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Airlift reactors: Applications in wastewater treatment

Article in Environmental engineering and management journal · January 2012

DOI: 10.30638/eemj.2012.189

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Environmental Engineering and Management Journal August 2012, Vol.11, No. 8, 1505-1515
http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/

“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania

AIRLIFT REACTORS: APPLICATIONS IN WASTEWATER

TREATMENT

Petronela Cozma, Maria Gavrilescu

“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, Department of
Environmental Engineering and Management, 73 Prof. Dr. Doc. D. Mangeron Street, 700050 Iasi, Romania

Abstract

The excessive release of pollutants in the environment leads to the development of several processes and equipments for
treatment of compounds with impact on the environment and human health. Airlift reactors (ALRs) proved to be efficient
alternatives devices against conventional system (stirred tank, bubble column contactors) for the remediation of several
contaminated media, even more because their applications range from synthesis of chemicals, culture of plant and animal cells,
production of microalgae, treatment of wastewater, flue gas, contaminated soils.
This paper analyses the applications and some performances of ALRs for wastewater treatment, addressing the influence of
hydrodynamics, reactor geometry, design and configuration on the pollutants removal efficiency and energy saving. The specific
characteristics of internal and external loop airlifts are discriminated for some wastewater treatment processes. The analysis
reveals that ALRs are feasible alternatives as wastewater treatment systems due to some significant advantages such as: simple
design and construction, no moving part, good mixing, low energy requirements, low operation cost, low contamination risk, no
heat generation, easy sterilization, and low shear stress to cells. Moreover, these systems are effective for physical, chemical,
electrochemical, and biological wastewater treatment. Finally, some aspects regarding the performances of ALRs compared to
STRs and BCs in pollutants removal are included.

Key words: biodesulfurization biological treatment, hydrodynamics, microorganisms, pneumatic reactor, sludge

Received: November, 2011; Revised final: June, 2012; Accepted: June, 2012

1. Introduction capability to maintain sterility, low contamination risk

Pneumatic reactors are gas-liquid or gas-
liquid-solid contacting devices that are increasingly
being applied in chemical industry, biochemical
fermentation, biotechnology industries, since they
proved to be flexible and able to ensure high
momentum, mass and heat transfer processes during
specific applications (Abashar, 2002; Choi, 2001;
Gavrilescu and Tudose, 1998 a, b).
In particular, these contactors have been
widely attractive in biotechnology (culture of plant
and animal cells, growth of shear sensitive cells,
production of microalgae, wastewater treatment),
because of their relatively low power consumption for
agitation and oxygenation, low shear stress to cells,
(Gourich et al., 2005).
Pneumatic reactors are grouped according to
several criteria, but two main categories are
extensively been considered by scientist for various
experimental studies and applications: bubble column
(BC) and airlift reactor (ALR). They essentially
consist in a cylindrical or rectangular vessel with a
gas distributor at the inlet, usually without mechanical
moving parts (Huang and McDonald, 2009). The only
energy input needed is to inject the aeration gas
through a simple sparging system (Brenner et al.,
1997; Gavrilescu and Roman, 1994; Gavrilescu and
Tudose, 1996). ALRs are considered as feasible and
sustainable alternatives for stirred tank reactors
(STRs), particularly for numerous bioprocesses such


Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed: mgav@ch.tuiasi.ro
 Cozma and Gavrilescu/Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 11 (2012), 8, 1505-1515
as plant and animal cells cultures, but also for the
treatment of contaminated fluid fluxes (wastewater,
flue gases) (Benyahia and Jones, 1997; Choi, 2007;
Cozma and Gavrilescu, 2010; Olivieri et al., 2003).
Furthermore they have already demonstrated real
advantages over other pneumatic contactors: defined
flow patterns, flexibility during exploitation, good
mixing and high efficiency of homogenization, low
energy requirements, low operation cost, no heat
generation, easy sterilization and low contamination
risks, and low shear stress to cells (Bentifraouine et
al., 1997; Chisti, 1989; Choi, 2007; Cozma and
Gavrilescu, 2010; Gourich et al., 2005). In addition,
due to their flexibility and particular hydrodynamics
characteristics, ALRs can offer better mass and heat
transfer, improved mixing performances, and
enhanced ability for handling suspension of solids
compared with BCs (Choi, 2007; Filipkowska, 2004;
Huang and McDonald, 2009; Olivieri et al., 2003).
During time, the application of ALRs on
industrial scale has been limited by the lack of some
data necessary for a proper design, construction,
operation and scale-up as well as of reliable models
and empirical correlations, able of predicting key
operational parameters in different design type of
ALRs and operating conditions (Benyahia and Jones,
1997; Cozma and Gavrilescu, 2010; Gavrilescu and
Roman, 1998). This is a consequence of the high
complexity of the hydrodynamic behaviour of both
gaseous and liquid phases. Although numerous
studies continue to deal with aspects addressing mass
transfer and hydrodynamics in ALRs so as to fill the
existing gaps, a special attention is also given to the
applicative side of research. Moreover recent
developments show an enlargement of the application
areas of ALRs in environmental protection and
remediation, in particular biological and advanced
wastewater treatment (Essadiki et al., 2008; Kennes et
al., 2009; Lee and Lee, 2002; Morales-Barrera and
Cristiani-Urbina, 2006).
The goal of this paper is to gather information
about the main application of ALRs in environmental
protection, in particular for wastewater treatment,
focusing on the influence of hydrodynamics, reactor
geometry and design on reactor performances related
to treatment efficiency.
2. Airlift reactors: short characterization
Airlift reactors are well known as
pneumatically contactors where the circulation is
induced by a stream of air or other gases, injected
through a gas sparger usually located at the base of
the riser, being a consequence of the net densities
differences which results between the two main
zones: riser and downcomer (Merchuk and Gluz,
2003). The driving force, based on the hydrostatic
pressure differences, generates the defined and
particular flow pattern as a loop circulation, whose
characteristics are highly dependent on physico-
chemical properties of the contacted phases (density,
concentration, viscosity); reactor geometry
1506
(downcomer to riser cross sectional area ratio, AD/AR,
liquid height, working volume); operating parameters
(gas superficial velocity, liquid velocity, gas holdup).
Static (porous plate, perforated plate or perforated
pipes) and dynamic (Venturi, injector, ejector
systems) gas distributors can be exploited to perform
and enhance the gas phase dispersion although some
studies show that the role of gas sparger configuration
in ALRs is less relevant than in BCs due to the
specific circulation of the disperse system
(Gavrilescu, 1997; Šijački et al., 2010).
Based on their configurations, ALRs are
usually grouped in two main classes: internal and
external loop, depending on the position of the
recirculation zone against the main sparged column
(Choi, 2001; Gavrilescu, 1997; Gavrilescu and
Tudose, 1997a,b,c) (Fig. 1). In addition, the specific
configuration of ALRs allows for the development of
four regions with different flow patterns: the riser or
upflow zone, the downcomer or recirculation zone,
the base or mixing zone and the gas-liquid separator
or top zone (Cozma and Gavrilescu, 2010;
Gavrilescu, 1997; Merchuk and Gluz, 2003).
The optimum design and scale up of ALRs is
based on a deep analysis of the process, material and
geometrical parameters (hydrodynamic parameters,
e.g. gas hold up, liquid circulation velocity, mixing
time; mass transfer characteristics; some properties of
the heterogeneous system; reactor geometry)
(Bentifraouine et al., 1997; Cozma and Gavrilescu,
2010; Freitas and Teixeira, 1998; Gavrilescu and
Tudose, 1998a, b). The analysis is further
complicated, since the specific regions of ALRs
(riser, downcomer, gas separator) have different flow
patterns and therefore dissimilar hydrodynamic
characteristics. From these reasons, dependences and
correlations among gas holdup, liquid circulation
velocity, liquid mixing and gas-liquid mass transfer,
the operation and design variables have to be
developed and validated, taking into account both
each section of ALRs and the reactor as a whole
(Cozma and Gavrilescu, 2010; Dolgoš et al., 2001;
Freitas and Teixeira, 1998; Gavrilescu and Tudose,
1997b,c).
Despite of their flexibility, the application of
ALR at larger scales remains limited due to the lack
of reliable models able to predict key operational
parameters (liquid circulation velocity, mixing
intensity) when a range of different geometries and
operating conditions is addressed (Bentifraouine et
al., 1997; Cozma and Gavrilescu, 2010; Gavrilescu et
al., 2008; Gavrilescu and Chisti, 2005; Klein et al.,
2001). Some existing equations are valid for specific
equipment and gas-liquid systems preponderantly.
3. Application of airlift reactors in environmental
remediation
Airlift reactors have found applications in
processes where their features lead to advantages
comparative to other types of reactors (Gavrilescu et
al., 2008; Klein et al., 2001).
 Airlift reactors: applications in wastewater treatment
Gas-in
Gas-in
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Pneumatic contactors types
(a) bubble column; b) split internal loop ALR; c) concentric draught-tube internal loop; (d) external-loop ALR
In the last decades the development of
chemical, petrochemical, agro-chemical industries
leads to a considerable growth of production and
release into the environment of various hazardous
organic chemicals and inorganic contaminants, which
strongly affect the environment and human health
quality (Aksu, 2005). Consequently, many progresses
and developments have been achieved during recent
years to diminish the impacts of contamination of
various environmental media, by appropriate
physical, chemical and biological processes system
(Farhadian et al., 2008). In this circumstance,
numerous studies on treatment technologies based on
sorption/biosorption, biofilm-mediated
bioremediation, suspended microorganism processes
emphasized the significant advantages of ALRs
applications in removal of various pollutants from
contaminated fluid (wastewater and gaseous) streams
(Nikakhtari and Hill, 2008; Vergara-Fernández et al.,
2008; Vunjak-Novakovic et al., 2005).
According to Mohanty et al. (2008), the
adsorption process better occurs in ALR than in
packet bed, fluidized bed and moving beds reactors,
considering the removal efficiency of pollutants. In
addition, Filipkowska (2004) underlined that the
reactor configuration and hydraulic conditions
represent important keys parameters for the
enhancement of adsorption efficiency.
Biofilm airlift suspension (BAS) reactor
represents a suitable technology for aerobic treatment
of recalcitrant pollutants in ALRs since they are able
to maintain a high active biomass concentration for
immobilization and high rates of pollutants removal
by biosorption, bioaccumulation and
biomineralization (Lopes et al., 1998; Singh et al.,
2006).
The specific characteristics of external loop
airlifts (Freitas et al., 2008; Gavrilescu and Tudose,
1997b; Gavrilescu et al., 2008): efficiency of gas
phase release at the top of the reactor, the control of
the liquid circulation in the downcomer, no zones of
irregular flow at the top and the bottom, efficient heat
and mass transfer, make them more attractive than
Gas-in
Gas-in
(c) (d)
internal airlift reactors for some processes where high
mass and heat transfer efficiencies are required for the
cultivation of cells when liquids with high viscosity
may result (Cozma and Gavrilescu, 2010; Jin et al.,
2001). On the other side, where good mixing is
essential for some processes to enhance the reaction
rates and decrease side reactions, caused by non-
uniform concentrations, internal loop airlifts are
preferred (Behin, 2010; Gavrilescu and Tudose, 1998
c,d,e).
Bibliographic surveys showed that designs
configuration, operational aspects and hydrodynamics
characteristics of ALRs have significant role on the
pollutants removal from contaminated media and on
the reactor performances. In both cases, geometric
flexibility is a promising way to improve reactor
performance.
From these reasons it is opportune to reveal
and discuss the individual applications of internal and
external airlift loop reactors in wastewater treatment,
together with the advantages and/or disadvantages of
various configurations, geometries, design and
operational aspects as well as the pollutants removal
efficiency from contaminated media.
4. Applications of airlift reactors in wastewater
treatment
The majority of wastewater produced by
various activities (industrial, municipal etc.) can be
successfully treated in airlift reactors, with suitable
control and analysis of the environment. Both
physico-chemical and biological process can assist
the processes occurring in airlifts.
The application of airlift reactors for
wastewater treatment addresses usually the
conventional biological treatment (activated sludge,
biofilm systems), but they are increasingly applied for
advanced wastewater treatment (tertiary stage):
nitrification-denitrification (Guo et al., 2005; Jianping
et al., 2005), biological oxidation (Jianping et al.,
2005; Pang et al., 2009), biodegradation of some
refractory organic compounds (Liu et al., 2007; Liu et
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 Cozma and Gavrilescu/Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 11 (2012), 8, 1505-1515

al., 2008; Mohanty et al., 2008), electrocoagulation,
electrofloculation (Balla et al., 2010; Essadki et al.,
2008). Many reported research on ALR applications
for wastewater treatment proved the high interest for
accounting their feasibility and availability as
alternatives for the conventional systems (stirred tank
and bubble column contactors). Table 1 summarizes
the main performances of ALR compared with BC
and STR applied in wastewater treatment. As can be
noticed, the ALR proved to have better performance
in terms of removal efficiencies (RE%) compared
with STR and about the same or better values of RE%
compared with BC, using different conditions and
concentrations of pollutant (for instance, the RE% of
phenol from wastewater was 99% in ALR and 98.7%
in BC; the Cr (VI) RE from wastewater was 100% in
ALR and 60% in STR).
While the basic features of ALR proved to fit
well with the needs of the conventional wastewater
treatment process, some problems can arise during
advanced treatment processes. In order to increase the
treatment efficiency, airlift systems are able to be
combined with other alternatives (multistage ALR
with biofilm carriers, sequencing batch bioreactor,
biofilm system, membrane bioreactor, ultrasonic
reactor, oxidation ditch, photobioreactor,
electrocoagulation/ electrochemical systems etc.).
Since different approaches and performances are
often reported for internal and external loop airlift
reactors respectively, the analysis below discriminates
between the two basic types of ALRs, applied for
some conventional and advanced wastewater
treatment processes in terms of their specific
behaviour considering hydrodynamics and mass
transfer (Merchuk and Gluz, 2003).
4.1. Wastewater treatment in internal airlift reactor
(IALR)
Geometric suppleness of internal airlift
reactors (IALRs) is always a promising way to
improve reactor effectiveness. The draft-tube
configuration and geometry can contribute to liquid
mixing improvement and bubble coalescence
decreasing as well as a mildness and uniformity of
turbulence in a defined cyclic pattern through one or
multiple loops (Gavrilescu and Tudose, 1999a,b; Wei
et al., 2000).
The influence of some design and operational
parameters on the hydrodynamics and oxygen transfer
characteristics of the draft-tube airlift bioreactors
have been outlined in numerous other applications.
Aerobic/anaerobic integrated biodegradation can be
also applied in IALR in a combination of aerobic
activated sludge suspended in the liquid bulk and
solid carriers where anaerobic microorganisms are
attached within the carrier core. This integrated
system was successfully applied to the treatment of
phenolic wastewater (Chakraborty and Veeramani,
2005; Zhao et al., 2009).
Studies showed that IALR demonstrate good
performances in aerobic degradation of phenol due to
the high gas-liquid and liquid-solid mass transfer rates
which also promote the activity of the
microorganisms and the biodegradation rate (Zhao et
al., 2009).

Table 1. Performances of ALRs applications in the wastewater treatment compared with BCs and STRs

Reactor type Pollutant Method IC RE % References

Wastewater treatment
0-0.21 initial stage
Anaerobic/aerobic
IALR Phenol 0.26-1.47 rising stage  99% Mohanty et al. (2008)
biodegradation
1.47 stable stage
Biodegradation using
Ruiz-Ordaz et al.
Multistage BC Phenol culture of Candida 9,000 mg/L  98.7%
(2001)
tropicalis
Multistage Adsorption using
Phenol 10, 25, 50, 100 mg/L 95 % Mohanty et al. (2008)
EALR activated carbon
Adsorption using 40, 60, 80, and 100 99, 97, 94,
Multistage BC Phenol Kumar et al. (2010)
activated carbon mg/L and 85%
Morales-Barrera and
Concentric-tube Biodegradation using T.
Cr(VI) 1.3 and 1.6 mM Cr(VI) 100% Cristiani-Urbina
ALR Viride
(2006)
Morales-Barrera and
Biodegradation using T.
STR Cr(VI) 1.5 mM 60% Cristiani-Urbina
Viride
(2006)
Degradation by O3 and
Ultrasonic ALR Dimethoate 20 mg/L 80% Liu et al. (2008)
ultrasound
Nitrogen 100 mg/L NH3-N 92% NH3-N
Nitrification and
Biofilm ALR (NH3-N, 100 mg/L NO3-N 82% TN Guo et al. (2005)
denitrification
NO3-N) 800 mg/L COD 97% COD
98.6 %
Nitrogen 127.9 mg/L NO3-N
BC Microalgae nitrogen NO3-N
(NO3-N, Lee and Lee (2002)
Photobioreactor treatment 81.1 %
NH4-N) 129.6 mg/L NH4-N
NH4-N
IC – initial concentration; RE – removal efficiency

1508
 Airlift reactors: applications in wastewater treatment
Microbial acclimation in the integrated system
is faster than in a conventional one, so that high
values of COD (3700 mg/L) are reduced to 400 mg/L
with an efficiency over 99% and a residence time of
24h (Zhao et al., 2009).
Biodesulfurization of wastewater from oil
industry is a complex process that can be carried out
successfully in airlift reactors with internal
recirculation, when reactor design and process
parameters could ensure sufficient supply of oxygen,
large height-to-diameter ratio, low shear stress to the
cells. Some studies found that gas hold up in the riser
and downcomer (εGr, εGd), gas hold up (εG),
downcomer liquid velocity (ULd), mixing time (tm),
and overall volumetric oxygen transfer coefficient
(kLa) increase with draft-tube cross-sectional area
increase. In addition, εGr, εGd, εG, tm, kLa decrease with
increasing of top section to vessel cross-sectional area
and top clearance ratio values (Gavrilescu and
Tudose, 1998c,d,e; Mehrnia et al., 2004). Moreover,
the authors underline that, for the enhancement of
mixing and oxygen transfer needed in
biodesulfurization process that use aerobic
microorganism, an increase of draft-tube height and
surface area is more efficient than an increase in top-
section surface area. Therefore the design and scale-
up of the airlift bioreactors for the wastewater
biodesulfurization process have to take into account
the influence of geometrical characteristics on the
bioreactor performances. This is especially important
as, in this process microemulsions are involved,
which make difficult the separation of hydrocarbon
and water phases (Soleimani et al., 2007).
A combination of the internal-loop airlift
reactor with an ultrasonic generator was successfully
applied for degradation of refractory compounds,
such as tetraphenylporphine tetrasulfonic acid
(TPPS), organophosphorus pesticides like dimethoate,
dyes etc. (Liu et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2008; Yasuda et
al., 2001). The oxidative degradation process occurs
in a facile manner, because a synergistic effect among
hydrodynamics, mass transfer characteristics and
ultrasonic intensity was reported. The intensification
effect of ultrasonic waves on hydrodynamics and
mass transfer characteristics in IALR was considered
beneficial for wastewater treatment containing
various compounds (minerals, refractory organic
compounds) (Han et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2007; Liu et
al., 2008; Yasuda et al., 2001). The experimental
studies performed by Han et al. (2005) showed that
ultrasounds has the tendency to decrease gradually the
liquid circulation velocity, but has a favorable effect
on mass transfer enhancement. The authors concluded
that there exist an optimal ultrasonic intensity for
hydrodynamics and mass transfer. The potential of an
airlift ultrasonic reactor (bubble column with draft
tube and ultrasonic oscillator) for treatment of
wastewater which contained TPPS tested by Yasuda
et al. (2001) has been exploited as a result of an
increase of apparent reaction rate with increasing of
gas hold up and liquid velocity. The authors
emphasize the influence of the distribution of gas
inside of draft tube and into the annulus between
column and draft tube and gas velocity coupled with
ultrasounds on the treatment efficiency and on
apparent reaction rate. During dimethoate oxidative
degradation assisted by O3, more energy was
provided to the reaction system, while mixing was
improved (Liu et al., 2008). This combination, where
the operational parameters specific to the airlift
system are improved due to ultrasounds, is
characterized by safety, economy and high efficiency
(Liu et al., 2008). Printing and dyeing wastewaters
were treated in an ultrasonic airlift reactor (Liu et al.,
2007), comparative to sonochemical process. High
gas-liquid mass transfer rates were obtained. Under
optimum operating conditions (gas superficial
velocity and ultrasonic intensity), the decoloration
rate and COD removal increased to 74.8% and 35.6%,
respectively (Liu et al., 2007).
The flow characteristics and wastewater
treatment performances of a pilot scale airlift
oxidation ditch operated in a wastewater treatment
plant was studied by Pang et al. (2009) comparative
to the conventional oxidation ditch process. They
found that the energy consumption was significantly
reduced with 55% comparative to the conventional
system. Furthermore the land area was reduced with
25-50% due to the lower velocity required for flow
and mixing in the ALR. In order to maintain the solid
in suspension and prevent sludge sedimentation, a
velocity more than 0.2 m/s at the bottom was
recommended. Finally chemical oxygen demand
(COD), NH4+–N, and total nitrogen (TN) was
successfully diminished in the airlift oxidation ditch.
The compounds containing nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P) in wastewaters, often responsible for
oxygen depletion and eutrophication of water bodies
(lakes and rivers), can be removed using treatment
systems, which may include internal airlift reactors.
A two-stage biological process with
nitrification and denitrification can exploit the
flexibility of IALR in order to create different zones
in reactor (aerobic, buffering, anoxic) in a compact
arrangement. Recent studies show that the integration
of these two stages can be done optimally in airlift
bioreactors with the growing microorganisms
attached on solid supports as biofilm (Akhbari et al.,
2011). Also reactor performance, microbial
morphology and effects of halophilic conditions and
variations in osmotic pressure might be easily
controlled (Jin et al., 2007).
The airlift configuration can be adapted so as
to enhance the performances relative to average
characteristics of wastewater and operational
parameters. For example, biodegradable
biocompounds used as biofilm carriers in biofilm
airlift suspension (BAS) reactor with simultaneous
nitrification/denitrification allow the system to dually
operate both with covered biodegradable carriers and
activated sludge, when there are low values of
COD:N ratio (Walters et al., 2009). Also, large-scale
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 Cozma and Gavrilescu/Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 11 (2012), 8, 1505-1515
multiple draft-tubes loop bioreactors with a low ratio
of height to diameter proved to be feasible for treating
ammonia nitrogen wastewater of chemical fertilizer
plants, since they can avoid the excess of capital costs
for construction and power consumption, usually
requested by the systems with high values of this ratio
(Jianping et al., 2005).
It is obvious that several aspects referring to
system design, oxygen availability, and utilization of
carbon sources were considered by scientists for
nitrification-denitrification process optimization.
Accounting for the effects of ALR design parameters
(ratio of bed volume to bioreactor volume Vb/VR, fluid
flow, superficial gas velocity (UG), hydraulic
retention time (HRT)) on the nitrogen removal,
Jianping et al. (2005) obtained a biofilm growth on
synthetic resin particles under turbulent three-phase
flow conditions and significant NH4+-N and COD
removals. In this case ammonia nitrogen from
chemical fertilizer wastewater has been removed in a
large-scale IALR with a low ratio of height to
diameter, using synthetic resin as carriers for biofilm
development. The research was motivated by the lack
of the data on this area and by the significant
advantages of ALRs that made them suitable for
biological oxidation of ammonia. For instance, at
values of UG less then 0.01 m s−1 the carriers inside
the bioreactor are gradually fluidized and suspended
(Jianping et al., 2005). In addition, increasing UG
value enhances the mass-transfer coefficients and
dissolved oxygen (DO). The carriers inside this
bioreactor are completely fluidized at UG of 0.01 m
s−1 and DO achieved the saturation value, that lead to
the effluent NH4+-N and COD concentration less then
10 mg L−1 and 50 mg L−1, respectively (Jianping et
al., 2005).
The airlift loop sequencing batch biofilm
reactor (SBBR) is another combination adapted for
integrating nitrification and denitrification in the same
unit (Guo et al., 2005). The airlift reactor is usually
divided into two zones: the aeration zone and the
reverse flow zone where fibrous carriers are usually
packed. The system proved to be feasible and stable,
leading to an optimal design, which could save
investments and energy costs (Zhang et al., 2006).
A relevant group of studies address the
application of internal loop airlift reactors in a
combination with submerged membranes, and such an
advantageous configuration results in terms of cost
and process efficiencies. Some of the benefits of this
combination as reflected in various studies, refer to
the flexibility of the system and the opportunity of
continuous output, performed in conditions in which
economic and environmental impacts are reduced
(Guo et al., 2005; Li et al., 2008).
4.2. Wastewater treatment in external airlift reactor
(EALR)
External-loop airlift reactors are often
designed to operate at high liquid circulation
velocities, as a consequence of almost complete liquid
1510
degassing in the gas disengagement section
(Gavrilescu and Tudose, 1998a,b; Gavrilescu et al.,
2008; Mohanty et al., 2008).
Changing the design of the separator section
allows for maximizing the overall recirculation
velocity in less costly way comparative to other
reactors with a more complex geometry (Balla et al.,
2010; Gavrilescu and Tudose, 1996; Gavrilescu and
Tudose, 1997a,b). This behaviour can also improve
mixing and heat transfer in the contactor. Therefore,
turbulent diffusion through the interface of the
bubbles is intensified as a result of successive bubble
physical rupture and reformation (Mohanty et al.,
2008). This feature has been exploited for the removal
of trace pollutants from wastewater through
adsorption, using various solid adsorbents in a
continuous process with high efficiency. Mohanty et
al. (2008) carried out adsorption studies for the
phenol removal from wastewater in a novel multi-
stage EALR using powdered activated carbon. The
enhancement of the pollutants transfer to the active
sites of activated carbon was achieved due to the
continuous pneumatically agitation.
The maximum phenol removal was achieved
at the dose of 2 g/L adsorbent, for a pH of 3.5 and a
UG of 0.0219 m/s. The authors observed an increase
of phenol removal with increasing of UG (Fig. 1) and
liquid circulation velocity. In line with Mohanty et al.
(2008), Kumar et al. (2010) observed the increases of
phenol removal with increasing of UG in a multistage
bubble column adsorber (Fig. 2). Mohanty et al.
(2008) noticed that the phenol removal reaches a
maximum value at a gas velocity of 0.0285 m/s. The
measured RE of phenol and COD were significant
(nearly 95%). According to their results, the method
of the adsorption in a multi-stage EALR is a
promising technology for treatment of phenol
wastewater.
The treatment of the recalcitrant organic
compounds can be achieved in external loop airlift
reactors by other following various pathways. Several
studies have shown the feasibility of the
biodegradation process of chlorinated solvents in
external-loop airlift bioreactors assisted by
cometabolic processes, when non-growth substrates
are biotransformed in the presence of a particular
growing substrate (Alvarez-Cohen and McCarty,
1991; Loh and Ranganath, 2005; Wang and Loh,
1999). A particular procedure was established by Loh
and Ranganath (2005) in such a system, when the
products of cometabolic biotransformation of 4-
chlorophenol achieved by Pseudomonas putida in the
presence of phenol were sorbed on granular activated
carbon.
In a similar manner, biodecolorization of
synthetic dyes from wastewater can occur in external-
loop airlift bioreactors combined with biological
activated carbon or other solids used as support for
microorganisms when high leadings of pollutants
appear (Dominguez et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2011).
Hydrodynamics were not affected significantly by the
presence of the third phase, while the bubble liquid
 Airlift reactors: applications in wastewater treatment
flow in the downcomer contributes to the diminishing
of the shear rates on the immobilized cells (Loh and
Ranganath, 2005).
Fig. 2. Effect of superficial gas velocity on phenol removal
from wastewater (adapted upon Kumar et al., 2010;
Mohanty et al., 2008)
External loop airlift reactors can operate in a
reverse mode, with fluidized bed, when solid particles
serve as support for immobilizing microorganisms
(Loh and Liu; 2001). The gas hold-up and liquid
circulation, which are important parameters for
process performance, can be controlled independently
of gas velocity, through a valve placed between riser
and downcomer.
A modified airlift reactor with an overflow
outlet pipe was performed by Navarro et al. (2008)
for the treatment of the lemon processing industry
wastewater, in a continuous system with activated
sludge. The authors studied some important
parameters of the process: mass transfer coefficient,
mixing time, hydraulic retention time, volumetric
removal capacity etc. Mixing time decreases with
increasing of superficial air velocity and mass transfer
increases with increasing of superficial air velocity.
The proposed process achieved a significant
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) removal (92%
at 200 L/h flow rate), had a good mixing performance
and an efficient volumetric mass transfer coefficient.
It was observed that increasing of air flow rate values
lead on the enhancement of the contact between the
solid and gaseous phases, also the removed BOD%
decreases with increasing of the superficial air
velocity. The authors notice that the foam disposes
easy due to the efficient reactor design.
High efficient technologies for the treatment of
domestic and municipal wastewater (characterized by
a high concentration of organic matter, suspended
solids, pathogenes), were established by combining
membranes with external-loop airlift bioreactors.
Membrane bioreactors (MBR) are preferred systems
for wastewater treatment, since they are advantageous
in wastewater treatment, resulting effluents of high
quality, free of bacteria, with low sludge production
(Fan et al., 2006; Stephenson et al., 2000). Fan et al.
(2006) applied an external circulation airlift
membrane reactor for the treatment of toilet
wastewater for reuse purposes. The system put
together the advantages of both conventional cross
flow and submerged MBRs, while the energy
consumption and operation costs are at low levels.
Moreover, the cleaning and maintenance of
membranes can be carried out on line (Fan et al.,
2006). The system proved a high stability, because of
the absence of shear stress, so that abundant biomass
can grow, with an important role for a smooth
operation. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2009) found an
almost doubling of the permeate flux in an airlift
cross-flow operation.
Based on theoretical studies, Dhamole et al.
(2009) carried out simultaneous process removal of
carbon and nitrate in an airlift bioreactor using a
sequentially adapted sludge. They assumed that
carbon removal by oxidation will take place in the
aerated zone (riser), and nitrate removal by
denitrification will occur in the anoxic zone
(downcomer and gas-liquid separator). The biomass
was maintained in suspension using a superficial
velocity of 0.017 m/s. According to their result, the
process was successfully occurring in ALR with
complete removal of COD and nitrate, which
represent an alternative for mixed reactors where the
conditions are uniform and this process could not take
place.
An external UV irradiation type airlift reactor
was applied by Kimura et al. (2004) for the
photocatalytic degradation of a nonionic surfactant
(Sanonic SS-90) in water, using TiO2 catalysts
immobilized on diatomaceous earth particles. The
authors notice that the photocatalytic degradation rate
was improved by an increase of air flow rate that
range between 0.5-2 L min-1. In addition, the uniform
suspension of TiO2 photocatalysts particles was
achieved for the gas flow rate up to 1.5 L min-1 and
UG up to 0.00345 m/s.
External loop airlift reactor proved to be
suitable as electrocoagulation/electrofloculation cells
applied for the decolorization of textile dye
wastewater (Balla et al., 2010; Essadki et al., 2008).
By changing the residence time in the separator and
combined with an optimal axial position of
electrodes, the bubble particles recirculation can be
avoided. For example, Essadki et al. (2008) replaced
the gas phase that usually is injected at the reactor
bottom with electrolytic gases, in order to achieve an
efficient overall liquid circulation and good mixing.
This way the system is operated in an efficient mode,
preventing flock break-up and erosion by
hydrodynamic shear forces (Balla et al., 2010;
Essadki et al., 2008).
The option for EALR instead of IALR is
justified because its geometry, especially design of
gas-liquid separator, which allows large distances
between riser and downcomer that lead to a complete
flotation. Therefore EALR could operate as an
electrocoagulation cell with complete flotation, by the
means of tiny bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen
generated from water electrolysis (Balla et al., 2010).
1511
 Cozma and Gavrilescu/Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 11 (2012), 8, 1505-1515
In addition, the positions of the electrodes in the
EALR can be improved as a function of
hydrodynamic parameters. The results obtained (80%
COD and color removal) confirmed that EALR is a
suitable reactor for application as electrochemical
cell. The electrocoagulation/electrofloation process
can ensure a good efficiency of water deflouridation
in an EALR, at appropriate values of pH, current
density, initial concentration of fluoride (Bennajah et
al., 2009; Essadki et al., 2009).
The reactor performance, assessed in terms of
current density and gas-liquid dispersion height
justified the choice of this type of system for a
favorable complete flotation, not possible in internal-
loop airlift reactors (Bennajah et al., 2009). Fluoride
removal could be performed at lower energy electrode
consumption levels than those reported in literature
(Bennajah et al., 2009; Essadki et al., 2009).
Moreover steady state regime can be set and predicted
based on data obtained during batch operation, as an
option toward sustainability of the system.
Taking into account the major advantages of
EALR (simple construction, high aeration, efficient
mixing), Jin et al. (2001) applied this reactor type for
the production of fungal biomass protein and
wastewater treatment using starch processing
wastewater. According to their results, a high fungal
biomass productivity was achieved (8-8.5 g dm-3
fungal biomass) and 95% COD was obtained in the
EALR. The authors confirmed that EALRs are more
suitable devices for the cultivation of fungi compared
with IALRs. According to Jin et al. (2006), ALRs are
suitable devices for the activated sludge process due
to the efficient oxygen transfer rate and aeration that
provide the suspension of flocs, minimization of
excess sludge production, high biomass concentration
and mass transfer area.
The authors investigated the hydrodynamics
(gas hold up, liquid circulation velocity) and mass
transfer coefficient in three-phase IALR and EALR
containing activated sludge. They obtained a decrease
of liquid circulation velocity, gas holdup and the mass
transfer coefficient with increasing of the sludge
loading. In addition, the liquid circulation velocity,
gas holdup and mass transfer coefficient increased
with the superficial gas velocity. EALR provides
better performance expressed in terms of
hydrodynamic and mass transfer rate compared with
IALR.
5. Conclusions
Airlift reactors are pneumatic devices, with a
well-defined circulation of the gas-liquid-solid
heterogeneous system, which facilitate the exchange
of materials among phases and various hydrodynamic
behaviours due to a high functional and geometric
flexibility.
Both internal and external loop airlifts could
be applied alone or in combination with other systems
for wastewater treatment, which contain a wide range
of pollutants, by using physical, chemical, biological,
1512
electrochemical processes. Based on a literature
survey, ALRs are considered feasible alternative to
traditional stirred tank, bubble column and other
devices when applied to wastewater treatment. Their
design can be further modified, so as to ensure the
best hydrodynamic (in terms of bubble
disengagement from fluid and flow rates of the
contacted phases), mixing and mass transfer
conditions, specific to each reactor type.
Consequently, the energy dissipation and share rates
are limited and more uniform throughout the reactor.
Some distinctive hydrodynamic characteristics
of IALRs vs EALRs make them available for
particular application in wastewater treatment,
depending on the pollutants loadings and the imposed
treatment efficiency. This arises from the influence of
the geometric characteristics of the system on the
hydrodynamic behaviour of each phase present in the
reactor.
Although the bulk of the applications entail
laboratory or bench scale, attempts have been made to
study and apply ALRs for wastewaters treatment at
large scales.
Nomenclature
εGr – gas hold up in the riser
εGd – gas hold up in the downcomer
εG – gas hold up
ULd – downcomer liquid velocity
tm – mixing time
kLa – overall volumetric oxygen transfer coefficient
Vb/VR – bed (settled) volume to bioreactor volume
UG – superficial gas velocity
HRT – hydraulic retention time
AD/AR - downcomer to riser cross sectional area ratio
Acknowledgements
This paper was carried out with the support of EURODOC
“Doctoral Scholarships for research performance at
European level” project ID_59410, financed by the
European Social Found and Romanian Government and
Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research,
CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-
3-0559, contract 265/2011.
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