Paulsen Welo Cross Sectional Part2 2001

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Cross-sectional deformations of rectangular hollow sections in

bending: Part II — analytical models
Article in International Journal of Mechanical Sciences · January 2001

DOI: 10.1016/S0020-7403(99)00107-1
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43 (2001) 131}152
Cross-sectional deformations of rectangular hollow sections

in bending: Part II * analytical models
Frode Paulsen *, Torgeir Welo
Department of Machine Design and Materials Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
R. Birkelandsv. 2B, N-7034 Trondheim, Norway
Hydro Raufoss Automotive, Holland, 365 West 24th Street Holland, MI 49423, USA
Received 18 July 1998; received in revised form 25 November 1999
Abstract
In this part, analytical models to predict the de#ection of cross-sectional members such as #anges and webs
are developed. The models are based on the deformation theory of plasticity along with the energy method,
using appropriate shape functions capable of including the restraining e!ect of adjacent members. The
present method provides explicit solutions of cross-sectional deformations prior to buckling, onset of
buckling, as well as post-buckling deformations at di!erent stages of bending. The predictions show that the
suck-in of the tensile #ange is closely related to geometry parameters, particularly the #ange width. Plastic
anisotropy appears to be the most signi"cant material parameter. The width-to-thickness ratio tends to be
the governing parameter with respect to buckling of the inner (compressive) #ange. Also, the strain hardening
of the material has a major e!ect on onset of buckling as well as post buckling deformations. Upon continued
bending after buckling, the wavy deformation of the inner #ange develops more rapidly than the more
uniform deformation of the outer (tensile) #ange. For relatively compact sections, however, the deformation
mode of the compressive #ange resembles that of the tensile #ange without any typical buckling waves. There
are also obvious interactions between deformations of di!erent members. Comparing the theoretical
predictions with the experimental results presented in Part I, a reasonably good agreement was
found. 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hollow sections; Bending; Local buckling; Post-buckling; Buckling; Suck-in; Analytical models
* Corresponding author. Present address: Hydro Automotive Structures, Product and Process Department, P.B. 41,
N-2831, Raufoss, Norway. Tel.: #47-61151669; fax: #47-61152761.
E-mail address: frode.paulsen@hydro.com (F. Paulsen).
0020-7403/01/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 2 0 - 7 4 0 3 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 0 7 - 1
132 F. Paulsen, T. Welo / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43 (2001) 131}152
Nomenclature
c constraint factor
h, b, t pro"le height, chamber width and member thickness
l pro"le length
m number of half-waves
n hardening parameter
q section dependent constant, equals zero for SC and 1.0 for DC sections
t ,t #ange thickness and web thickness
D U
w inward de#ection of the #ange
w ,w suck-in and buckling de#ection, respectively
Q @
w ,w maximum suck-in and buckling de#ection, respectively
Q @
w web de#ection
U
x, y, z #ange coordinates
y web coordinate
U
z distance from section's neutral layer to middle plane of #ange
E
A ,A buckling constants

C rotational sti!ness constant
C instantaneous plastic compliance tensor
GHIJ
D E t /12 (plastic bending sti!ness)
Q D
E ,E secant modulus and tangent modulus
Q R
F 2F buckling constants

I strain energy
I ,I t /12, t /12 (second moment of inertia per unit width of #ange and web plates)
D U D U
K #ow resistance
¸ instantaneous moduli
GHIJ
M , MU local bending moments in #ange and web
GH GH
N membrane force
GH
R, R global bending radius and corresponding critical radius at onset of buckling
A
RH R#h/2#w "R#z (bending radius at the middle plane of #ange)
Q E
R 3hb(1!l)/(2pt ) (equivalent buckling radius with the #ange as a simply
D
supported plate)
SC, DC abbreviations for single- and double-chamber sections
T1, T6 tempers of aluminium alloys
a 2(pV /pW )!1 (anisotropy factor)

e strain component
GH
e membrane strain component
GH
h bending angle
i local curvature component
GH
p stress component
GH
p ,e equivalent stress and strain
C C
pV 0.2% o!set proof stress in x-direction

' 2' constraint constants

! in#uential factor for suck-in at onset of buckling
B (2a#1)/(a#2)(1/3(3(a#2)))\L (anisotropy factor)
( 2( constraint constants

F. Paulsen, T. Welo / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43 (2001) 131}152 133
1. Introduction
In bending of hollow sections, cross-sectional deformations take place immediately after an

external moment is being applied. At "rst, these appear in the form of an inward movement of the
#anges towards the cross section's neutral layer. This type of distortions is commonly referred to as
the pre-buckling mode. At some later stage of bending, buckling of the inner (compressive) #ange
may take place, resulting in wavy post-buckling deformations that grow towards tighter radii.
Considering industrial forming operations, these distortions will in turn reduce the manufactura-
bility of each individual part, and increase the overall dimensional variations of "nal assemblies, as
well as reduce the load carrying capacity of the part in service. The purpose of the present paper is
to give a better understanding of the parameters controlling such pre- and post-buckling modes in
bending, aiming to improve predictability and design guide lines for industrial forming operations.
Pre-buckling deformations take place in members such as #anges and webs subjected to
compression as well as tension, typically making circular tubes oval and hollow sections hourglass
shaped. The governing mechanism is internal stress components forcing unsupported regions of the
individual members toward the neutral layer of the cross section. This type of deformation is
present in sheets as well, as discussed by Hill [1] for perfectly plastic materials and by Rivlin [2] for
work-hardening materials, but is negligible for beams of solid cross-section. Ovalization of circular
tubes is being discussed in detail by Ades [3] and later by Gellin [4] using the so-called
J -deformation theory of plasticity. Fabian [5] and Shaw and Kyriakides [6] used the #ow theory

of plasticity and slightly modi"ed kinematic relations to analyse the ovalization problem. Reid
et al. [7] added another dimension to the tube ovalization problem by including large curvatures
and localization e!ects in their analyses. Numerical and analytical studies of localization of pre-
buckling deformations have also been conducted by Welo and Paulsen [8,9] for a variety of cross
sections.
Numerous authors have studied buckling of individual cross-section. The more signi"cant
contributions to plastic buckling have been made by Shanley [10] for columns and by Stowell [11],
applying the deformation theory to plates. Assuming the kinematics associated with buckling of
rectangular hollow sections to be similar to that of individual, simply supported plates in
compression, Timoshenko [12] presented practical solutions of the local buckling problem. Li and
Reid [13,14] demonstrated that Timoshenko's assumptions are only valid for very thin-walled
sections where the restraining e!ect between adjacent members is small. A major work in the "eld
of buckling of thin-walled tubes was conducted by Kyriakides and Ju [15,16] who considered
buckling modes and collapse behaviour subsequent to buckling. Two other topics related to plastic
buckling of cross-sectional members are the e!ect of pre-deformations on post-buckling modes,
and interactions between deformations of members subjected to compression and tension. Corona
and Vaze [17] found that the e!ect of pre-deformations on buckling is usually small for slender,
square hollow sections. However, thick-walled tubes are more likely to collapse as a result of
localized, suck-in type deformations of compressive as well as tensile members. More practical
methods of reducing post-buckling deformations in industrial bending operations are being
discussed by Paulsen and Welo [18] using numerical analyses.
In the following, analytical models have been developed to predict the onset of #ange buckling
and development of pre- and post-buckling deformations for #exurally loaded hollow sections. The
e!ects of mechanical and geometrical parameters are being determined, aiming to establish a better
understanding of the governing mechanisms controlling cross-sectional deformations. The experi-

mental work used to validate the models developed herein is presented in Part I.
2. Formulation
2.1. General remarks
In the models to be presented below, the deformation theory of plasticity has been adapted.
A power law is being utilized to represent the material's stress}strain curve using a Hill-type yield
criterion to include anisotropy e!ects for the strain ratios considered. Strains are considered to be
small in these analyses. Making simpli"cations have been necessary to include major factors
associated with large deformations, such as membrane e!ects. Nominal stresses and strains used as
`inputa in the local analyses are determined from the Navier}Bernoulli hypothesis * that is,
initially plane sections remain plane after bending. The models developed are general in the sense
that they are based solely on continuum mechanical principles; however, the particular solutions
considered herein are obtained by applying boundary conditions for single- and double-chamber
rectangular hollow sections. Notice that the models to be presented only serve to describe
cross-sectional distortions prior to localization of deformation. Once the deformation is localized,
the assumption of a constant curvature along the beam is no longer valid. This means that
deformations of #anges and webs is considered not a!ect the global bending radius of the pro"le.
2.2. Constitutive description
According to the deformation theory of plasticity [19], the relation between stress and plastic
strain is
p "E C e , (1)
GH Q GHIJ IJ
where E "p /e is the instantaneous secant modulus of the material stress}strain curve, p and
Q C C C
e are e!ective stress and strain, respectively, and C is a fourth-order symmetric tensor
C GHIJ
dependent on the yield criteria to be used.
Assume now that the initial yield stress in the x-direction, pV , is di!erent from that in the other

two directions, such that pV OpW "pX . The following factor

pV
a"2 !1 (2)
pW

uniquely describes the anisotropy of the material. Let also the shear yield stress be related to the
yield stress in the x-direction such that pV "(3pVW . Using Hill's anisotropy criterion [1] under

Latin indices range from 1 to 3, while Greek indices range from 1 to 2. The coordinate directions 1 equals x, 2 equals
y and 3 equals z.
the assumptions made above, the non-zero components of C can be quoted on the form
?@AB
2 a#3a#2
C " ,
3 1#2a
2 a#2 1
C " "C " C ,
3 1#2a 2
1 (a#2)
C " "C "C "C . (3)
9 a
2.3. Variation principle
When an individual cross-sectional member buckles, a slight subsequent distortion gives rise to
variation in the strain components e , e and e . Adopting Bernoulli's assumption, the following
VV WW VW
relation prevails:
de "de !zdi . (4)

?@ ?@ ?@
Here z is the distance from the median plane to any "bre across the thickness of the member, e is
?@
the membrane strain and i is the local curvature.
?@
Using the calculus of variation adopted by Ilyushin [20] and Stowell [11], and integrating
Eq. (1) over the thickness, the variated moments are
dM "!D¸ di , (5)
?@ ?@AB AB
where D"E t/12 re#ects the #exural rigidity of the member and t is thickness of the member. The
Q
moduli ¸ are de"ned as follows:
?@AB

E p p
¸ "C ! 1! R ?@ AB (6)
?@AB ?@AB E p
Q C
in which E "dp /de is the tangent modulus.
R C C
2.4. Local moment}curvature and rotational stiwness relations
Based on the plane stress}strain characteristics given in Eq. (1), Welo [9,21] has developed
a moment}curvature relation for local bending of a plate element subjected to axial stresses in one
direction and bending stresses acting in the perpendicular direction. By neglecting shear deforma-
tions and assuming no resulting axial force in the direction perpendicular to the bending axis, the
following relationship holds:
e #e "zi (7)

WW FF WW
if the bending strains vary linearly with the distance from the middle surface. Here e "z /R is the
FF E
circumferential (h-direction in accordance with Fig. 1) bending strain, (1/R is the global curvature
Fig. 1. Overview of the system used to describe local deformations in bending.
of the section and z is the instantaneous distance from the section's neutral layer to the median
E
plane of the #ange), i is the local curvature in the transverse direction (y-direction in accordance
WW
with Fig. 1) and z is the distance from the median surface to any layer of the #ange, see Fig. 2. Using
a material stress}strain model on the form p "K(e )L, the bending stress across the thickness of
C C
the #ange is
p "C zi . (8)
WW WW
Due to the non-linear terms included in eL\, the presented relationship cannot be integrated
C
analytically across the thickness to obtain the bending moment, M " p z dz. However, the
WW WW
circumferential strain components e are usually much greater than the bending strain compo-
FF
nents e "zi in the transverse directions. This justi"es p to be expanded in terms of
WW WW WW
a truncated Taylor series. By neglecting higher-order terms of i t/e , a relationship between the
WW FF
Fig. 2. Coordinate system for local deformations in bending.
local curvature and the moment in the transverse direction yields
3M
i " WW (e )\L B (9)
WW 4 KI FF
D
after some manipulation. Here, I is the second moment of inertia per unit width of the #ange plate,
D
and the parameter B is uniquely de"ned through the anisotropy factor a,

2a#1 1 \L
B" (3(a#2) . (10)
a#2 3
Eq. (9) may be used to determine the edge rotation for a given local bending moment
MU distributed over any cross-sectional member. Again, the end rotation of individual cross-
WW
sectional members needs to be related to each other in order to ensure compatibility at common
edges. Recalling the Navier}Bernoulli hypothesis, the global bending strain is linearly distributed
over the depth of a cross section, such that e "y /2R. Assume further that the deformation is
FF U
small such that *w /*y can be approximated by the curvature itself. Considering a constant local
U U
bending moment MU over the web depth h, and integrating over the web depth, the following
WW
relation prevails:

*w 3 h h \L
U " BMU " ,C\MU " , (11)
*y U 8KI 2!n 2R WW W WW W
U W U
where I is the second moment of inertia per unit width of the web plate. The above equation states
U
that the end rotation of the web is proportional to the local #ange bending moment MU . The factor
WW
of proportionality C is the instantaneous rotational sti!ness of the web, being a function of web
geometry, material properties and bending radius.
This means that neither external shear nor distributed forces act across the web.
2.5. Shape functions and boundary conditions for a deforming yange
A suitable shape function to describe the de#ections of an inelastically built-in #ange is:

mpx py 1 2py
w"w sin c sin # (c!1) cos !1 , (12)
l b 2 b
where b is the width of one chamber (y-direction) and m is the number of half-waves with amplitude
w developing over the length l (x-direction). The constraint factor c will take values between 0 and

1.0, representing completely clamped and simply supported ends, respectively.
If the #ange plate is clamped along one edge (y"b) and inelastically built-in along the other
(y"0), the shape function can be written in the form

mpx cy py 1 cy 2py
w"w sin sin # !1 cos !1 . (13)
l b b 2 b b
Here, the constraint factor c"0 and c"p/(p#1) if the pro"le's corner at y"0 is "xed and simply
supported, respectively. The shape functions are plotted for di!erent constraint factors in
Figs. 3 and 4 for SC and DC sections, respectively.
The constraint factor c can be related to the rotational sti!ness C in Eq. (11) using appropriate
boundary conditions at the pro"le's corners. Replacing MU by M "!DC i and
WW WW WW
i "*w/*y,
WW
*w *w
MU " "C "!DC (14)
WW W@ *y *y
W@ W@
and substituting the respective shape functions (12) and (13) into the compatibility requirement,
obtaining
pt C
c" D , (15)
(p#q)t C #[(2!n)/h]t bB\
D U
Fig. 3. Shape function in the transverse direction of the #ange of a single-chamber section (SC) for di!erent constraint
factors c.
Fig. 4. Shape function in the transverse direction of the #ange of a double-chamber section (DC) for di!erent constraint
factors c.
where t and t are the #ange and web thickness, respectively. Here q"0 for a SC section and
D U
q"1 for a DC section. It is noticed that the constraint factor vanishes if the web thickness assumes
a large value for completely "xed ends. If the web thickness vanishes, the constraint factor
c approaches 1.0 for SC sections and p/(p#1) 0.7585 for DC sections.
2.6. Suck-in type pre-buckling deformations
Assuming a constant stress (p ) across the thickness of a curved #ange subjected to tension,
FF
equilibrium gives a vertical stress component
p t
p " FF D , (16)
XX RH
where RH ("R#h/2#w ) is the current bending radius, R is the nominal bending radius, h is the
Q
depth of the cross-section, w is the suck-in deformation of the #ange and p is the circumferential
Q FF
bending stress. Because w is usually much smaller than the nominal bending radius, the former is
Q
neglected in the prediction of RH in the further analysis.
Now, considering the stress component p as an external load that gives membrane action
XX
under transverse local bending only, such that the suck-in depth is constant along the #ange, the
strain energy of an element of the #ange is
p t
dI" FF D w RH dh dy!M i RH dh dy. (17)
RH Q WW WW
In order to integrate Eq. (17), terms containing p and e have to be linearized. Adopting a power
FF FF
law to represent the uniaxial stress}strain curve, and assuming w to be much smaller than the
Q
depth of the cross-section such that the global bending stress can be expanded in terms of a Taylor
series,

h/2!w L h L 2nw 2n(n!1)w
p "K Q +K 1! Q# Q , (18)
FF R 2R h h
in which the deformation process is assumed to be a proportional one. For large values of w ,
Q
however, the sagging depth (w /R) increases more than the uniform bending strain (h/(2R)) over an
Q
increment of the curvature (*(1/R)), violating the assumption of proportionality. A simple check for
this may be invoked by evaluating w for two close radii (1/R, 1/R#*(1/R)), and calculating the
Q
associated changes in strain and stress from the #ow rule.
A similar truncated expansion can be done for the term eL\ included in the moment relation
FF
M "!DC i before being used in Eq. (17). Using the shape function (12) with
WW WW
sin((mpx)/l)"1 to represent w , integrating over the element, and then minimizing the strain energy
Q
with respect to the maximum de#ection w , a third-order equation is obtained:
Q

126hbn(n!1)
w +3p(n!1) (n!2)B\( ,#w 112(n!1)hB\( # (
Q Q p(2R#h)Rt
D

84hbn 42hb
#w 280phB\( # ( # ( "0, (19)
Q p(2R#h)Rt p(2R#h)Rt
D D
where ( to ( are &constraint' constants de"ned as follows:

( "(7665p!23808)c#(53504!17010p)c

# (14385p!44544)c#(14848!5880p)c#1470p,
( "(285p!992)c#(1664!525p)c#(360p!832)c!120p,

( "(15p!16)c#(16!24p)c#12p,

( "(1380p!4352)c#(6144!1980p)c#(900p!3072)c!300p,

( "(315p!960)c#(960!270p)c#135p,

( "(360p!1440)c!360p. (20)

Due to the nature of the stress distribution in pure bending, sagging de#ections are always directed
towards the neutral layer. Therefore, Eq. (19) has two imaginary solutions, and one real solution
that can be determined explicitly. For short specimens, Eq. (19) predicts a suck-in depth that is too
large as long as the de#ection is assumed to be constant along the #ange. It can be shown, however,
that by treating the suck-in as a single half-wave sine or cosine along the #ange, the sagging depth is
reduced by maximum 5% for c"1 and 0.5% for c"0 if b/l is smaller than 0.2.
Higher order terms of w are becoming small at large radii and can be eliminated for all
Q
practical purposes, meaning that a reasonably close approximation to the solution of Eq. (19) is
obtained by solving for w ,
Q
3 bh B(
w "! . (21)
Q 2 t Rp (10p(2#h/R)( #3nb( /(Bt R))
D D
The #ange width b of one chamber is the main in#uential parameter in this expression, followed by
the #ange thickness t and the global bending radius R. The importance of the yield stress as well as
D
the hardening of the material are surprisingly small.
2.7. Onset of buckling
Upon bending of a thin-walled pro"le, the inner #ange plate of the pro"le will be formed into
a curved shell. Additionally, gradually increasing inward components of the bending stress makes
the #ange gradually more saddle shaped. When the bending stress reaches some critical value,
however, the #ange will buckle into a number of waves along the length as a result of the
compressive stresses. Although global and local pre-deformations may a!ect the critical buckling
stress as compared to a plate in compression, for reasonably large radii the presented three-
dimensional buckling case may usually be treated as a much simpler two-dimensional, plane
problem. Comparing for instance elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindrical shell of width
80 mm, thickness 3.0 mm and radius 3500 mm with a plate with comparable dimensions, it may be
shown analytically [12] that the di!erence in buckling stress is less than 0.5%.
Although the sections considered herein do buckle in the inelastic range, the critical radius is
relatively large due to the slenderness of the individual cross-sectional members. Therefore, the
onset of buckling is treated as a plane problem in the continuation. In the post-buckling range,
however, pre-buckling deformations have been considered implicitly by including of sagging
deformations in the formulation.
Assume that the strain energy of a buckled plate in compression [12,22] is

*w
dI" p t @ !dM di dx dy, (22)
FF D *x ?@ ?@
where M is the bending moment, p t is the axial force and w is the local displacement of the
?@ FF D @
plate given by Eq. (12) with m arbitrary. Inserting the variational moments in Eq. (5), and assuming
relatively small deformations such that the curvature di can be replaced by *w /*x *x and
?@ @ ? @
p by K(h/2R)L, minimization of the energy, Eq. (22), with respect to the maximum buckling
FF
de#ection, w , gives the following critical radius at the onset of buckling:
@

3h b ' (C '
R" , (23)
A 2p t C ((C ' ' (C )'
D
#n!1)'

#2(C

#2C

where the constraint constants ' to ' are given as

' "c(21p!64)#c(64!18p)#9p,

' "c(6p!16)#c(16!6p)#3p,

' "c(15p!16)#c(16!24p)#12p. (24)

Note that in Eq. (23) above, the number of half-waves m that provides the maximum radius
searched has been used, that is,

(2l C '
m" . (25)
b ' (C #n!1)

2.8. Ewect of pre-deformations on the onset of buckling
The e!ect of the suck-in prior to buckling on the onset of buckling is two-fold: (i) the nominal
bending stress is reduced as the #ange moves closer to the neutral layer; (ii) the suck-in changes the
geometry of the #ange, resembling a steadily growing geometric `imperfectiona.
The above e!ects are approximated in the analysis using the energy method with the shape
function de"ned in Eq. (12) (m"1). In case the resulting e!ect of local bending is small, the strain in
the median plane of the #ange plate represents a suitable estimate on the nominal value in the
constitutive equations. Moreover, an almost uniaxial state of stress is present prior to the onset of
buckling since there is no resulting load acting in the width direction of the #ange.
Let now the contributions from sagging and buckling to the total local de#ection be denoted
w and w , respectively. To take into account e!ect (i) p in Eq. (22) is replaced with the series in
Q @ FF
Eq. (18). As long as the suck-in de#ection is very small at the onset of buckling, higher order terms
of w may be excluded. E!ect (ii) is included by replacing *w /*x in the energy expression (22) by
Q @
the term *w /*x#*w /*x.
@ Q
If the critical radius at the onset of buckling, Eq. (23), is represented on the form R "F /F ,
A
minimization of the energy with respect to the buckling wave depth w gives the critical radius
@
F
R " !
A F

6hbml'
" !, (26)
pt (4C l' #8mlb' (C #2C )#(C #n!1)bm' )
D
in which the in#uential factor ! of suck-in on the critical radius is de"ned as follows:
1#(F /F )w
!" Q , (27)
1!(F /F )w
Q
where the functions F and F are

24m(2m!1)nbl'
F "! ,
5p(4m!1)

8pm(n!1)t bl 4(2mC #C (2m!1))' (C #n!1)bm'
F "! D #
5(4m!1)h lb l

2C l'
# (28)
b
with the constraint constants ' 2' given as

' "c(345p!1088)#c(1536!495p)#c(225p!768)!75p,

' "c(105p!336)#c(512!165p)#c(90p!256)!30p,

' "c(285p!992)#c(1664!525p)#c(360p!832)!120p. (29)

Since the pre-deformations are not likely to have any e!ect on the number of half-waves, this is
assumed to be the same as found from the simpler analysis neglecting pre-deformations.
A proposed procedure to "nd the radius at the onset of buckling corrected for pre-deformation
is: (a) "nd the critical radius at the onset of buckling (R ) from Eq. (26) with !"1 (no pre-
A
deformation); (b) predict the maximum sagging depth w based on Eq. (21); (c) calculate ! from
Q
Eq. (27); and (d) the radius corrected for pre-deformation is simply R !.
A
It is noticed that !"1.0 if w vanish, and less than 1.0 otherwise, meaning that the pre-
Q
de#ection tends to reduce the critical radius. In other words, the unloading e!ect is the most
important factor related to large deformations, though the overall e!ect may be considered as small
in most cases.
2.9. Buckling depth
In the model to be presented in this section, the strain in the median plane of the #ange is used in
the constitutive equations. In other words, local bending moments are not considered to have any
in#uence on the instantaneous sti!ness of the #ange. As for the models presented above, the global
bending stress in the constitutive equation is assumed to be uniaxial according to classical beam
theory. Another simpli"cation made in the analysis is to assume that the number of half-waves
m determined from Eq. (25) is preserved into the post buckling range.
As the buckling waves develop along the length of the #ange plate, the subsequent membrane
strains in the median plane of the #ange can no longer be neglected. Therefore, a large-deformation
term must be included in the term representing the circumferential bending stress. Pre-deforma-
tions produce a small inward de#ection that is assumed to be constant along the member, causing
unrestrained parts of the #ange to be located closer to the section's neutral layer. Also, the
maximum de#ection is much smaller than the depth of the cross section h, allowing a Taylor
expansion to be made. These assumptions lead to the following expression for the circumferential
stress:

h/2!w 1 *w L h L 2nw 2n(n!1)w nR *w
p "K Q! @ +K 1! Q# Q! @ , (30)
FF R 2 *x 2R h h h *x
where w is the local de#ection and the quadratic term represents the stretch in the median plane of
@
the plate induced from buckling, and w is the suck-in de#ection. Here, it should be noticed that
Q
compressive stresses are taken as positive.
The earlier de"ned shape constants are used along with the energy expression (22) and the
circumferential stress, Eq. (30), to represent w and w . By integrating over the area of the #ange
@ Q
plate, and "nally di!erentiating with respect to the maximum buckling depth w , a third order
@
equation is obtained. One of the solutions represents further uniform contraction of the #ange
plate, whereas the two others are

(p! >L\K

@! K@F )' #pK (C #2C )' #p ! J
' #
UQ A #UQ L\
A
w "$ 1120
M@
J JRD0

J@

@

F F

,
(p ! >L\L\K

@0!p LK @
)' #
p ! >! L\K 0 ' #p ! L\K

0'
J F J RD J @F J@ F
(31)
in which the relative unloading e!ect of a uniform suck-in along the length is represented through
the constants A and A , which are de"ned as

p(C #n!1)(n!1)mb nmbh pm(n!1)
A " ! ' # (C #C )'
24l 4lt R 3lb
D
pC (n!1)l
# ' , (32)
6b

p(C #n!1)(n!2)mb nmbh pm(n!2)
A " ! ' # (3C #2C )'
48l 8lt R 2lb
D
pC (n!2)l
# ' . (33)
3b
The constraint constants ' to ' are given in Eqs. (24) and (29), and ' to ' are quoted as

follows:
' "(33915p!106496)c#(204800!65100p)c

# (47250p!147456)c#(49152!14700p)c#3675p,
' "(1225p!3840)c#(7936!2520p)c#(1960p!6144)c#(2048!700p)c#175p,

' "(7665p!23808)c#(53504!17010p)c

# (14385p!44544)c#(14848!5880p)c#1470p. (34)
At the onset of buckling, terms involving the maximum sagging depth w are usually small,
Q
becoming gradually more important as the sagging depth causes a relative unloading of the
unstrained parts of the #ange. For most practical purposes, however, the functions A and A in

Eq. (31) may be neglected. Notice also that Eq. (31) is only real in the post-buckling range.
A simpli"cation of Eq. (31) has been performed to evaluate the main parameters regarding the
development of the post-buckling depth. If the #ange is assumed as simply supported along all
edges, and suck-in deformations are neglected, it is possible to show that Eq. (31) takes the
following form:

h
w "$b p(b, h, t , n, R)
@ nR D (35)
for an isotropic material. Here, the function p consists of second or higher order terms and thus is of
minor importance to the post-buckling depth.
3. Results and validation
3.1. Onset of buckling
The test procedure and results to be used for model validation in the continuation were
presented in Part I. The considered parameters were the chamber width of the section b, the
height h, the #ange thickness t , the web thickness t , the hardening exponent n and the anisotropy
D U
factor a.
The buckling radius for double-(DC) and single-chamber (SC) sections predicted by Eq. (26) are
shown together with the experimental results in Fig. 5. Here the buckling radius is normalised with
the buckling radius predicted by beam theory, and assuming the #ange as a simply supported
elastic plate, R "3hb(1!l)/(2pt ) [12]. The analytical model predicts a normalised buckling
D
radius that is relatively independent of the conventional buckling factor (b/t ), meaning that the
D
width-to-thickness ratio is still the main parameter for buckling in the inelastic range. The di!erent
constraint conditions present for single and double chamber sections have minor e!ect on the
buckling radius as there is no signi"cant shift in the predicted curves at the transition between the
two section types.
The analytical results are in reasonably good agreement with the experimental ones although the
latter seems to be closer related to the factor (b/t ). For the DC sections, however, discrepancies of
D
as much as 50% exist between tests and analyses in temper T6. In this connection, it should be
noticed that pre-deformations make it di$cult to accurately determine the onset of buckling in the
tests. According to the model, a T1 material with a high hardening coe$cient is more resistant to
buckling than a T6 material with a low hardening coe$cient. This tendency is only partly
supported by the experimental results. For the thin-walled SC sections, the buckling stress is close
to the elastic limit stress of the material. Here, the reason for the relatively signi"cant discrepancy
between the experimental and analytical results for the low hardening T6 may be found in the
global moment}curvature response. Another explanation may be that it is more di$cult to
reproduce the ideal case of no geometrical imperfections and distortions at the clamped ends of the
pro"le in the experimental set-up. For the SC sections with the thicker #anges, the analytical model
provides excellent agreement with the experimental results. For the more compact DC sections
Fig. 5. (left) Experimental and predicted buckling curvatures; (right) in#uence of sagging prior to onset of buckling.
(2.5 and 3.0 mm #ange thickness), the model generally predicts too high buckling radius. It is also
observed that in all the experimental cases the T6 sections buckle at an earlier stage of bending than
the T1 sections. This trend is also observed in the analytical predictions, though less prominent.
The right-hand graph in Fig. 5 shows the predicted in#uence of local pre-deformation on the
bending radius at the onset of buckling. The correction factor ! is generally smaller than 1.0,
meaning that buckling occurs at a later stage of bending. The most prominent in#uence is seen for
the thick-walled sections of each type * however, the corrected buckling radius is still within 1% of
the uncorrected one. It is therefore concluded that for all practical purposes, pre-deformations can
be neglected in predicting the buckling radius.
3.2. Suck-in of the tensile yange
The maximum suck-in of the external #ange (DC section in temper T1) is plotted versus the
quantity b/(t R) in Fig. 6. The predicted curves for various #ange thicknesses using Eqs. (19) and
D
(21) are very similar * all being almost linear in the entire range * indicating that b/(t R) is the
D
main parameter with respect to #ange sagging. Fig. 6 also shows suck-in of the tensile #ange of
single-chamber (SC) sections. All the theoretical curves are almost linear up to deformations of
about 6% of the height (w /h), with the group of curves based on Eqs. (19) and (21) drifting

gradually away from the initially straight line at larger distortions. The non-linear behaviour is
mainly a result of unloading of bending stresses as the #ange moves closer to the neutral axis of the
cross-section. Like for the DC pro"les, the predicted curves for di!erent #ange thickness merge
almost perfectly, meaning that the quantity b/(t R) is still valid as the most important bendability
D
parameter with respect to #ange sagging for this pro"le type. For all practical purposes, the simple
Fig. 6. Calculated and measured suck-in of external tensile #ange: (left) DC sections; (right) SC sections.
linearized model in Eq. (21) gives a su$ciently accurate estimate if the suck-in depth is less than
10% of the cross-section's height.
The agreement between theoretical and experimental results is good in the initial linear range.
However, the analytical models systematically overestimate the distortions for SC sections where
w /h'0.05. Recalling the experiments presented in Part I, localized deformations developed in
Q
the form of one deep post-buckling wave at each end for some of the SC sections. This unloading of
stresses will reduce the applied bending moment and hence the deformations in the centre of the
bend. In turn, this will cause the inner #ange to constrain the web and thereby reduce the
deformation in the centre of the external (tensile) #ange too. Therefore, the present interaction
between individual cross-sectional members may explain why the predicted distortion of the
external #ange is somewhat conservative at tight bending radii * even when taking into account
unloading of the #ange as done in Eqs. (19) and (20).
Comparing the DC section (left-hand graphs) and the SC section (right-hand graphs) in Fig. 6,
it may be observed that the latter is slightly steeper at small deformations. This means that the
constrain constants ( to ( in Eq. (21) give a relatively more #exible #ange due to di!erent web

constraints; the #ange of the SC section is inelastically built-in along both edges, whereas that of
the DC section is inelastically built-in along one edge and completely "xed along the edge
connected to the centre web. The same tendency is observed in the experiment, though less obvious
due to larger scatter.
Summarizing the above "ndings, the maximum deformation of a #ange that is primarily
subjected to tension can be represented by a relation on the form w /hJb/(t R). This expression
D
contains the leading terms in Eq. (21). The remaining parts of Eq. (21) represents the instantaneous,
inelastic constraint conditions along the edges of the #ange.
The model suggests that the strain-hardening coe$cient of the material is a secondary para-
meter. This is exampli"ed in Fig. 7, comparing the suck-in depths of a single chambered section in
tempers T1 and T6, showing that the theoretical and experimental results merge perfectly together
up to deformations less than 5% of the section's height. Comparing the theoretical and the
experimental results for the T1 pro"le, the model seems to somewhat overestimate deformations
larger than 5% of the height. For the T6 pro"les, on the other hand, the experimental results are
gradually drifting away from the theoretical prediction if the distortions become larger than about
10% of the depth of the cross section. This discrepancy is caused by excessive concentration of
buckling deformations in the centre of the inner #ange, interacting with the local deformation of the
outer (tensile) #ange. In this connection, it should be recalled that the analytical model is based on
the assumption of a constant suck-in along the bend as well as a constant local bending moment
over the web. It is clear that the validity of such an assumption becomes questionable if
post-buckling deformations localize at the inner #ange, causing varying local restraining moments
along the #ange}web transition which interact with the suck-in of the external #ange. For some of
those sections, the deformations started to localize already at distortions larger than 2% of the
sections height. Therefore, a further validation of the rest of the T6 sections was not performed.
3.3. Buckling wave depth of the compressive yange
The maximum buckling wave depth w /b of the inner #ange is shown for the DC sections in

Fig. 8. The thick-lined curves represent the suck-in depth (w /b) prior to buckling and after
Q
Fig. 7. Calculated and measured suck-in depths of a 2.5 mm single-chambered section (SC) in temper T1 and T6.
Fig. 8. Calculated and measured buckling wave depth (maximum) of the internal compressive #ange: (left) DC sections;
(right) SC sections.
buckling they represents the post-buckling depth (w /b) added to the suck-in depth at the onset of
@
buckling. Prior to buckling, the model predicts a strongly non-linear relationship between the
normalized wave depth (w /b) and the &post-buckling parameter' (h/(nR) in Eq. (35), shifting into
@
a more linear relationship after local buckling occurs. It appears that the measured post-buckling
deformations follow the suck-in depth (thin lined curves), even if the experiments indicated
half-waves developing. This agreement is very prominent in the case of the high hardening T1
sections. Due to excessive localization of deformation at an early stage of bending, the results for
the T6 material have been excluded, since the analytical model does not include localization e!ects.
The corresponding results for a single chamber section are also shown in the right-hand graph in
Fig. 8. Again, the model predicts a non-linear relationship between the deformation depth and the
sagging parameter in the initial range. Unlike the double chamber sections, the predicted results
coincide well with the experimental results, not only in the pre-buckling phase, but also as the
deformation increases well into the post-buckling range. An exception is, however, observed for the
3 mm thick section. This behaves more similar to the compact DC sections, following the suck-in
model far into the post-buckling range. Recalling the deformation pattern observed for this section
in the experimental program in Part I, one major concave wave was observed. Smaller waves
overlaying the major wave was observed, however, they were smoothened out far into the
post-buckling range. Comparing the analytical result with the experimental behaviour in Fig. 8, the
two curves for the 3 mm SC section merge almost perfectly, indicating that for thick-walled
sections the suck-in depth is the major deformation mode.
The present investigation has shown that the post-buckling depth increases faster than the more
uniform pre-deformations, especially for the more slender sections. This agrees with observations
made by Kyriakides and Ju [15], who reported that buckling causes localised deformation for
thin-walled tubes, whereas thicker tubes are more likely to collapse due to ovalization. In this
connection, it could be added that strain hardening seems to make the di!erence between the
collapse behaviour of thin walled and thick walled sections even more prominent.
Noticing that the predicted curves for the compressive #ange in Fig. 7 follow those of the tensile
#ange in the beginning, becoming linear after the onset of buckling, it is suggested that the
parameter b(h/(nR) has been identi"ed as the main in#uential parameter with respect to the
post-buckling wave depth.
3.4. Parameter study
In industrial practice, for example, variation in cross-sectional distortions due to variation in

pro"le geometry before forming is more critical to process robustness and dimensional tolerances
than the magnitude of the distortions itself. It could therefore be of interest to study the relative
e!ect of each parameter (height, width, thickness, hardening and anisotropy) on local distortions of
hollow sections in bending.
In Fig. 9 (left-hand side), the e!ect of a 10% change in the considered parameters on the buckling
wave depth is illustrated, assuming a nominal 2.5 mm thick SC section in temper T1 as reference.
It seems obvious that the width of one chamber of the cross-section has the larger e!ect, followed
by height, material strain hardening and thickness. Comparing the e!ects of strain hardening and
thickness, the former is relatively more important the more slender the cross-section. It is also
worth noting that planar plastic anisotropy is found to be of minor importance with respect
buckling depth.
The suck-in depth shown in the right-hand graph appears to be relatively more sensitive to the
same variation in the considered parameters than the buckling wave depth; for example, a 10%
#ange width reduction gives 20}30% reduction in de#ection. Thickness and height are also
Fig. 9. Normalised maximum de#ection for a 10% reduction in respectively height, width, thickness, hardening and
planar anisotropy using a nominal section with h"37.5 mm, b"77.5 mm, t "t "2.5 mm, n"0.15 and a"1.0 as
D U
reference: (left) buckling wave depth; (right) suck-in depth.
important in#uential parameters with respect to suck-in of the tensile #ange, though both
parameters are less important than the #ange width. Unlike the situation for the post-buckling
deformations, anisotropy is a more relevant material parameter than strain hardening. Considering
industrial bending operations, it may be mentioned that wall thickness and material properties are
the parameters that are di$cult to control.
According to Fig. 10, the suck-in prior to buckling generally reduces the bend radius at the onset
of buckling for metals (n)0.5). However, the e!ect is only signi"cant for relatively shallow sections
with depth-to-thickness ratios (h/t ) less than about 10. Because the curves in Fig. 10 are based on
D
b/h ratios ranging from 1.0 to 2.0, it is suggested that pre-deformations are only of primary
importance to cross-sections with extreme (h/t ) ratios. From a calculation point of view, this
D
means that the onset of #ange buckling in bending can usually be decoupled from the more
involved local deformation problem. The explanation for this is that the pre-deformation at the
instant of buckling gives rise to a very small local transverse curvature over the width of the #ange,
which would reduce the buckling stress if considered separately. At the same time, however, this
local deformation causes a minor reduction in the longitudinal bending stress. Each of these two
e!ects seems to be small, which seems to cancel out the former e!ect.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, analytical models have been developed to better understand the e!ect of various
parameters on cross-sectional deformations in bending. The models are based on the energy
method using shape functions that satisfy the boundary conditions.
Fig. 10. Correction factor (!) for bending radius at the onset of buckling versus the height-to-thickness ratio (h/t ) for
D
two di!erent strain hardening parameters (n), representing the extreme values for most metals.
Based upon the present investigation, the following conclusions can be drawn:
E The developed models have proven to incorporate the primary bendability parameters, being
capable of quantifying the importance of each parameter in the more challenging "elds asso-
ciated with industrial bending operations, including suck-in type of tensile members, onset of
buckling and buckling type post-deformations of compressive members.
E The models have been made available to the practical engineering community by expressing the
di!erent individual parameters in terms of representative bendability parameters as follows:
(sagging:) bh/(t R); (onset of buckling:) h(b/t ); (post-buckling:) b(h/(nR).
D D
E De#ections of individual cross-sectional members developing prior to and after buckling are
most e!ectively reduced by decreasing the #ange width.
E The cross-sectional deformations taking place at an early stage of bending are found to have
minor impact on the onset of buckling as well as the deformation of the compressive #ange
subsequent to buckling.
E Close interaction between deformations of the inner and outer #ange occur at tight bending radii
in cases where strain hardening is low, especially if the #anges are compact.
E Finally, the analytical models developed herein have proven to provide results in good accord-
ance with experiments.
Acknowledgements
The "nancial support of Hydro Raufoss Automotive Research Centre and the Norwegian
Research Council is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Hill R. The mathematical theory of plasticity. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, 1950.
[2] Rivlin RS. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1950;23:421.
[3] Ades CS. Bending strength of tubing in the plastic range. Journal of Aerosol Science 1957;24:605.
[4] Gellin S. The plastic buckling of long tubes under combined bending and pressure loads. International Journal of
Solids and Structures 1980;10:397.
[5] Fabian O. Elastic}plastic collapse of long tubes under combined bending and pressure loads. Ocean Engineering
1981;8:295.
[6] Shaw PK, Kyriakides S. Inelastic analysis of thin-walled tubes under cyclic bending. International Journal of Solids
and Structures 1985;21:1073.
[7] Reid SR, Yu TX, Yang JL. Hardening-softening behaviour of circular pipes under bending and tension.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 1994;36:1073.
[8] Welo T, Paulsen F. The in#uence of anisotropy and b/t ratio on #ange sagging in stretch bending. Proceedings of
the Seventh Nordic Seminar on Computer and Mechanics, Trondheim, 1994.
[9] Welo T, Paulsen F. Bending of aluminium extrusions, Technical Report, SINTEF Materials Technology,
Trondheim, 1995.
[10] Shanley FR. Inelastic column theory. Journal of Aerosol Science 1947;14:261.
[11] Stowell EZ. A uni"ed theory of plastic buckling of columns and plates NACA Technology Note, 1948. p. 1556.
[12] Timoshenko SP, Gere JM. Theory of elastic stability. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
[13] Li S, Reid SR. Relationship between the elastic buckling of square tubes and rectangular plates. Journal of Applied
Mechanics 1990;57:969.
[14] Li S, Reid SR. The plastic buckling of axially compressed square tubes. Journal of Applied Mechanics 1992;59:276.
[15] Kyriakides S, Ju GT. Bifurcation and localization instabilities in cylindrical shells under bending * I. Experiments.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 1992;29:1117.
[16] Ju GT, Kyriakides S. Bifurcation and localization instabilities in cylindrical shells under bending * II. Predictions.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 1992;29:1143.
[17] Corona E, Vaze SP. Buckling of elastic}plastic square tubes under bending. International Journal of Mechanical
Sciences 1996;38:753.
[18] Paulsen F, Welo T. Application of numerical simulation in the bending of aluminium-alloy pro"les. Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 1996;58:274.
[19] Hencky H. Zeitschrift fuer Angewandte Mathematik und Physik 1924;4:323.
[20] Ilyushin AA. The elasto-plastic stability of plates. Transl. NACA Tech. Memo.
[21] Welo T. Bending of aluminium extrusions for automotive applications: a commentary on theoretical and practical
aspects. In: Werner RI, editor. Proceedings of the Sixth International Aluminium Extrusion Technical Seminar,
Chicago, 1996.
[22] Lubliner J. Plasticity theory. New York: MacMillan, 1990.
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Cross-sectional deformations of rectangular hollow sections in

Article in International Journal of Mechanical Sciences · January 2001

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Cross-sectional deformations of rectangular hollow sections

In bending of hollow sections, cross-sectional deformations take place immediately after an

understanding of the governing mechanisms controlling cross-sectional deformations. The experi-

2.1. General remarks

2.2. Constitutive description

2.3. Variation principle

de "de !zdi . (4)

2.4. Local moment}curvature and rotational stiwness relations

e #e "zi (7)

Fig. 1. Overview of the system used to describe local deformations in bending.

Fig. 2. Coordinate system for local deformations in bending.

local curvature and the moment in the transverse direction yields

2.5. Shape functions and boundary conditions for a deforming yange

2.6. Suck-in type pre-buckling deformations

2.7. Onset of buckling

2.8. Ewect of pre-deformations on the onset of buckling

2.9. Buckling depth

3. Results and validation

3.1. Onset of buckling

3.2. Suck-in of the tensile yange

3.3. Buckling wave depth of the compressive yange

3.4. Parameter study

In industrial practice, for example, variation in cross-sectional distortions due to variation in

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de "de !zdi . (4)

e #e "zi (7)