval period of 14.25 days. Similar results were observed
by C2 NARC-11 and C1Millet-11 with total larval period of 20.5 days and 21 days,
respectively.C3AAS-11 cultivar represented 17.25 days as total larval period of red
flour beetle.
Table 4.9(a). ANOVA Table for Total Larval Period of Red flour beetle in
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 253.7 63.425 71.801 .0000***
Error 15 13.25 0.8833
Total 19 266.95

LSD0.05=1.416
Table 4.9(b). Mean Comparison Table for Total Larval Period of Red
Total Larval
Cultivars
Period (Days)
C1Millet-11 21 b
C2 NARC-11 20.5 b
C3AAS-11 17.25 c
C5 Ujala-16 14.25 d
56
Total Larval Period (Days)
30
25 24.75 a
21 b
20.5 b
20
17.25 c
15
Days
14.25 d
10
0
C1 Millet-11 C2 NARC-11 C3 AAS-11C4 Faisalabad-08C5 Ujala-16
Cultivars
Fig. 9 Mean Comparison for Total Larval Period of Red flour beetle in
57
4.10 Pupal Period:
In case of pupal period of red flour beetle,C4Faisalabad-08 depicted maximum

pupal period of 5.75 days. In contrast, C 5 Ujala-16 demonstrated minimum pupal
period of 4 days. Other cultivars represented statistically same results like C 1Millet-
11, C2 NARC-11 and C3AAS-11 with pupal period of 5 days, 4.75 days and 4.25
days, respectively.
Table 4.10(a). ANOVA Table for Pupal Period of Red flour beetle in
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 7.5 1.875 6.617 .0028**
Error 15 4.25 0.283
Total 19 11.75

LSD0.05=0.802
Table 4.10(b). Mean Comparison Table for Pupal Period of Red flour
Pupal Period
Cultivars
(Days)
C1Millet-11 5 ab
C2 NARC-11 4.75 bc
C3AAS-11 4.25 bc
C5 Ujala-16 4c
58
Pupal Period (Days)
7
6
5.75 a
5 ab
5
4.75 bc
4.25 bc
4c
4
Days
0
Cultivars
Fig. 10 Mean Comparison for Pupal Period of Red flour beetle in various
wheat cultivars
59
4.11 Total Developmental Period:
Highly considerable difference was noticed among all trailed cultivars except
C1Millet-11 and C2 NARC-11 which depicted non-significant variation between each
other. Maximum (36.5 days) total developmental time period of red flour beetle was
noticed inC4Faisalabad-08 followed by C1Millet-11 (31.25 days) andC2 NARC-11
(29.75 days).While minimum total developmental time period of red flour beetle was
recorded by C5 Ujala-16 (22.5 days) and C3AAS-11 (26.25 days).
Table 4.11(a). ANOVA Table for Total Developmental Period of Red

Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 445.5 111.37 48.77 .0000***
Error 15 34.25 2.283
Total 19 479.75

LSD0.05=2.277
Table 4.11(b). Mean Comparison Table for Total Developmental Period

of Red flour beetle in various wheat cultivars
Total
Cultivars Developmental Period
(Days)
C1Millet-11 31.25 b
C2 NARC-11 29.75 b
C3AAS-11 26.25 c
C5 Ujala-16 22.5 d
60
Total Developmental Period (Days)
40
36.5
35
31.25
29.75
30
26.25
25
22.5
20
Days
15
10
0
Cultivars
Fig. 11 Mean Comparison for Total Developmental Period of Red flour

61
4.12 Larval Length (Instar VI):
Similar outcomes were depicted on statistical basis with respect to larval
length of sixth instar in C3AAS-11 and C5 Ujala-16 as well as C1Millet-11 and C2
NARC-11. Maximum larval length (6.00 mm) was noticed in C 5 Ujala-16 and
C3AAS-11 while minimum larval length (5.8 mm) was recorded in C 4Faisalabad-08
followed by C2 NARC-11 (5.85 mm) and C1Millet-11 (5.9 mm).
Table 4.12(a). ANOVA Table for larval length (Instar VI) of Red flour
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 0.128 0.032 3.2 .0436*
Error 15 0.15 0.01
Total 19 0.278

LSD0.05=0.150
Table 4.12(b). Mean Comparison Table for larval length (Instar VI) of
Larval Length
Cultivars
(Instar VI)(mm)
C1Millet-11 5.9 ab
C2 NARC-11 5.85 ab
C3AAS-11 6.00 a
C4Faisalabad-08 5.8 b
C5 Ujala-16 6.00 a
62
Larval Length (Instar VI) (mm)
6.05
6a 6a
6
5.95
5.9 ab
5.9
5.85 ab
5.85
Length (mm)
5.8 b
5.8
5.75
5.7
5.65
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 12 Mean Comparison for Larval Length (Instar VI) of Red flour
63
4.13 Male Pupal Length:
Non-significant differences were demonstrated in case of male pupal length as

displayed in Table (4.13a). According to Table (4.13b), maximum male pupal length
was recorded in C5 Ujala-16 (3.8 mm) while minimum male pupal length was found
in C4Faisalabad-08 (3.65 mm). But remaining cultivars depicted same male pupal
length of 3.75 mm in C3AAS-11, C2 NARC-11 and C1Millet-11.
Table 4.13(a). ANOVA Table for male pupal length of Red flour beetle in
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 0.048 0.012 0.9 .4884NS
Error 15 0.2 0.013
Total 19 0.248

LSD0.05=0.174
Table 4.13(b). Mean Comparison Table for male pupal length of Red
Male Pupal Length

Cultivars
(mm)
C1Millet-11 3.75 a
C2 NARC-11 3.75 a
C3AAS-11 3.75 a
C5 Ujala-16 3.8 a
64
Male Pupal Length (mm)
3.85
3.8 a
3.8
3.75 a 3.75 a 3.75 a

3.75
3.7
Length (mm)
3.65 a
3.65
3.6
3.55
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 13 Mean Comparison for Male Pupal Length of Red flour beetle in
65
4.14 Female Pupal Length:
Maximum female pupal length of 4.00 mm was measured in C 5 Ujala-16 and

C3AAS-11 cultivars. Non-significant difference was demonstrated by all trailed
cultivars in case of female pupal length. C 4Faisalabad-08 depicted minimum length of
female pupa of 3.85 mm followed by C1Millet-11 (3.9 mm) and C2 NARC-11 (3.95
mm).
Table 4.14(a). ANOVA Table for female pupal length of Red flour beetle
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 0.068 0.017 1.416 .2763NS
Error 15 0.18 0.012
Total 19 0.248

LSD0.05=0.165
Table 4.14(b). Mean Comparison Table for female pupal length of Red
Female Pupal
Cultivars
Length (mm)
C1Millet-11 3.9 a
C2 NARC-11 3.95 a
C3AAS-11 4.00 a
C5 Ujala-16 4.00 a
66
Female Pupal Length (mm)
4.05
4a 4a
4
3.95 a
3.95
3.9 a
3.9
Length (mm)
3.85 a
3.85
3.8
3.75
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 14 Mean Comparison for Female Pupal Length of Red flour beetle in
67
4.15 Adult Male Length:
Non-significant variation was observed among all trailed cultivars as depicted

in Table (4.15a). Statistically similar consequence was recorded among C 1Millet-
11,C2 NARC-11 andC3AAS-11 with adult male length of 3.00 mm. C 5 Ujala-16
cultivar represented maximum length of male adult of 3.05mm while C 4Faisalabad-08
was observed with the length of male adult of 2.95 mm (minimum).
Table 4.15(a). ANOVA Table for adult male length of Red flour beetle in
Source Df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 0.02 0.005 0.535 .7117NS
Error 15 0.14 0.0093
Total 19 0.16
Mean=3 CV= 3.22% Level of Significance = 0.05

LSD0.05=0.145
Table 4.15(b). Mean Comparison Table for adult male length of Red flour
Adult Male Length

Cultivars
(mm)
C1Millet-11 3.00 a
C2 NARC-11 3.00 a
C3AAS-11 3.00 a
C5 Ujala-16 3.05 a
68
Adult Male Length (mm)
3.06
3.05 a
3.04
3.02
3a 3a 3a
3
2.98
Length (mm)
2.96
2.95 a
2.94
2.92
2.9
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 15 Mean Comparison for adult male length of Red flour beetle in
69
4.16 Adult Female Length:
C4Faisalabad-08 cultivar depicted significant variations as compared to all

other trailed cultivars as displayed in Table (4.16b). Minimum female adult length
(3.5 mm) was noticed in C4Faisalabad-08 while maximum female adult length (3.8
mm) was depicted by C5 Ujala-16 and C3AAS-11 cultivars. Similar consequence was
also demonstrated by C2 NARC-11 (3.75 mm) and C1Millet-11 (3.7 mm).
Table 4.16(a). ANOVA Table for adult female length of Red flour beetle
Source df SS MS F P
Cultivar 4 0.248 0.062 3.444 .0346*
Error 15 0.27 0.018
Total 19 0.518

LSD0.05=0.202
Table 4.16(b). Mean Comparison Table for adult female length of Red
Adult Female
Cultivars
Length (mm)
C1Millet-11 3.7 ab
C2 NARC-11 3.75 a
C3AAS-11 3.8 a
C4Faisalabad-08 3.5 b
C5 Ujala-16 3.8 a
70
Adult Female Length (mm)
3.85
3.8 a 3.8 a
3.8
3.75 a
3.75
3.7 ab
3.7
3.65
3.6
Length (mm)
3.55
3.5 b
3.5
3.45
3.4
3.35
1
11
16
8
11
-1
-0
S-
a-
et-
ad
RC
jal
A
ill
lab
A
A
U
M
isa
N
C3
C5
C1
C2
Fa
C4
Cultivars
Fig. 16 Mean Comparison for adult female length of Red flour beetle in
71
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
Biology of T. castaneum was observed among different registered wheat
cultivars. Significant differences were observed in trailed cultivars of wheat with
respect to incubation period of red flour beetle. Maximum incubation period (6.00 and
5.25 days) was demonstrated by flour beetles nourished in flours of Faisalabad-08
andMillet-11, respectively while Ujala-16 cultivar depicted minimum incubation
period (4.25 days) of red flour beetle. Present findings were in accordance with Devi
& Devi, (2015)who conducted a study on the biology of Tribolium castaneum on
wheat flour and recorded that eggs had an incubation period of four to five days.
Pradeep and Jadhav, (2019)researched to determine how three different types of flour
affected developing phases of Tribolium castaneum. In developmental duration
experiment, the number of days was counted on each separate flour meal. It was
discovered that the average (mean) egg incubation period was 5.5 days (wheat), 6
days (sorghum), and 7 days (rice).Similar to this, it was discovered that entire
developmental period comprised of larva, pupa and incubation were 36 days (wheat),
37 days (sorghum) and 40 days (rice). This research outcome was relative to our
findings.
Existing investigation findings are more or less related with Sundar et al.,
(2021)who examined the biology of the flour beetle in a laboratory study, on three
distinct colored sesame genotypes including Swetha (White), GT-10 (Black) and
YLM-17 (Brown). With the longest incubation period of 6.48 days, longest larval life
(of 37.22 days), and highest adult lifetime (of 33.20 days) of all the genotypes tested,
GT-10 was the least favored variety. The shortest egg laying (incubation) period (of
4.70 days), shortest larval time interval (of 32.83 days) while lowest adult lifetime (of
22.74 days) were all obtained for the highly favored genotype White colored
(Swetha). The findings of this study showed that, in comparison to the White-colored
variation (Swetha), the Black variety (GT-10) was the least suited for the growth of T.
castaneum.
The resistance of several wheat cultivars to Tribolium castaneum was tested

and found that Faisalabad 08 variety had a lower hatching percentage whilst ujalla15
cultivar was discovered to be the most sensitive due to the highest hatching
72
percentage (Nisaret al., 2021). Similar findings are demonstrated by present study in
which maximum egg hatching percentage was observed by cultivarUjala-16 (97.5%)
followed by AAS-11 (92.5%), NARC-11 (87.5%) and Millet-11 (82.5%). Faisalabad-
08 cultivar depicted minimum egg hatching percent of 67.5%.
Present findings exhibited maximum total larval period inFaisalabad-08 with

24.75 days. In contrast, Ujala-16 showed minimum total larval period of 14.25 days.
Similar results were observed by NARC-11 and Millet-11 with total larval period of
20.5 days and 21 days, respectively.AAS-11 cultivar represented 17.25 days as total
larval period of red flour beetle. Various results regarding larval period was recorded
by different researchers. Haines, 1991 observed a mean of 12.9 days (larval period),
Howe, 1956 recorded 12-13 days (larval period), Devi & Devi, (2015) demonstrated
seven instars of larvae and a total immature stage developmental period of 70-83 days
(mean of 76.5 days). Sreeramoju et al., (2016) recorded 12 to 14 days as larval
duration along with 5 instars. According to Martinez & Emden, (2001) prolong larval
duration is mainly due to the presence of one or more inhibitors in the diets as well as
nutritional deficiency in the diets may influence the duration as well as number of
larval instars. Talpur et al., (2018)reported that population of T. castaneum showed a
substantial and positive link with the lowest as well as highest R.H. (relative
humidity) levels, as same as a linear relationship with temperature and relative
humidity. Flour beetle differs in larval instars numbers at various laboratory
situations. T. castaneum larval instars vary from six to seven. In existing research, six
instars were noticed. According to Bahram et al., (2009) the difference in larval
instars number may be associated with grains quality, which possess variation in
nutritional level for grub as well as various temperatures.
In case of pupal period of red flour beetle,Faisalabad-08 depicted maximum

pupal period of 5.75 days. In contrast, Ujala-16 demonstrated minimum pupal period
of 4 days. According to Devi & Devi, (2015) pupal phase duration varied from 6 - 9
days with a mean of 7.5 days. About 8 days of pupal period was observed by
Williams (2000). Pupal period of about 4 to 5 days was observed by Sreeramoju et al.,
(2016). Such statement promotes to our findings.
Maximum (36.5 days) total developmental time period of red flour beetle was
noticed inFaisalabad-08 followed by Millet-11 (31.25 days) and NARC-11 (29.75
days). While minimum total developmental time period of red flour beetle was
73
recorded by Ujala-16 (22.5 days) andAAS-11 (26.25 days). Our outcomes are in
contrast with the findings of Devi & Devi, (2015)who found that beetle’s entire life
span was between 164 to 194 days. But our findings relates with the observation of
Naga et al., (2017)who reported that none of the wheat types tested positive for
immunity to Tribolium castaneum. In Raj -4083 and Raj -1482, the maximum growth
time of 30.83 days on each variety against this insect was noted. In Raj 4120, the
minimal developing time of 29.67 days was noted. Din et al., (2018)promotes to our
results in terms of development time, Faisalabad-08 observed with the maximum
development time. The development times of flour beetle in several wheat genotypes
were FSD -08 (53 days), Lasani -08 (45 days), Pasban -90 (42days), Shafaq -06 (37
days) and Sehar -06 (33 days). Marouf poor et al., (2019)investigated the biological
life processes of flour beetle, T. castaneum on 3 traditional genotypes of wheat flour
(Sardari,Aza2, Homa) recorded Sardari genotype as resistant with respect to beetle
development as well multiplication. Randhawa et al., (2020)tested seventeen old and
recently released wheat types for resistance to the Rust-red flour beetle. In contrast to
variety PBW660, which was found to be extremely sensitive, wheat types like
PBW175 as same as PBW1-zinc were demonstrated as tolerant against flour beetle
infestation with maximum chance of germination.
According to morpho metric parameter, maximum larval length of sixth instar

(6.00 mm) was noticed in Ujala-16 and AAS-11 while minimum larval length (5.8
mm) was recorded in Faisalabad-08 followed by NARC-11 (5.85 mm) and Millet-11
(5.9 mm).Our findings are in contrast with Sundar et al., (2021) who recorded sixth
larval length of 5.06-5.44 mm in various sesame varieties but similar with Park,
(1932)who observed 6.00 mm length of sixth larval instar.
Our findings are more or less varies with the results of Devi and Devi, (2015)
who measured the average body length for male pupa was 3.18mm whereas 4.12
mmas the average body length for female pupa. Sundar et al., (2021) found pupal
length of 3.63 to 4.67 mm. But in present result, maximum male pupal length was
demonstrated in Ujala-16 (3.8 mm) while minimum male pupal length was found in
Faisalabad-08 (3.65 mm). But remaining cultivars depicted same male pupal length of
3.75 mm in AAS-11, NARC-11 and Millet-11.Maximum female pupal length of 4.00
mm was measured in Ujala-16 and AAS-11 cultivars. Faisalabad-08 depicted
74
minimum length of female pupa of 3.85 mm followed by Millet-11 (3.9 mm) and
NARC-11 (3.95 mm).
Non-significant variation was observed among all trailed cultivars with respect
to adult male and adult female length. Millet-11, NARC-11 and AAS-11 with adult
male length of 3.00 mm. Ujala-16 cultivar represented maximum length of male adult
of 3.05mm while Faisalabad-08 was observed with the length of male adult of 2.95
mm (minimum).Minimum female adult length (3.5 mm) was noticed in Faisalabad-08
while maximum female adult length (3.8 mm) was depicted by Ujala-16 and AAS-11
cultivars. Female adult length in NARC-11 was 3.75 mm and Millet-11 with 3.7 mm.
Present findings encouraged by some authors like; Devi and Devi, (2015) who
reported the male and female adult length of 3.06 and 3.70mm. Hill (2002) measured
the length of adults as 2.3 to 4.00mm. Sundar et al.,(2021)stated that male body
length ranged from 3.20-3.81mm while female body length varies from 3.25-3.89 mm
recorded on various sesame varieties.
75
Chapter 6
SUMMARY
A healthy food that provides the essential nutrients for a balanced diet is
provided by Wheat, Triticum aestivum L. (Family: Gramineae), and other cereals.
Wheat is cultivated throughout a variety of agro-ecological zones and develops
significant genetic variation. From the time it grows in the field until it is eaten by
people, this cereal is damaged. Losses can also be brought on by improper handling
practices during storage, inadequate storage structures, and other physical issues. In
Pakistan, more than 23 insect species attack wheat grains when they are in storage.
Tribolium castaneum Herbst is the most devastating pest of stored goods and
has a global distribution. The most frequent pest of wheat flour is this one.
Additionally, it seriously harms prepared cereal items like cornflakes, pasta, biscuits,
beans, nuts, and dried fruits, pulses, and other cereal products. Though its pest status
is regarded as secondary and requires earlier infestation by an internal feeder, it is
frequently the most frequent specie in the complex of pest attacking storage wheat.
When there is a strong attack of beetles, the flour change into grey with an unpleasant
scent, rendering it unfit for human use. Due to its strong reproductive potential, this
insect causes significant loss in storage.
The most widely used methods for managing insect pests are chemical
controls. Insect pest control for stored goods using synthetic pesticides has also long
been recognized as one of the most cost-effective methods. Both phosphine and
methyl-bromide are the fumigants that are mostly employed to protect stored products
from T. castaneum. But numerous different environmental issues have been brought
on by the widespread use of insecticides, the majority of which have broad-spectrum
activity. Present investigation was carried out since there is little information on the
life processes (biology) of the T. castaneumon wheat. To create sensible pest control
plans, it is first required to ascertain the fundamental life cycle of this insect,
including the number of larval instars. In order to offer a suitable management
strategy, the current work is being done to investigate the morphological
measurements of the different developmental phases of this pest.
76
A study on the biology as well as morphological measurement of T.
castaneumon different wheat varieties (AAS-11, NARC-11, Ujala-16, Millet-11 and
Faisalabad-08) was conducted in the Laboratory of Entomology at maintained
temperature and relative humidity of 28-32oC and 60-70%R.H., respectively. The
culture was maintained on sterilized wheat flour which kept in plastic jar of 3 kg
capacity. Male and female of equal sex ratio was released in each jar and covered with
muslin cloth for mating. The adult females were observed regularly at interval of eight
hours for their oviposition. After mating, the female moth laid eggs on the wheat
flour. On the following day for collecting eggs, a 50 mesh sieve was used to separate
the adults and eggs from the flour. Ten collected eggs were taken in petri dish and
observed the incubation period and hatching percentage of eggs were daily recorded.
Then the ten newly hatched first instar grubs were carefully collected with the help of
soft camel hair brush and were transferred in jars containing 30 mg of wheat flour
supplied as food in each jar. Each stage of grub was studied carefully with the help of
microscope and noted the duration of each larval instar. After the completion of larval
period, pupal duration was recorded. The total developmental period was measured by
the sum of incubation period, total larval period and pupal period. For morpho metric
parameter, simple scale was used for measuring the length of last larval instar, male
and female pupae as well as adult male and female. For this purpose, 5 specimens
were taken for measuring the length of different stages of T. castaeum.
The findings indicated that there was variation among the trail wheat cultivars.
Significant differences were observed in trailed cultivars of wheat with respect to
incubation period of red flour beetle. Maximum incubation period (6.00 and 5.25
days) was demonstrated by flour beetles nourished in flours of Faisalabad-08
andMillet-11, respectively while Ujala-16 cultivar depicted minimum incubation
period (4.25 days) of red flour beetle. Similarly, maximum egg hatching percentage
was observed by cultivarUjala-16 (97.5%) followed by AAS-11 (92.5%), NARC-11
(87.5%) and Millet-11 (82.5%)while Faisalabad-08 cultivar depicted minimum egg
hatching percent of 67.5%.
The maximum total larval period was inFaisalabad-08 with 24.75 days. In
contrast, Ujala-16 showed minimum total larval period of 14.25 days. Likewise, in
case of pupal period of red flour beetle,Faisalabad-08 depicted maximum pupal period
of 5.75 days and Ujala-16 demonstrated minimum pupal period of 4 days. Total
77
developmental time period of red flour beetle was noticed maximum (36.5 days)
inFaisalabad-08 followed by Millet-11 (31.25 days) and NARC-11 (29.75 days) and
minimum total developmental time period of red flour beetle was recorded by Ujala-
16 (22.5 days) andAAS-11 (26.25 days). According to morphometric parameter,
maximum larval length of sixth instar (6.00 mm) was noticed in Ujala-16 and AAS-11
while minimum larval length (5.8 mm) was recorded in Faisalabad-08 followed by
NARC-11 (5.85 mm) and Millet-11 (5.9 mm). Non-significant variation was observed
among all trailed cultivars with respect to male and female pupal as well as adult
length.
78
CONCLUSION
 The study revealed that how various wheat cultivars may impact the viability
of T. castaneum as well as their growth and development.
 Faisalabad-08, among wheat cultivars, prolonged the developmental period of
T. castaneum.
 Among wheat cultivars, Ujala-16 being a susceptible cultivar is highly
advantageous, allowing for the rapid and widespread laboratory culture of T.
castaneum that may be required in subsequent scientific investigations.
79
RECOMMENDATIONS
 This lab based research suggests that farmers must utilize Faisalabad-08
(wheat cultivar)because such cultivar is less preferred by the T. castaneum.
 For management purposes, it is recommended that Entomologists and
Plant Breeders should focus more on utilizing Faisalabad-08 (wheat
cultivar) as a host grain resistant to T. castaneum.
 It may aid for eco-friendly management of T. castaneum (storage grain
pest) and avoid the risk of insecticidal residues in such grain commodities.
80
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BIOLOGY OF RED FLOUR BEETLE (Triboliumcastaneum)

(Hbst.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) ON DIFFERENT

DR. MUHAMMAD SHAHID NISAR

DR. ASGHAR ABBAS

In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Chairman Signature with Stamp

First and foremost, special appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr.

I am highly grateful to Dr. Khizar Samiullah, Associate Professor,

My affectionate and loving

Through whom I acquired indefatigable temperament,

Who gave hope and strength to meet with the challenges

For their care, affection and cooperation

Sr. No. List of Figures Page No.

Fig. 1 Mean Comparison for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle

Sr. No List of Tables Page No.

Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Red flour beetle), is a widespread as same as

T. castaneum is a worldwide pest of goods that are kept in storage (Nenaah,

T. castaneum pupae are unlike those of all other complete metamorphosis

In the tropics, Tribolium castaneum, Hbst. (belongs to order Coleoptera

According to different researchers like Kitinoja &Gorny (1999), Musa (1984),

● To evaluate the different developmental periods (incubation, larval, pupal and

total development) of this pest.

● To study the morphological measurement of different developmental stages

Jamil and Aslam, (2000) tested 9 wheat genotypes (Pak-81, Rawal-87,

Fatima et al., (2010) checked the anti-biosis of 3 varieties of wheat (salt

Al-Iraqi and Abdulla (2012) investigated the biology of the Tribolium

Almaši and Poslončec, (2014) performed an experiment under laboratory

Kayode et al.,(2014)examined the effects of four cereals like Wheat (Triticum

Rustamani et al., (2014) determined non-living (a-biotic) parameters as same

Devi and devi, (2015)conducted a study on the biology of Tribolium

Saljoqi et al., (2015) undertook a study in 2009 to test 10 various wheat

Safian and Batool, (2017)determined the comparative bio-chemical basis of

Talpur et al., 2018 performed an experiment on eight different wheat cultivars

Maroufpooret al., (2019)investigated the biological life processes of flour

Salman et al., (2019) reported that wheat cultivars are susceptibility to

Shelja et al., (2019) performed an experiment in the laboratory for assessing

Alison and Campbell, (2020)stated that consumer demand has resulted in an

Jamil et al., (2020) executed an investigation in a laboratory conditions during

Muhammad et al., (2020)stated that in Nigeria, Tribolium castaneum,

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A study on the biology as well as morphological measurement of T.

Releasing of Red Flour Beetle:

Incubation Period and Hatching Percentage:

After the completion of larval period, pupal duration was recorded.

ii. Total Developmental Period:

iii. Morphometric Parameter:

This experiment was performed by following the completely randomized

4.1 Incubation Period:

Significant differences were observed in trailed cultivars of wheat with respect

Fig. 1 Mean Comparison for Incubation Period of Red flour beetle in

Table 4.2(b). Mean Comparison Table for Egg Hatching Percentage of

Cultivars Egg Hatching (%)

C4Faisalabad-08 andC5 Ujala-16 cultivars were significantly varied from

Cultivar 4 7.7 1.925 6.416 .0032**

Error 15 4.5 0.3

Mean=3.3 CV= 16.59% Level of Significance = 0.05

4.5 Larval Period (Instar III):

Statistically same outcome was recorded among C 4Faisalabad-08 (3.75 days),

Cultivar 4 8.2 2.05 6.47 .0031**

Error 15 4.75 0.316

Mean=2.95 CV= 19.07% Level of Significance = 0.05

Non-significant variation was recorded among C 4Faisalabad-08,C2 NARC-11

Cultivar 4 3.7 0.925 4.269 .0167*