PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1  Basic qualitative research can be found throughout the other types of  Case studies often provide
out the other types of  Case studies often provide an opportunity for an investigator to
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
8 Types of Qualitative Research
1. Basic qualitative studies/interpretive research
2. Case study research
3. Content Analysis
4. Ethnographic studies
5. Grounded Theory research
6. Historical studies
7. Narrative Research
8. Phenomenological research
Basic Qualitative Studies
Also called basic interpretative studies. Provide rich descriptive accounts
targeted to understanding a phenomenon, a process, or a particular point of view
from the perspective of those involved.
 They describe and attempt to interpret experience the researcher is
interested in understanding the meaning a phenomenon has for those
involved. The central purpose of these studies is to understand the
world or the experience of another.
 The underlying question the researcher asks is "How are events,
processes, and activities are perceived by participants. Basic
interpretive studies are somewhat simplistic compared to other
qualitative approaches.
 They are not restricted to a particular phenomenon as in the case
studies.
 They don't seek to explain sociocultural aspects as in ethnography.
 They don't seek to enter the subject's conceptual world to explain the
"essence" as in phenomenological.
 They don't seek to define theory as in the grounded theory research.
 They don't convey life stories through narrative analysis, delve into
history, or focus analyzing content. These studies are, as the name
implies, basic.
 They describe and attempt to interpret experience.
 They are the most common qualitative studies, used in a variety of
disciplines including education.
Summary of Basic Qualitative Research
 Has its roots in the social sciences
 Describes and interprets a phenomenon or process
 Seeks to understand participants' point of view
 Identifies recurrent patterns or themes
 Can be based on a variety of disciplinary lenses May use a variety of
data collection techniques
qualitative research
 The focus of all qualitative research is on how meaning is
constructed, how people make sense of their lives and their worlds
 The goal of Basic Qualitative research is to uncover and interpret the
meanings
Data-collection techniques
 Interview
 Observation
 Review documents
 May draw from diverse theoretical oorientation
Many beginning qualitative researchers conduct basic interpretive studies. Such
questions as “How did teachers feel about the new curriculum?” or “What
instructional strategies do students think are engaging and why?” might be
answered in a basic qualitative study using interviewing or focus group
techniques. For example, a researcher might interview students at various high
school grade levels about their experiences in the classroom to try and
understand their perceptions on instructional techniques. By searching for
themes and patterns in the data, the researcher could attempt to answer the
question about which strategies appear to engage the students. Or the
researcher could videotape or conduct in-person observations of high school
classrooms to answer this question.
Case Study
Emerging from approaches in business, law, and medicine. The case
study provides an in-depth description of a single unit. The “unit” can be an
individual, a group, a site, a class, a policy, a program, a process, an institution,
or a community. It is a single occurrence of something that the researcher is
interested in examining.
The question is “what are the characteristics of this particular entity,
phenomenon, person, or setting?”
 Has multidisciplinary roots (business, law, medicine)
 Focuses on a single unit
 Produces an in-depth description
 Is anchored in real life
 Uses multiple data collection techniques
 Provides a rich, holistic description of context, issue time spent
examining the “unit” is important
 The greatest advantage of a case study is the possibility of depth; it
seeks to understand the whole case in the totality of the environment
not only the present actions of an individual but also his or her past,
environment, emotions, and thoughts can be probed. The researcher
tries to determine why an individual behaves as he or she does and
not merely to record behavior.
develop insight into basic aspects of human behavior.
 However, case studies need not be limited to the study of individuals.
Case studies are made of communities, institutions, and groups of
individuals. A classic case study of a community was Lynd and
Lynd’s Middletown (1929), which described life in Muncie, Indiana, a
typical average-size Midwestern city. This first study was followed by
Middletown in Transition in 1937. Another classic was Hollingshead’s
Elmtown’s Youth (1949), which studied the life of adolescents in a
small Illinois community.
 Institutions such as schools, churches, colleges, fraternal
organization, and businesses have been the focus of case studies.
Case studies have been made of groups of individuals such as gays,
drug addicts, delinquents, street gangs, migratory workers, CEOs,
medical students, teachers, and many others.
Three Types Of Case Studies
 The intrinsic case study is conducted to understand a particular case
that may be unusual, unique, or different in some way. It does not
necessarily represent other cases or a broader trait or problem for
investigation.
 An instrumental case study, the researcher selects the case because
it represents some other issue under investigation and the researcher
believes this particular case can help provide insights or help to
understand that issue.
 The multiple or collective case study uses several cases selected to
further understand and investigate a phenomenon, population, or
general condition. The researcher believes that the phenomenon is
not idiosyncratic to a single unit and studying multiple units can
provide better illumination
Data Collection
Case study may employ multiple methods of data collection and don’t rely on a
single technique.
 Testing
 Interviewing
 Observation
 Review of documents
 Artifacts
 Other methods may be used
Types of Designs
1) Single case - holistic (extreme or unique case)
2) Single case - embedded
3) Multiple - holistic (literal or theoretical replication)
4) Multiple - embedded
Content Analysis
Content analysis focuses on the characteristics of materials and ask "What
meaning is reflected in these materials?
 Has its roots in communication studies
 Uses analysis of written or visual materials
 Describes the characteristics of the materials
 Can be quantitative and qualitative
 The materials analyzed can be textbooks, newspapers, web pages,
social network sites twitter feeds, blogs, virtual worlds, speeches,
television programs, advertisements, musical compositions, or any of
a host of other types of documents.
 Widely used in education.
Purposes of Content Analysis in Educational Research
Content analysis applied to written or visual materials for the purpose
of identifying specified characteristics of materials. The materials such as
(textbooks, newspapers, web pages, social network sites, twitter feeds, blogs,
virtual worlds, speeches, television programs, advertisement, musical
compositions. etc..)
Some purposes of content analysis:
1. To identify bias, prejudice, or propaganda in textbooks.
2. To analyze types of errors in students' writings.
3. To describe prevailing practices.
4. To discover the level of difficulty of material in textbooks
or other publications.
5. To discover the relative importance of, or interest
certain topics.
Advantages
 Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence
gets at the central aspect of social interaction.
 Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
 Can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through
analysis of texts
 Allows a closeness to text which can
 Alternate between specific categories and relationships and also
statistically analyzes the coded form of the text
 Can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development
of expert
 Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions(the presence of the
observer does not influence what i being observed
Types of Content Analysis
1. Conceptual Analysis
2. Relational Analysis
Content analysis can be done in:
1. An emergent design framework
2. A quantitative research framework
 An advantage of content analysis is its unobtrusiveness. The
presence of the observer does not influence what is being observed.
You do not need to enlist the cooperation of subjects or get
permission to do the study.
 Another advantage of content analyses is that they are easily
replicated. Readers interested in further information on content
analysis should read Krippendorf's (2012)and Schreier (2012).
Disadvantages Of Content Analysis
 It is very time consuming and is subject to error
 It is dependent on interpretation of the text There is also no
theoretical base in order to create meaningful inferences and
relationships between the text.
 This methodology can be extremely difficult to automate or
computerize. Content analysis can be slow and time- consuming.
Fortunately, computers can now carry out a content analysis quickly
and accurately.
Ethnographic Studies
"What are the cultural patterns and perspectives of this group in its natural
setting?" is the underlying question addressed in ethnography.
Ethnographic studies:
 Has its roots in anthropology
 Studies the naturally occurring behavior of a group Focuses on
culture and social behavior
 Describes beliefs, values, and attitudes of a group
 Observation is the primary data collection tool
 Immersion in the site is important
 Provides a holistic description of context and cultural themes
The Ethnographic Researcher...
 Must understand the culture (in order to do that one must spend time
in the group being studied)
 Must immerse one's self the group/culture being studied
o Interviews, analysis of documents, records, and artifacts,
fieldwork diary entries, ideas, impressions, and insights in
regard to those events
Ethnography is the in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture
or entire social group. It seeks to understand the relationship between culture
and behavior, with culture referring to the shared beliefs, values, concepts,
practices, and attitudes of a specific group of people. It examines:
 What people do and interprets why they do it.
 What are the meanings of these human actions and interactions
within this context
Ethnographers’ Data Collection Techniques:
 Observations
 Fieldwork as data collecting strategies
 Sometimes used in-depth interviewing
The ethnographic research method was developed by
anthropologists such as Margaret Mead as a way of studying and describing
human cultures. The ethnographer undertakes the study without any a priori
hypotheses to avoid predetermining what is observed or what information is
elicited from informants. The ethnographer explores and tests hypotheses, but
the hypotheses evolve out of the fieldwork itself. Ethnographer refers to the
people from whom they gather information as informants rather than
participants, and they study sites rather than individuals. The term. ethnography
is used to refer to both the work of studying a culture and also the end product of
the research.
Spindler and Hammond (2000) describe some of the characteristics
of good ethnography: (1) extended participant observation; (2) long time at the
site; (3) collection of large volumes of materials such as notes, artifacts, audio,
and videotapes; and (4) openness, which means having no specific hypotheses
or even highly specific categories of observation at the start of the study
Data collection
As in any studies, a variety of data collection techniques may be used
as part of the ethnographic study. Common means of collecting data include
interviewing, document analysis, participant observations, research diaries, and
life stories. It is not the data collection techniques that determine whether the
study is ethnography but rather the "socio-cultural interpretation that sets apart
from other forms of qualitative inquiry. Ethnography is not defined by how data
are collected, but by the lens through which the data are interpreted (Merriam &
Associated, 2002)
Ethnographic Designs
Ethnographic Designs are qualitative research procedures for
describing, analyzing, and interpreting a culture-sharing group's shared patterns
of behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time. To understand the
patterns of a culture-sharing group, the ethnographer typically spends
considerable time in the field interviewing, observing, and gathering documents
about the group in order to understand their culture-sharing behaviors, beliefs,
and language.
Types Of Ethnographic Designs
Cresswell (2007) describes two approaches to ethnography:
1. Realist Ethnography
 Realist ethnography is a popular approach used by cultural
anthropologists. It is an objective account of the situation,
typically written in the third person point of view, reporting
objectively on the information learned from participants at a field
site. The researcher's interpretation occurs at the end.
 The realist ethnographer narrates the study in a third-person
dispassionate voice and reports on observations of participants
and their views. The ethnographer does not offer personal
reflections in the research report and remains in the background
as an omniscient reporter of the facts.
 The researcher reports objective data in a measured style
uncontained by personal bias, political goals, and judgment.
The researcher may provide mundane details of everyday life
among the people studied.
 The ethnographer also uses standard categories for cultural
description (family, work life, social networks, and status
systems). The ethnographer produces the participants' view
through closely edited quotations and has the final word on the
interpretation and presentation of the culture. (Van Maanen,
1988)
2. Critical Ethnography
 The researcher takes an advocacy perspective and has a value-
laden orientation. The researcher is advocating for a
marginalized group, challenging the status quo, or attempting to
empower the group by giving it voice.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Ethnographic Research
 The main advantage is its observation of behavior in a real-life
setting, the assumption being than human behavior can fully
understand only by knowing the setting in which it occurs.
 The main limitation is that the findings depend heavily on the
particular researcher's observations and interpretations of the
data. Ethnographer typically spend a long-time observing
participants and collect a large volumes of material (notes,
artifacts, audio and video, etc.).
Types Of Ethnographic Studies
 Autoethnography (a self-examination within a cultural context).
 Ethnographic case studies( a case study within a cultural
perspective).
 Critical Ethnography (a study of marginalized group).
 Feminist ethnography( the study of women and cultural practice).
 Postmodern ethnography( a study of particular challenges or
problems of society).
 Confessional ethnography.
 Visual ethnography.
 Online ethnography
Grounded Theory Studies
 Has its roots in sociology
 Its goal is to inductively build a theory about a practice or Is
“grounded” in the real world phenomenon
 Is a cyclical process of building a tentative theory and testing it
against the data Interviews and observation are the primary data
collection tools
 Typically involves observations and interviews with multiple
participants or settings
 Uses a coding process that ends in description and presentation of
theory and propositions
 Documentary materials (letters, speeches, etc.) and literature can
also be potential data sources.
Glaser and Strauss (1967) developed grounded theory as a way of
formalizing the operations needed to develop theory from empirical data. This
research approach focuses on gathering data about peoples’ experiences in a
particular context and then inductively building a theory “from the bottom up.
 Grounded theory moves beyond description to generate or discover a
theory that emerges from the data and that provides an explanation
of a process, action, or interaction.
 Grounded theory studies of sociological nature have focused on
victims of Alzheimer’s disease and how families accommodate to the
different stages, drug addiction in women, chronic illness, alcoholism,
etc.
Data Collection Procedures
Data may be collected by interview and observation( as the primary
data collection tools), records, or a combination of this.
 In the role of as the primary data-gathering instrument, the
researcher asks questions about some event, experience, or
social phenomenon the personal open-ended interview is the
primary method of data collection
 Data collection usually results in large amounts of hand-written
notes, typed interview transcripts, or video/audio taped
conversations that contain multiple pieces of data to be sorted
and analyzed. This process is initiated by coding and
categorizing
Description of Coding Types Used in Grounded Theory Studies
 Open coding. It deals with labeling and categorizing phenomenon in
the data. It uses the comparative method. Data are broken down by
asking what, where, how, when, how much, etc. Similar incidents are
grouped together and given the same conceptual label. Concepts are
grouped together into categories. The purpose is to develop core
concepts, categories, and properties.
 Axial coding. It is designed to put data back together that
were broken apart in open coding. It develops connections
between a category and its subcategories (not between
discrete categories). It’s purpose is to develop main
categories and subcategories.
 Selective coding. It shows the connections between the
discrete categories that have been developed to build the
theoretical framework are integrated. It’s purpose is to
bring the categories together into an overall theory.
Historical Studies
Historical studies are oriented to the past rather than to the present
and thus use different data collection methods from those used in other
qualitative approaches
 Included in qualitative research because of its emphasis on
interpretation and its use of nonnumeric data
 Attempt to establish facts and arrive at conclusions concerning the
past.
 The historian systematically locates, evaluates, and interprets
evidence from which people can learn about the past. Based on the
evidence gathered, conclusions are drawn regarding the past so as to
increase knowledge of how and why past events occurred and the
process by which the past became the present. The desired result is
increased understanding of the present and a more rational basis for
making choices.
 Although historians have no choice concerning what documents,
relics, records, and artifacts survive the passage of time, they do have some
limited control over what questions they will ask of these sources and what
measures they will apply to them. When interviewing witnesses of past events
and when searching the historical record, researchers can decide what
questions to ask and what is to be measured. They can measure only those
things that witnesses remember or the record contains.
In descriptive and experimental research, investigators can attempt to
control sampling; that is, they can decide for themselves whom they are going to
study. Historians can study only those people for whom records and artifacts
survive. If newspapers ignore a particular segment of a community and no other
sources for that community exist, then historians cannot directly assess the
contributions that a particular segment of a population made to that community,
Another limitation impinging on historical researchers is that no assumption
about the past can be made merely because no record can be found, nor can it
be assumed, on the contrary, that a conspiracy of silence has distorted the
historical record.
Data Sources
The historians classifies materials as:
 Primary Sources: first-hand or eyewitness observations of
phenomenon Source material closest to the
person/information/period/idea being studied. Primary sources are
original documents (correspondence, diaries. reports, etc.), relics,
remains, or artifacts. These are the direct outcomes of events or the
records of participants.
 Secondary Sources: second-hand observation, i.e. the author
collected the data from eyewitnesses Document relating to
information presented elsewhere
External And Internal Criticism
Two ideas that have proved useful in evaluating historical sources are
the concepts of external (or lower) criticism and internal (or higher) criticism,
 External Criticism asks if the evidence under consideration is
authentic and, depending on the nature of the study, may involve
such techniques as authentication of signatures. chemical analysis of
paint, or carbon dating of artifacts.
 The Historical investigator proceeds to internal criticism, which
requires evaluating the worth of the evidence, for instance, whether a
document provides a true report of an event.
Narrative Research
Narrative research has its roots in different humanities disciplines and focuses
on stories (spoken or written) told by individuals about their lives. The researcher
emphasizes sequence and chronology and a collaborative re-storying process.
The key question is, "What is the story and its meaning as told through this
person's experience?" The researcher seeks to understand the lived experience
of an individual or small group. A narrative can be any text or discourse.
Narrative research provides accounts of human experiences by collecting and
analyzing stories about lives. The stories are accounts of events and actions
chronologically connected. Narrative research:
 Use of stories as data, and more specifically first-person accounts of
experience told in story form having a beginning, middle and end
o Other terms for these “stories” = biographies, life history, oral
history, autoethnography, and autobiography
o First-person accounts of experiences constitute the narrative
“text” which is then analyzed for the meaning by the author
 Hermeneutic philosophy (the study of written texts) is often cited as
informing narrative analysis.
o Focuses on the interpretation/meaning in stories, and other
texts. In order to make sense and interpret the text.
o Important in gathering the meaning intended to
be communicated by the author (allows the
text/document to be placed in an accurate
historical/cultural reference)
Narrative analysis may be approached through a biographical lens, a
psychological lens, or a linguistic lens. The narrative typically tells the story of an
individual in the chronology of experience; is set within a personal, social, and
historical context; and includes important themes in the lived experience
(Creswell, 2007.p. 57).
Data collection
Data in narrative research come from:
 Primary sources (direct participant recollection)
 Secondary sources (documents written by the participant).
 Data may be gathered via such methods as interviews with the
individual or family members of close friends
 Data may be gathered from written records such as diaries, journals,
letters, blogs, created artifacts, e- mail exchanges, memos,
photographs, memory boxes, audio recordings, story writing, or other
personal, family, or social artifacts.
Phenomenological Studies
Phenomenological study is designed to describe and interpret an
experience by determining the meaning of the experience as perceived by the
people who have participated in it.
 The key question is “What is the experience of an activity or concept
from the perspective of particular participants?”
 The key question rooted in philosophy and psychology, the
assumption is that there are many ways of interpreting the same
experience and that the meaning of the experience to each person is
what constitutes reality. This belief is characteristic of all qualitative
studies, but the element that distinguishes phenomenology from
qualitative phenomenological research is to describe a “lived
experience” of a phenomenon.
 The central research question aims to determine the essence of the
experience as “perceived by the participant.
Data Collection
 Interviewing multiple individuals is the typical data collection
approach.
 Interview data are typically from those who have experienced the
phenomena.
 Other data sources may be used, including observations, art, poetry,
music, journals, drama, films, social network sites, blogs,and novels.
Phenomenology Is Based On...
The assumption that there is an essence or essences to shared
experience. These essences are the core meanings mutually understood
through a phenomenon commonly experienced. The experiences of different
people are bracketed, analyzed, and compared to identify the essences of the
phenomenon, for example, the essence of loneliness, the essence of being a
mother, or the essence of being a participant in a particular program. The
assumption of essence, like the ethnographer's that culture exists and is
important, becomes the defining characteristic of a purely phenomenological
study. (Patton. 2002.pg 106)
The Phenomenological Researcher's Task...
The phenomenologists are "interested in showing how complex
meanings are built out of simple units of direct experience"(Merriam and
associates 2002,p,7).
 Depict the essence or basic structure of experience - including
experiences such as love, anger, betrayal, etc.
 Prior to interviewing, those who have had experience with the
phenomenon usually explores his/her own experiences in order to
examine the dimensions of the phenomenon and to be aware of
one's own personal prejudices, viewpoints and assumptions (in order
to set them aside)
Phenomenology Results...
 A composite description that presents the essence of the
phenomenon (essential, invariant structure)
 The researcher should come away from the experience thinking “I
understand better what it is like for someone to experience that”
Data Analysis
 The first principle of analysis of phenomenological data is to use an
emergent strategy, to allow the method of analysis to follow the
nature of the data itself.
o Explore your own experiences & set aside your
opinions/judgments
 o Bracket judgments and everyday understandings in order
to examine consciousness itself
 Phenomenological reduction: revisiting the experience to derive the
inner structure/meaning in and of itself
 Horizonalization analysis is conducted by identifying significant
statements or quote and from those quote developing clusters of
meaning and themes.
 Textural description is used to illuminate what was experienced.
 Structural description illuminates the context that influenced the
experience, how it was experienced, and in what conditions and
situations.
 Composition description is written that conveys the overall essence of
the phenomenon. Also called the essential or invariant structure.
Other Types Of Qualitative Research
 Portraiture is a form of qualitative research that seeks to join science
and art in an attempt to describe complex human experiences within
an organizational culture. The goal of a portraiture is a vivid portrayal
that reflects meaning from the perspectives of both the participants
and the researchers. Data can be collected using in-depth interviews
and observations
 Critical research seeks to empower change through examining and
critiquing assumptions. Questions focus on power relationships and
the influence of race, class, and gender. The purpose of critical
research is to critique and challenge the status quo. Critical research
may analyze texts or artifacts (such as films) or other communication
forms (such as drama or dance).
 Semiotics and discourse analysis study linguistic units to examine the
relationship between words and their meanings. Data-collection of
strategies of semiotics focus on recorded dialogue-in text form, or,
audio/video. Arts-based research has recently emerged as a
 Qualitative method. Leavy in her 2009 work describes various
approaches to arts-based research and explain how it differs from
other quantitative and qualitative methods. Leavy discusses several
arts-based methods including fiction-based approaches, poetry,
performance research including ethnodrama and ethnotheater,
musical portraiture,dance narratives, and visual arts including
technology-based visual arts. Rather than numbers or words, art-
based researchers use stories, image, sounds, senses, and other
sensory approaches to present the research data.
 The Indigenous research methods are also
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
Module 1: Knowing and Understanding Oneself during Middles and Late
Adolescent.
SELF-DEVELOPMENT
SELF-DEVELOPMENT is a process of discovering oneself by
realizing one's potentials and capabilities that are shaped over time either by
studying in a formal school or through environmental factors
Along this realization, an individual encounters gradual changes deep
within him/her that may help him/her overcome unacceptable practices or traits
which lead him towards positive change for his growth or self- fulfillment. It is
also called PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT.
Know Thyself is an old maxim or aphorism which in time has been
used in varied literature and consequently gained different meanings.
 Socrates is one of the greatest philosophers of Ancient
Greek, uttered that “An unexamined life is not worth
living”.
 Aristotle says "Knowing yourself is the beginning of all
wisdom."
 Lao Tzu says that "Knowing others is intelligence;
knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is
strength; mastering yourself is true power."
 Thomas Hobbes is another philosopher and the author of
"The LEVIATHAN, "Read Thyself", stressed that an
individual could learn more by studying others and that
he/she can do this by engaging himself/herself to reading
books. However, Hobbes emphasized that a person learns
more by studying oneself.
SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-CONCEPT refers to the awareness of yourself. It is the
construct that negotiates the two selves (ideal and actual). It is one's abstract
and general idea about him/herself particularly toward his/her unique personality
and his/her own perception about his/her set of values, point of views and
behavior. This theory began as Rene Descartes, the Father of Modern
Philosophy, proposed his theory that a person's existence depends on his/her
perception. Rene Descartes stated that "mind is the seat of consciousness". This
means that it is in the mind that we know everything about ourselves like our
identity, passion, interest, feelings, and/or intellect, thus everything that we are
comes from the mind. In other words,
(1) It connotes the identification of the ideal self as separate from other.
(2) It encompasses all the behaviors evaluated in the actual self that you
engage in to reach the ideal self.
TWO TYPES OF SELF
 IDEAL SELF - is the self that you aspire to be. It is
the one that you hope will possess, like your idol.
• The IDEAL SELF is how we want to be.
• The IDEAL SELF is an idealize image that
we have developed overtime, based on
what we have learned and experienced
• The IDEAL SELF could include
components of what our parents have
taught us, what we admire in others, what
our society promotes, and what we think
is in our best interest.
 ACTUAL SELF - it is the one that you actually see. It
is the self that has characteristics that you were
nurtured or, in some cases, born to have.
• The ACTUAL SELF is built on self-
knowledge. (Self- knowledge is derived
from social interactions that provide
insight into how other react to you.)
• The ACTUAL SELF is who we really are.
It is how we think, how we feel, look and
act
• The ACTUAL SELF can be seen by
others.
• The ACTUAL SELF is our self-image, for
we have no way of truly knowing how
others view us.
PERSONAL EFFECTIVENESS
 Means making use of all the personal resources, talents, skills,
energy and time.
 It enable us to achieve life goals
 It depends on our innate characteristics – talents and experience
accumulated in the process of personal development
 KNOWLEDGE of oneself impacts directly in our personal
effectiveness
 Talents - are needed to be identified and then developed to be used
in a particular subject area (science, literature, sports, politics, etc.)
 Experience - includes knowledge and skills that we acquire in the
process of cognitive and practical assessment
 Knowledge is required for setting goals, defining an action plan to
achieve them and risk assessment
 Skills - an ability used many times in the same situation, becomes a
habit that runs automatically, subconciously
7 TYPES OF SKILLS THAT INCREASE EFFICIENCY
 DETERMINATION- it allows you to focus only on achieving a specific
goal without being distracted by less important things or spontaneous
desires. It may developed with the help of self-discipline exercise
 SELF-CONFIDENCE - it appears in the process of personal
development, as a result of getting aware of yourself, your actions
and their consequences. Self-confidence is manifested in speech,
appearance, dressing, gait, and physical condition. To develop it, you
need to learn yourself and your capabilities, gain a positive attitude
and believe that by performing the right actions and achieving the
right goals you will certainly reach success.
 PERSISTENCE - It makes you keep moving forward regardless of
emerging obstacles – problems, laziness, bad emotional state, etc. It
reduces the costs of overcoming obstacles. It can also be developed
with the help of self-discipline exercise.
 MANAGING STRESS - It helps combat stress that arises in daily life
from the environment and other people. Stress arises from the
uncertainty in an unknown situation when a lack of information
creates the risk of negative consequences of your actions. It
increases efficiency in the actively changing environment. It requires
problem-solving skills.
 PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS - They help cope with the problems
encountered with a lack of experience. It increases efficiency by
adopting new ways of achieving goals when obtaining a new
experience.
 CREATIVITY - It allows you to find extraordinary ways to carry out a
specific action that no one has tried to use. It can lead to a decrease
or an increase of costs, but usually, the speed of action is greatly
increased when using creative tools. It requires the ability to generate
ideas.
 GENERATING IDEAS - It helps you achieve goals using new,
original, unconventional ideas. The idea is a mental image of an
object formed by the human mind, which can be changed before
being implemented in the real world. For generating ideas, you can
use a method of mental maps, which allows you to materialize,
visualize and scrutinize all your ideas, which in turn contributes to the
emergence of new ideas.
DEVELOPING THE WHOLE PERSON
The Eight (8) Different Aspects of Self
1. Physical Self – Includes description of your height, weight, facial
appearance and quality of skin, hair and description of your body
areas such as your neck, chest, waist, legs.
2. Intellectual Self – Includes how well you reason and solve problems,
your capacity to learn and create, your general amount of knowledge,
wisdom you have acquired.
and insights you have
3. Emotional Self – Includes the typical feelings you have, you seldom
have, feelings you try to avoid, feelings you especially enjoy, feelings
from your past and present, and feelings which are associated with
each other.
4. Sensual Self – Includes how you feel as a sensual person, the sense
does you use the most (sight, hearing, speaking, smelling, touching),
you feel about the different ways you take in information, and the
ways you let information in and out of your body
5. Interactional Self – Includes the descriptions of your strengths and
weaknesses in intimate relationships and relationships to friends,
family, co-students, and stranger in social settings. Also includes
what kind of brother or sister, son or daughter you are.
6. Nutritional Self – Includes foods you like and dislike as well as on
how you nourish yourself.
7. Contextual Self – Descriptors could be in the areas of maintenance of
your living environment: reaction to light, temperature, space,
weather, colors, sound and seasons and your impact on the
environment.
8. Spiritual Self or Life Force – Includes your feelings about yourself and
organized religion, reactions about your spiritual connections to
others, feelings about your spiritual development and history, and
thought about your metaphysical self. Think about your inner peace
and joy. Think about your spiritual regimen and routine.
Aspects of the Self
 The self-concept a represented by several aspects of the self.
 It is conceived as the collection of multiple context dependent self.
 An individuals composed of three (3) basic but very different aspect
of the self namely:
o The Physical or Tangible Aspect - Body
o The Intellectual and Conscious Aspect - Mind
o The Emotional Unit – Spirit
 All three aspects of the self work together in perfect harmony when
attention is given to all three simultaneously…
The Body
 Many individuals put a strong emphasis on the physical aspects of
the self
 The body is tangible, obvious and we respond to it easily
 Time and money spent to enhance the physical component
 The body provides the place to house the spirit (often experienced as
FEELINGS) and the mind (often experienced as our INSIGHT)
The Mind
 Other people desired that their mind be prominent and well educated.
 Mind is important part of self since it directs the two other aspect.
 It learns to communicate the information to the body and the feelings
 What the mind believes, the body manifest or acts, on the emotion
feel or respond with.
 The mind provides access to creativity and serenity, both necessary
for process such as prayer, forgiveness, acceptance and passion.
The Spirit
 The human emotions on the feared aspect of the self since we are
reluctant and unprepared to manage them.
 Managing feelings is like trying to hold water in your palm, they an
illusive and deceptive.
 The decision made during emotional stress and strain usually impacts
emotions NEGATIVELY.
 Negative emotions that are not managed are stored and repressed.
 Repression is destructive to a context self since all feelings not only
the negative ones are stored away.
 And accessing feelings when needed becomes difficult leaving
individual numb and hopeless.
THREE SUCCESS STORIES
1. Manny Pacquiao’s Unbelievable Success Story Will Inspire You
It’s 1990 in the province of General Santos in the
Philippines, Manny Pacquiao is 12 years old. Pacquiao often speaks
of his debt to his maternal uncle, Sardo Mejia, who introduced him to
boxing after he dropped out of school. It was this moment that would
spark an unforeseen passion and drive in Pacquiao to be one of the
best boxers in the entire world. According to his autobiography, he
describes watching Mike Tyson’s shocking defeat to James “Buster”
Douglas in 1990 on television with his uncle as an experience that
“changed [his] life forever.” In his hometown, he set up an open-for-all
boxing match and beat every opponent who came. He was well on
the road of transforming himself from a lanky school dropout to a
junior boxing champion. Despite his success, his family was still living
in extreme poverty and hunger. They became so desperate to the
point that his father had to kill his pet dog for dinner. Pacquiao
couldn’t forgive his father for what he did so he left home, slept on
cardboard boxes, and sold bread on the streets just to make a
meager living. At that point, he also used boxing and won matches for
$2 cash, as a means of escaping poverty.
As the fights got more serious, Pacquiao started getting
more famous as well. He would beat fighters from South Korea,
Japan and Thailand and at the very young age of 19, he won his first
World Champion title by beating Chatchai Sasakul, the reigning
World Boxing Council (WBC) World Flyweight Champion at that time.
The turning point for Pacquiao came when he won against world-
class. He soon moved to Manila and continued winning several
boxing matches, but given the increased standards of living, he
wasn’t making enough to survive. He soon got a job at a local gym
 doing gardening, cleaning and construction while boxing on the side.
He trained crazily all day and all night when possible, waking up the
earliest and leaving the gym at the latest possible time. Early on, his
perseverance and determination to be a part of the boxing world
swayed him to cheat and add on some weights to meet the
featherweight class requirements.
Featherweight boxer Marco Antonio Barrera at the
Alamodome in Texas with a TKO. After that fight, he was recognized
internationally as a force to be reckoned with. Today, at 37, he is one
of the most respected boxers. Despite his loss during the
Mayweather match, he still has won the hearts of many boxing fans
both in the Philippines and worldwide. His one-of- a-kind story will
continue to inspire and it will always portray the journey of what
millions of Filipinos continue to aspire for.
2. The Pia Wurtzbach Success Story
Pia Alonzo Wurtzbach was crowned “Miss Universe” at the
64 Miss Universe 2015 pageant held at Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.
Pia is an actress and model of German-Philippine origin. She is Miss
Philippines 2015. She symbolizes the deadly combination of beauty
with brains. Pia is a beauty-writer, chef and make-up artist.
Pia Wurtzbach was born on 24 September 1989 in
Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg. Her father is a German and her
mother is a Filipino. Pia has a younger sister. Pia was named in
keeping with the Philippines’ tradition. Her middle name ‘Alonzo is her
mother’s maiden name. Pia did her secondary education from ABS-
CBN Distance Learning School in Quezon City. She studied Culinary
Arts from the Centre for Asian Culinary Studies, San Juan, Metro
Manila.
Pia ventured into the world of glitz and glamour at the
tender age of fourteen. She joined an acting and modelling agency
for children, “Star Magic Talent. Pia got a break in television when
she featured in K2BU, a series for teenagers, the romance collection,
‘Your Song’ and the concert programme, ‘ASAP. Pia has acted in
films; All My Life’, ‘All About Love’ and ‘Kung Ako Na Lang Sana. Pia
was the brand ambassador for ‘Avon Teen’ for a period of five years.
She has graced the cover of several prestigious fashion magazines.
Pia writes for the 2bU column of Inquirer Lifestyle’. She is popular as
Pia Romero, her screen name.
Pia is a pageant title-holder. Her first beauty contest was
the ‘Binibining Pilipinas 2013. She was the first runner-up. She
participated in the Binibining Pilipinas 2015 as a representative of
Cagayan de Oro and won the title, paving the path for bigger
victories.
Pia Alonzo walked away with the “Miss Universe title at
the Miss Universe Pageant 2015 held on December 20 at The Axis,
Las Vegas, Nevada, USA. The 26- year old beauty set the stage
ablaze with her poise, incredible class and talent in her exotically
gorgeous ball gown and costumes. Pia was crowned by her
predecessor, Paulina Vega. As Miss Universe, Pia aspires to lead the
youth and spread awareness about HIV, especially in Philippines.
3. A Love Affair that Got Me Close to a Great Doctor
I am blissfully married and a proud mother to three young
men. My husband Leo knows that I am also engaged in another love
affair, a sweet and enduring one. And he approves, so do my sons.
This love affair is with research, and it started during my
pediatric residency training. I can still remember vividly the
excitement and the long nights, the discovery of meaningful
developments, the joy of reading medical journals, the eagerness to
prepare something thorough and relevant. The excitement I felt
continued up to my postgraduate internship, my fellowship in
infectious diseases and it has lasted till now. My husband was never
jealous and my relationship with my sons never soured despite this
other ongoing and never-ending love affair. I could not ask for more.
This is the best life.
So last May 23, the family accompanied me to Vigan,
Ilocos Sur, to attend the 107th annual convention hosted by the
Philippine Medical Association (PMA). Being included as one of the
15 finalists for the coveted Dr. Jose P. Rizal Memorial Awards is a
proud moment for my family. With them around. I was the proudest
wife. mom and doctor.
While individual citations were being read on stage for the
top awardees for Community Leadership (Dr. Purisima A. Bueno),
Government Service (Dr. Maria Victoria M. Abesamis), Clinical
Practice (Dr. Bonaleth M. De Vera) and Academe (Dr. Estrella B.
Paje-Villar), I never expected that the final citation was all about the
fruits of my other love affair, with research.
"Lead investigator for the much-awaited clinical trials on
the multivalent dengue vaccine..." "repeatedly cited by researchers
here and abroad..." "served as the springboard for the Expanded
Program of Immunization (EPI) of the Department of Health...
"provided the evidence and the science..." "extended her work to the
communities..." "greater things to come that will benefit science,
medicine and the Filipino people..." "epitomizes the virtues of Dr.
Jose P. Rizal......love of country and service to our countrymen... All
these brought me back to the past 30 years of my medical, family and
community life.
My love affair with research did not happen overnight. It
was a journey that began with a case presentation as a first-year
pediatric resident, and a prospective study on how to prevent early
jaundice in newborns. My recommendation that a nursery should
always be facing the direction the sun rises so that a newborn can
benefit from exposure to morning sunlight won the top prize for the
hospital's annual research competition. This did not happen once. It
was a back-to-back win for three straight years. I got hooked. Who
would not be? Year 1991 was my first immersion in dengue research.
Twenty-three years later, I am now the lead investigator of the
country's clinical trials for dengue vaccine, in the countries where
dengue is a major public health problem. It's a vaccine the medical
community worldwide is waiting for.
In Vigan, the Philippine Medical Association (PMA) bore
witness to the conferment of the award. The title comes with a
specially designed trophy in the image of Dr. Jose P. Rizal by
National Artist Napoleon V. Abueva, a gold medallion, free trip to the
United States to attend the convention of the American Academy of
Family Physicians and P150, 000 worth of medicines that I can share
with a civic organization of my choice.
Was it just a coincidence or pure fate that it is also the
23rd year of the presentation of the prestigious Dr. Jose P. Rizal
Memorial Awards? If the number 23" is a coincidence, what a joyful
one. If this is destiny, let me accept it with gratitude.
This award is a fitting tribute to those who have
encouraged and inspired me to continue my love affair with research-
participants and their families as well as my teams in clinical trials,
officials of the local health, school and government units, the
Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, collaborators/ partners and
sponsors of my researches, Basaynon Katiguban, Inc, and my town
mates in Basey, Samar, who continue to show resiliency despite the
tragedy during the super typhoon Yolanda, the Philippine Pediatric
Society and Manila Medical Society for the recognition of my works
and the nomination.
For more than three decades, I have never felt happier
and accomplished than when doing medical research. It is tiring but
exciting, demanding yet humbling, intimidating but empowering,
exacting yet fulfilling. My work is my loving tribute to all great Filipino
and a fellow doctor, Jose P. Rizal, MD.
(Dr. Rose Zeta Capeding is the 23rd Dr. Jose P. Rizal
Memorial Awardee for Research. She is currently the head of the
Microbiology Department of the Research Institute for Tropical
Medicine (RITM) and head of the Dengue Research Group. She is
the head, Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics
Asian Hospital and Medical Center)
A REAL WINNER is one who can:
 Win over his/her battles and difficulties in life and turns them into learning
and glorifying experience
 Find meaning in pleasant and unpleasant events in his life
 Live in peace with difficult people and difficult situation
 Win the goodwill of others, their respect and admiration
 Get what he wants using win-win strategies; never at the expense of others
 Discover and use opportunities to his best advamtage
 Develop and use his talents and abilities to the best advantage and in
doing so, make meaningful contribution in making this world a better place
to live in
UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS
A culture is a way of life of a group of people the behaviors, beliefs, values,
and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that
are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the
next.
Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a
person’s learned, accumulated experience which is socially transmitted, or more
briefly, behavior through social learning.
A society Is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or
a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject
to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
Politics (from Greek: Пoλtikά, Politiká, ‘affairs of the cities’) is the set of
activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of
power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or
status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is
referred to as political science.
THE NATURE, GOALS, AND PERSPECTIVE IN/OF
ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
ANTHROPOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE
Anthropology is the study, analysis, and description of humanity’s past and
present. Questions about the past include prehistoric origins and human
evolution. The study of contemporary humanity focuses on biological and
cultural diversity, including language.
All in all Anthropology, “the study of humankind,” which examines people in
viewpoints going from the science and transformative history of Homo sapiens to
the provisions of society and culture that unequivocally recognize people from
other creature species.
NATURE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
 The nature of anthropology can be view from its historical
perspective because is a global discipline involving humanities, social
sciences and natural sciences.
 Its foundations return to the scholarly Enlightenment of the
eighteenth and mid nineteenth hundreds of years in Europe and
North America. As European countries created states in far off pieces
of the world and Americans extended west and son into the regions
of Indians, it became evident to them that humankind was amazingly
changed.
GOALS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
 Is to comprehend the fossil record of early people and
their precursors just as the archeological record of
later ancient social orders.
 To understand how we adapt to different environmental
conditions and how we vary as a species.
 To comprehend the conduct of monkeys and gorillas in
their regular settings.
 Is to find out about both the natural and social parts of
humankind all throughout the planet and all through time.
 To apply anthropological information to help forestall or
take care of issues of living people groups including destitution,
substance addiction, and HIV/AIDS.
PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropologists across the subfields utilize exceptional points of view
to direct their exploration.
These viewpoints make humanities unmistakable from related
disciplines- like history, social science, and brain research that pose comparative
inquiries about the past, social orders, and human instinct.
SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE
Sociology is the scientific investigation of human culture and social
behavior. Sociology is a discipline in social sciences concerned about human
society and human social activities.
Auguste Comte, a French social scholar, is generally known as the
“Father of Sociology” as he instituted the term ‘Humanism’ in 1839.
NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY
As a discipline, sociology arose early in the nineteenth century in
response to rapid social change. Major transformations in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, such as rapid industrialization resulting in a large,
anonymous workforce.
The French social thinker Auguste Comte (1798-1857) first coined
the term sociology to describe a new way of thinking about societies as systems
governed by principles of organization and change.
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), the French humanist, made the biggest
commitment to the development of social science as a social scientific discipline.
GOALS OF SOCIOLOGY
The ultimate goal of sociology is to acquire knowledge about society like all
the other social sciences discipline, as Samuel Koenig has pointed out the
ultimate aim of sociology is “to improve man’s adjustment to life by developing
objective knowledge concerning social phenomena which can be used to deal
effectively with social problems”.
 To understand how membership in one’s social group
affects individual be.
 Understand how cultures and institutions interact in
different societies.
 To understand the meaning and consequences of
modernity, postmodernity and the new globalization.
 Understand the causes and consequences of social
change in terms of general causes and effects as well as unique
historical circumstances.
 Understand the causes and consequences of population
composition and pressures and how population affects the
environment and development of societies.
 To provide information that reflects upon different policy
initiatives
PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
The fundamental knowledge of sociology is that human conduct is
molded by the gatherings to which individuals have a place and by the social
communication that happens inside those gatherings. We are what our identity is
and we act the manner in which we do in light of the fact that we end up living in
a specific culture at a specific point in reality.
POLITICAL SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE
Political Science is the study of the nature, causes, and consequences
of collective decisions and actions taken by groups of people embedded in
cultures and institutions that structure power and authority.
Political Science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of
governance, and the analysis of political activities, political thoughts, associated
constitutions and Political behavior.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
 COMMUNISM
 DEMOCRACY
 MONARCHY
 ARISTOCRACY
 OLIGARCHY
 SOCIALISM
 MILITARY DICTATORSHIP
 TOTALITARIANISM
 COLONIALISM
 THEOCRACY
NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Politics is not only a mere institution of governance but also a
mechanism for achieving societal goals. Nature of Political Science is a social
science concerned with the theory and practice of politics and the description
and analysis of political systems and political behavior.
Greek scholars Socrates, Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322
BC). The investigations were theory arranged. Plato composed The Republic
and Aristotle composed the Politics. Aristotle is known as the Father of Political
Science. He is well known for his assertion “Man is a political animal”.

GOALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
 Is the concern with the process of growth, industrialization
and change and the impact on government forms and policies.
 Is to describe how various political systems function, and
to find more effective political systerns.
 Is to measure the success of governance and specific
policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice,
material wealth
POLITICAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE
 Is methodologically diverse and appropriates many
methods originating in psychosocial research, and cognitive
neuroscience.
 Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational
choice theory, behaviouralism, structuralism, post-structuralism,
realism, institutionalism, and pluralism
THE CONCEPT ASPECTS IN /OF CULTURE, SOCIETY AND
CHANGES AND POLITICS
THE CONCEPT, ASPECTS AND CHANGES IN CULTURE
CONCEPT OF CULTURE
The English word ‘culture’ is gotten from the Latin expression clique
or cultus significance plowing developing or refining and love. In total it implies
developing and refining.
 Culture is a lifestyle - the food you eat, the garments you
wear, the language you talk , the God you love, all are parts of culture
 Culture is the epitome of the manner by which we think
and get things done
 Cultus thus refers to a human-made environment which
products includes all the material and nonmaterial group life that are
transmitted from one generation to the next
 Culture is the declaration of our temparament in our
methods of living and thinking.
 Material Culture comprises of articles that are identified with the like -
our dress, food, tools, painting, architectural styles, weaponry, toys
and family products.
 Non Material Culture consist of intangible properties and elements of
society that influence the patterns of action among members of the
society
Example of Nonmaterial Culture
 Language
 Beliefs Culture is diverse because of its aspects that develops man’s social
 Values interactions. These aspects are essential to it’s concept of complexity.
 Ideas
 Attitudes. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
 Norms 1. CULTURE is learned and acquired: Culture is gained as in there are
FOLKLORE sure practices which are obtained through heredity. People acquire
Comes in the forms of myths, legends, folk tales (kwentong bayan), certain characteristics from their folks yet socio-social examples are
proverbs, and riddles, embodies the history beliefs, ideas, values, and practices not acquired. These are gained from relatives, from the gathering and
that define a society. the general public wherein they live. It is in this manner clear that the
way of life of individuals is impacted by the physical and social
FOUR VITAL CULTURAL COMPONENT climate through which they work.
1. Symbols 2. CULTURE is shared by a group of people: An idea or activity might
2. Language be called culture in case it is shared and accepted or rehearsed by
3. Values gathering of individuals.
4. Norms 3. CULTURE is cumulative: Different information exemplified in culture
SYMBOLS can be passed starting with one age then onto the next age.
It refers to things that convey meaning or represent an idea. They are essential Increasingly more information is added in the specific culture as the
in communication shaping thoughts and ideas and defining a society's culture. time elapses by. Each might work out answer for issues in life that
LANGUAGE passes starting with one age then onto the next. This cycle stays as
It is a set of symbols that enable members of society to communicate verbally the specific culture goes with time.
(spoken) and non verbally (written gestures). 4. CULTURE changes: There is information, musings or customs that
VALUES are lost as new social qualities are added. There are potential
These are shared ideas, norms and principles that provide members of society outcomes of social changes inside the specific culture over the long
the standards that pertain to what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or haul.
undesirable. 5. CULTURE is dynamic: No culture stays on the perpetual state.
Culture is changing continually as novel thoughts and new
NORMS
These are shared rules of conduct that determine specific behavior among procedures are added over the long haul altering or changing the old
ways. This is the attributes of culture that stems from the way of life’s
society members
A. Folkways are norms that maybe violated without serious total quality.
6. CULTURE gives us a scope of passable standards of conduct: It
consequences
B. Mores are norms with moral connotation includes how a movement ought to be directed, how an individual
should act properly.
C. Laws are norms that are legally enacted and enforced
7. CULTURE is diverse: It is a framework that has a few commonly
D. Taboos are described as an activity or behavior that is consider
reliant parts. Albeit these parts are isolated, they are related with
completely unacceptable or forbidden
each other framing culture as entirety.
8. CULTURE is ideational: Often it sets out an optimal example of
ASPECT OF CULTURE
conduct that are expected to be trailed by people in order to acquire
social acknowledgment from individuals with a similar culture. The
general public in which we live decides everything

ANTHROPOLOGIST PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
 Edward Barrett Tylor
That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society
 Robert Ranulp Marrett
Tend to define culture in terms *communicable intelligence”,
“conventional understandings”, and “communicated ideas”
 Radcliffe Brown
Culture as cultivation, the process of transmitting and acquiring
traditions as a result of which society is perpetuated.
THE CONCEPT, ASPECTS AND CHANGES IN SOCIETY
CONCEPT OF SOCIETY
The word society comes from the Latin root socius, signifying buddy
or “being with others.” It is a group of people living together in a definite territory,
having a sense of belongingness mutually interdependent of each other, and
follows a certain way of life. It is a group of people sharing a common culture.
• Society is a social framework that shares a topograpical domain, a typical
culture and a lifestyle (Johnson, 1996)
• Auguste Comte (1798-1857), it came from the Latin word socius which
means buddy or partner, accomplice or make (or social being with others)
and the greek word “logos” or “logus” which intends to contemplate
(Kendall, 1998).
• The humanist Dorothy Smith (1926) characterizes society as the
“continuous concerting and organizing of people’s exercises” (Smith 1999).
Sociologists have characterized society with two points:
1. In conceptual terms, as an organization of connections between individuals
or between gatherings.
2. In substantial terms, as an assortment of individuals or an association of
people.
SOCIOLOGIST PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
 Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
“I am the Founder of Sociology; I coined the word sociology from
the Latin word ‘Socius’ and the Greek word logos” to describe the
science of social life Society is something other than the sum of
individual” actions.”
 Karl Marx (1818-1883)
“I developed a complex theory of history and society which has
great influenced the modern sociology. Three of my contributions to
social theories are: (1) the organic totality of society, (2) the relative
importance of the economic sector, and (3) the historical process of
 George Simmel (1858-1916)
“For me, society was the patterned interactions among members
of a group, the sum of responses to ordinary life events.”
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETY
1. SOCIETY is ABSTRACT: In case society is seen as web of social
relationships, it is particular from actual element which we can see
and see through faculties. As composed before, Maclver contended,
“we might see individuals yet can’t see society or social design, yet
just its solitary outside perspectives”. Social connections are
imperceptible and theoretical. We can simply acknowledge them yet
can’t see or contact them. Accordingly, society is conceptual. Reuter
stated: “Similarly as life isn’t a thing yet an interaction of living, so
society isn’t a thing yet a cycle of partner”.
2. LIKENESS AND DIFFERENCE IN SOCIETY: Society involves both
likeness and difference. If people are all exactly alike, merely alike,
their relationships would be limited. There would be little give-and-
take and little reciprocity. If all men thought alike, felt alike, and acted
alike, if they had the same standards and same interests, if they all
accepted the same customs and echoed the same opinions without
questioning and without variation, civilization could never have
advanced and culture would have remained rudimentary. Thus,
society needs difference also for its existence and continuance. We
can illustrate this point through the most familiar example of family.
The family rests upon the biological differences between the sexes.
There are natural differences of aptitude, of capacity, of interest. For
they all involve relationships in which differences complement one
another, in which exchange take place.
3. COOPERATION & CONFLICT IN SOCIETY: Collaboration and
struggle are general components in human existence. Society
depends on cooperation but since of interior contrasts, there is
struggle likewise among its individuals. This is the reason, Maclver
and Page saw that "society is cooperation crossed by conflict". We
know from our own experience that an individual would be impaired,
displayed down, and feels baffled in case he is required to do
everything alone, without the guide of others. "Participation is most
rudimentary interaction of public
4. SOCIETY IS A PROCESS NOT A PRODUCT: “Society exists just as
a period arrangement. It is becoming, not a being; an interaction and
not an item" (Maclver and Page, 1956). At the end of the day, when
the interaction stops, the item vanishes. The result of a machine
suffers after the machine has been rejected. Somewhat the
equivalent is valid not just of material relics of man's past culture
however even of his unimportant social accomplishments.
5. SOCIETY IS A SYSTEM OF STRATIFICATION: Society gives an
arrangement of definition of situations with classes that every
individual has a moderately steady and unmistakable situation in the
social construction.
6. SOCIETY IS A COMPLEX WHOLE
7. SOCIETY IS RELATIVELY LARGE
8. SOCIETY SOCIALIZES ITS MEMBERS AND FROM THOSE FROM
WITHOUT
9. SOCIETY ENDURES, PRODUCES AND RESTRAINS ITS
MEMBERS OF FOR GENERATIONS.
10. SOCIETY HOLDS ITS MEMBERS THROUGH A COMMON
CULTURE
11. SOCIETY HAS CLEARLY-DEFINED GEOGRAPHICAL TERRITORY.
TYPES OF HUMAN SOCIETY
1. Hunting and Gathering Societies (250,000 years ago)
 Oldest ones we know
 Modern societies have encroached on their existence
 Both hunt for food and gather plants and other vegetation.
 They have few possessions other than some simple hunting
and gathering equipment to ensure their mutual survival
 Everyone is expected to help find food as well as share the food
they find.
 Often move from place to place
 Settlement: Nomadic
 Tend to quite small-often consisting of only a few dozen of
people
 Anthropologist charted the nature of social relationships in
them.
 Egalitarian
 Women and these men in these societies are roughly equal
 Have a few possessions
 Their members are also fairly equal in terms of wealth and
power, are virtually no wealth exists.
 Population is 25-40 people
 Family centered little social inequality
 Hunter-Gatherer culture is a type of substance lifestyle that
relies on hunting and fishing animals and foreging for a wild
vegetation and other nutrients like honey for food until
approximately 12,000 years ago all humans practiced hunting-
gathering
 Because hunter-gatherings did not rely on agriculture they used
mobility as survival strategy

2. Horticultural and Pastoral Society (from 10,000 to 12,000 years ago)
 Horticultural societies are societies in which people plant crops
in small gardens with out the use of plows or more advanced
technology for sustenance. Horticultural societies made it
possible to established permanent settlements.
 Pastoral societies are societies in which animals are
domesticated and raised for food in pastures, pastoral societies
tends to develop in arid regions where there is insufficient rain
fall to raise crops on the land. Pastoral societies are usually
nomadic moving on to a new area after the animals exhaust the
food supply in each pastures.
o Cultivation of plants, domestication of animals
o Productive technology, hand tools
o Population size several hundreds / thousands
o Settlement Some permanent settlements nomadic
o Family centered developing religious system.
Increased social inequality
3. Agricultural Society. (from around 5,000 years ago)
In agricultural society, also known as an agrarian society, is a
society that construct a social order around a reliance upon farming.
More than half the people living in that society make their living by a
farming.
 Cultivation of vastly more extensive fields.
 Productive technology animal drawn plough
 Population size: million of people.
 Settlement cities become common.
 Family loses significance, extensive specialization, increases
social inequality.
4. Industrial Society (1750 to the present)
An industrial society is one in which technologies of mass
production are used to make vast amounts of goods in factories, and
in which this is the dominant mode. production and organizer of social
life.
 Productive technology advance sources of energy mechanized
production
 Population size: million of people
 Settlement: cities contain most of the population.
 Distinct political, religious, educational economic, and family
systems; highly specialized social inequality persists diminishing
over time.
5. Post-Industrial Society (also known as Digital Era)
A post-industrial society is a stage in a society’s
development during which the economy transition, from one that
primarily provides goods to one that primarily provides services. In -
other words, the service sector, made up of people such as nurses.
Teachers, researchers, social workers, and lawyers, among others.
Accounts for more of the economic growth and wealth than the
“manufacturing sector which is made up of people such as
construction workers, ford manufacturer, and production workers. The
economic transformation associated with a post-industrial society
subsequently transforms society as a whole
 Emerging in recent decades
 Productive technology computers that support information-
based economy
 Population size: millions of people
 Settlement cities contain most of the population,
 Globalization as dominant experience
 In rich societies, industrialism being replaced by post-
industrialism consumption on the key component
THE CONCEPT, ASPECTS AND CHANGES IN POLITICS
CONCEPT OF POLITICS
 The term 'politics", is gotten from the Greek word “Polis", which
implies the city state. According to Greek Rationalists, Politics was a
subject which managed all the exercises and undertakings of the city
state. Their City States were known as 'Polis".
 City state was a comprehensive term, as the old Greeks saw no
difference amongst the state and the Government on one hand, and
State and Society on the other. They never separated between close
to home life and public activity. Consequently, concurring to them
Politics was an all-out investigation of man, culture, state, ethical
quality etc.
 To study politics is generally to contemplate government or all the
more extensively, to consider the exercise of power. Politics is the art
of government, the activity of control inside the society through the
settling on and authorization of aggregate choices.
 Aristotle is regarded as the father of political science. He was a great
Greek philosopher. He was the first one to give a working definition of
political science
CHARACTERISTIC OF POLITICS
1. Use or threat of use of legal force
It allows the legal authority to use force. If David Easton
speaks of “authoritative allocation of values”, Dahl of “Power, “rule”
and authority”. All these definitions imply that legal authority can use
force to compel anybody to obey its orders.
2. Interactions
“Political system is that system of interactions to be found
in all independent societies which perform the functions of integration
and adaptation (both internally and vis-à-vis other societies) by
means of the employment or threat of employment or more or less
legitimate physical compulsion”. Thus, the political system not only
includes governmental institutions such as legislatures, executives,
courts, administrative agencies but all structures in their political
aspect.
3. Interdependence of Parts
When the properties of one component in a system
change, all the other components and the system as a whole are
affected. In political system the political parties having a wider base
and mass media (Television, radio and newspapers) change the
performance of all other structures of the system and affect the
general working of the system.
THE PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT
 The Philippines is a republic with a presidential form of Government
where in power is equally divided among it’s three branches
executive legislative, and judicial.
 One basic corollary in a Presidential system of government is the
principle of separation of powers wherein legislation belongs to
congress, execution to the executive, and settlements of legal
controversies to the Judiciary.
 The Legislative Branch is authorized to make laws, alter, and through
the repeal them power vested in the Philippine Congress. This
institution is divided into the senate and the house of
Representatives.
 The Executive Branch is composed of the President and the Vice
President who are elected by direct popular vote and serve a term of
six years the constitution grants the President authority to appoint his
cabinet those departments from a Country’s be bureaucracy.
 The Judicial branch holds the power to settle controversies involving
rights that are legally demandable and enforceable this branch
determines whether or not these has been a grave abuse of
discretion amounting to Jack or excess of jurisdiction on the part and
instrumentality of the government. It is made up of a Supreme Court
and Lower Courts.
 16. Koko Pimentel
THE PHILIPPINE ELECTION 10th Ferdinand Marcos Sr. (1965-1986) 17. Grace Poe
 Elections in the Philippines are of several types. The president vice- • Declared Martial Law 18. Bong Revilla
president and the Senators are elected for a six-years term, while the • Established Philippine Heart Center, National Kidney and 19. Francis Tolentino
member of the Hot House of Representatives, governors, vice Transplant Institute, and Philippine Children’s Medical 20. Raffy Tulfo
governors, members of the Sangguniang Panlalawigan (provincial Center 21. Joel Villanueva
board members), mayors, vice mayors, Members of the Sangguniang • Construction of Bataan Nuclear Power Plan 22. Cynthia Villar
Panglungsod / Members of the Sangguniang Pambayan (city 11th Corazon Aquino (1986-1992) 23. Mark Villar
/municipal councilors), barangay officials, and the members of the • Considered 1st Woman President of Philippine Republic 24. Juan Miguel Zubiri
Sangguniang Kabataan (youth councilors) fare elected to serve for a •Prominent Person of 1st Edsa People Power Revolution
three-year term. 12th Fidel Ramos (1992-1998) WINNING PARTYLIST IN THE PHILIPPINES (2023)
 Congress has two chamber the house of Representatives has 316 • Established Energy Department ACT-CIS AGAP
seats since 2022, of which 80% are contested in single seat electoral 13th Joseph “Erap” Estrada (1998-2001) 1-RIDER PL COOP NATCO
districts and 20% are allotted & lists according party to a modified •Declared War vs. MILF TINGOG MALASAKIT O BAYANIHAN
• Established National Anti-Poverty Commission 4PS BHW
Here quota with remainders. Disregarded and a three-seat cap.
AKO BICOL GP PARTY
These party list seats are only accessible to marginalized and under- • Considered 1st Philippine President who faced
SAGIP BH
represented groups and parties, local parties, and sectoral wings or impeachment trial ANG PROBINSYANO ACT TEACHERS
major parties that represent the marginalized. 14th Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001-2010) USWAG ILONGGO TGP
• Considered 2nd Woman President of Philippine Republic TUTOK TO WIN BICOL SARO
PRESIDENTS OF THE PHILIPPINES (from the past to present) • Expanded Value Added Tax (EVAT) CIBAC DUMPER PTDA
• Hello Garci Scandal SENIOR CITIZENS PL PINUNO
1st Emilio Aguinaldo (1899-1901)
DUTERTE YOUTH ABANG LINGKOD
•Considered 1st President of the Philippine Republic 15th Benigno “Noynoy Aquino (2010-2016)
AGIMAT PBA
• Declared Philippine Independence •No Wang Wang Policy KABATAAN OFW
2nd Manuel L. Quezon (1935-1944) • K-12 Education System ANGAT ABONO
• Considered 1st President of Commonwealth Government • Reproductive Health Bill MARINO ANAKALUSUGAN
• Declared Tagalog as National Language 16th Rodrigo Roa Duterte (2016-2022) AKO BISAYA KABAYAN
3rd Jose Laurel (1943-1945) • War on Drugs campaign PROBINSYANO AKO MAGSASAKA
• Anti-Terrorism Act of 2020 LPGMA 1-PACMAN
• Considered 1st President of the 2nd Philippine Republic
API APEC
th
4 Sergio Osmeña (1944-1946) • Build, Build, Build Program
GABRIELA PUSONG PINOY
• Established Nacionalista Party • Universal Healthcare Act CWS TUCP
• Started rehabilitation of post-Japanese war ruins 17th Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos Jr. (2022-present) AGRI PATROL
5th Manuel Roxas (1946-1948) P3WD MANILA TEACHERS
• Considered 1st Philippine President after declaration of SENATORS OF THE PHILIPPINES (2023) AKO ILOCANO AKO AAMBIS-OWA
Philippine Independence from American occupation 1. Sonny Angara KKUSUGTAUSUG PHILRECA
2. Nancy Binay AN WARAY ALONA
6th Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953)
KALINGA
•Fought against communist group Hukbalahap 3. Alan Peter Cayetano
7th Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957) 4. Pia Cayetano
• Restored peace and order in the Philippines from 5. Ronald “Bato” de la Rosa
outrages in 1950’s 6. JV Ejercito
8th Carlos Garcia (1957-1961) 7. Francis “Chiz” Escudero
• Filipino First Policy 8. Jinggoy Estrada
9th Diosdado Macapagal Sr. (1961-1965) 9. Win Gatchalian
• Established first Land Reform Law 10. Bong Go
• Liberalization of Foreign Exchange 11. Risa Hontiveros
• Export Control 12. Lito Lapid
• Restored Philippine Independence Day to June 12 From 13. Loren Legarda
July 4 14. Imee Marcos
15. Robin Padilla