ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

“THE LEARNER”
This paper created to fullfill assignment of English Instructional Design Course
Lecturer : Mr. Puput Arianto, M. Pd

Arranged by :

Rheeva Angga Rossy J.P (216121253)

Syahidah Asma Amanina A.A (216121248)

Melvia Irviana (216121283)

Muhammad Arrofiq S (216121278)

PRODI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

FAKULTAS ADAB DAN BAHASA
UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI RADEN MAS SAID SURAKARTA
2023
 PREFACE

Praise be to the presence of Allah SWT, who has given mercy and also
guidance so that the writer can finish this paper “The Learner" well.

The purpose of writing this paper is to fulfill the assignment for the English
Instructional Design course. It is hoped that the papers that the authors have
compiled can be additional insights for the readers and for the authors themselves.

The author would like to thank Mr. Puput Arianto, M. Pd. as a lecturer in the
English Instructional Design course who has entrusted this assignment to the
author, so it really helps the writer to deepen our knowledge in the field of study
that is being occupied.

The author would also like to thank all parties starting from myself, friends
and others, who have worked well together in helping to complete this paper, so
that this paper can be completed on time.

There is no ivory that is not cracked, the author realizes that this paper is far
from perfect. Therefore, the authors expect criticism and suggestions for the
perfection of this paper. That's all for this paper the author made and thank you.

Boyolali, 30
September 2023

Group 2
 Table of Contents
PREFACE............................................................................................................................2
Table of Contents.................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................4
A. Background of the study..........................................................................................4
B. Formulation of the problem.........................................................................................5
C. Purpose of The study...................................................................................................5
CHAPTER II Discussion.....................................................................................................6
A. Learner Characteristics............................................................................................6
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS.............................................................6
2. THE NATURE OF LEARNER QUALITIES.....................................................6
3. QUALITIES THAT ARE LEARNED................................................................7
B. Memory organization.............................................................................................10
C. Schemas.................................................................................................................11
D. Learners as a participant in instruction..................................................................12
CHAPTER III Conclusion.................................................................................................14
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................14
Refferences.........................................................................................................................15
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the study

Instructional design is a field that focuses on creating effective and

engaging instructional materials. One of the key factors that influence the
effectiveness of instructional materials is the learner. Understanding the
characteristics of learners and how they learn is essential for designing effective
instructional materials. The book "Principles of Instructional Design" provides a
comprehensive overview of the factors that influence learning and how
instructional designers can use this knowledge to design effective instructional
materials.
The study of the learner is an important aspect of instructional design.
Learner characteristics, such as motivation, goals, and prior knowledge, can have
a significant impact on the effectiveness of instructional materials. Memory
organization and schemas are also important factors that influence learning.
Understanding how learners organize and process information can help
instructional designers create materials that are more effective and engaging.
Additionally, learners can be engaged as active participants in the instructional
design process, which can lead to more effective instructional materials.
Despite the importance of understanding the learner in instructional
design, there is a lack of research on how instructional designers can effectively
incorporate learner characteristics into their designs. Many instructional designers
rely on generic assumptions about learners, which may not be accurate or
effective. Therefore, there is a need for research on how instructional designers
can effectively incorporate learner characteristics into their designs.
The purpose of this paper is to explore the characteristics of learners and
how instructional designers can effectively incorporate these characteristics into
their designs.
B. Formulation of the problem

1. What are the key characteristics of learners that instructional designers

should consider when designing instructional materials?

2. How can instructional designers effectively incorporate learner

characteristics into their designs?

3. What is the role of memory organization and schemas in the learning

process, and how can instructional designers use this knowledge to
design effective instructional materials?

4. How can learners be effectively engaged as participants in the

instructional design process?

C. Purpose of The study

1. Identify the key characteristics of learners that instructional designers

should consider when designing instructional materials.

2. Develop a framework for incorporating learner characteristics into

instructional design.

3. Evaluate the effectiveness of instructional materials that are tailored to

the needs of specific learners.

4. Investigate the role of memory organization and schemas in the learning

process and how instructional designers can use this knowledge to
design effective instructional materials.
 CHAPTER II
Discussion
A. Learner Characteristics
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS
Learners have particular characteristics related to instruction, such
as the capacity to hear verbally delivered communications and read written
communications. characteristics varies in intensity from learner to learner;
for example, one individual could be able to read printed pages of text
quickly, while another reads slowly and haltingly. The factors that affect
the entire information-processing chain of learning, regardless of
variations in degree, are those that are of relevance to instructional design.
These characteristics may apply to sensory input, to the internal
organization of learner responses, to the processing, storage, and retrieval
of knowledge.
2. THE NATURE OF LEARNER QUALITIES
Certain qualities of the human individual related to learning are
innately determined. For example, visual acuity, although it can be
enhanced with artificial lenses, is a fundamental property of a person's
sensory system that is "built in" and cannot be changed through learning.
However, such a characteristic should only be taken into account when
teaching under certain harsh conditions, which entails avoiding small print
images or blurred projections.
However, other learner qualities may influence learning at more
important points in the information processing process for instructional
planning. For example, it has been proposed that the capacity of working
memory, where learned material is absorbed and processed for memory
storage, may have limits on innate capacity. The number of items that can
be “remembered” at any one time is represented by an instantaneous
memory interval of seven plus or minus two. Speed of retrieval and
identification of previously learned concepts can be measured by asking
individuals to respond as quickly as possible to indicate whether pairs of
letters match or when the letters are different physically (such as A, a or B,
b). Due to physical differences, letters must be retrieved as concepts to be
matched (Hunt, 1978). The speed and efficiency of this process is another
personal quality that can be innately determined.
For these and other learner characteristics to be genetically
determined, instructional design cannot aim to change these qualities
through learning. Rather, instruction must be designed in a way that
avoids exceeding human capabilities. For example, in the early stages of
learning to read, it is possible that some decoding tasks will exceed the
child's working memory capacity when encountering words with many
letters. For general readers, long sentences place demands on working
memory that may exceed capacity limits. The design technique used in
such cases is to use words, sentences, diagrams or other types of
communication that match the capacity of working memory and thus
avoid testing the limits of It.
3. QUALITIES THAT ARE LEARNED
In addition to qualities that may be innate and therefore cannot be
changed through learning, there are many characteristics that can be
learned. Many of them have important effects on learning. This is what
creates the internal conditions described in the previous chapters for each
form of learning.
a) Intellectual Skills
Intellectual skills are typically, a rule, considered to be stored as a
set of concepts organized syntactically. In particular, a rule is said to have
a functional form called production by Newell and Simon (1972). A
production example is: IF the goal is to convert x inches to centimeters,
THEN multiply x by 2.54. Concepts can be similarly represented as
products, as in the following example: IF a closed two-dimensional shape
has all equal sides, THEN classify the shape as a polygon.
Obviously we are describing processes and that is why the term
procedural knowledge is often used to refer to stored sets of intellectual
skills. It is also true that products, considered stored entities, have the
syntactic and semantic properties of clauses. The complex rules that
constitute typical intellectual skills are made up of simpler rules and
concepts. These are often learned as prerequisites to acquiring the skills
that make up the targeted educational goals. When retrieved from memory,
complex skills easily activate these simpler prerequisite skills because they
are real components. The example in Figure 6-1 shows the component
skills that have entered into the learning of the target skill of "pronouncing
multisyllable printed words."
b) Cognitive Strategy
Strategies are mental procedures, they constitute a form of
intellectual skill. Accordingly, they can be considered products and
represented in this way. For example, young people may acquire a
cognitive strategy that allows them to “self-edit” their sentence writing
and, in doing so, produce more mature sentences. Therefore, an initial
sentence such as "John went to the store" when applied through the
questioning strategy, can be expanded to the sentence "In the morning
John walked to the hardware store in the center of town.”
Production (strategy) in this case can be presented somewhat as
follows:IF the goal is to revise a sentence to achieve complete
communication, THEN add component sentences that answer when, how,
where, and why. Two features of cognitive strategies are particularly
noteworthy. First, they are procedures that govern the selection and use of
intellectual skills. Thus, the "self-editing" strategy can only be used when
the intellectual skills of sentence writing and sentence creation are known.
Second, it should be noted that the structure of the strategy itself is not
complicated: it simply involves asking four common questions. Typical
cognitive strategies have broad generality; in this case, it applies to almost
any sentence, regardless of its subject. However, this is a domain-specific
strategy: it is a strategy suitable for editing and revising sentences but not
for any other purpose.

c) Verbal Information
Verbal information refers to the knowledge we possess, which can
be stored as individual facts or interconnected propositions. These
propositions are like building blocks, organized around central ideas or
concepts. When we activate one proposition in our memory, it triggers the
activation of related propositions through a process called spread of
activation. This mechanism allows us to retrieve knowledge from our
long-term memory, often resulting in a stream of interconnected thoughts
when trying to recall something specific.
d) Attitudes
Attitudes, on the other hand, are more complex and challenging to
represent schematically. They encompass our personal choices, the
standards of conduct we adopt based on human models, and the
satisfaction we derive from reinforcement. Attitudes are embedded within
networks of interconnected propositions, organized according to specific
situations. For example, you may have a neatness attitude when it comes
to storing kitchen tools, but not when organizing papers on your desk.
Memories of particular situations can trigger associated attitudes.
e) Motor Skills
Motor skills, such as threading a needle, they involve a central
memory component called a motor program. This program becomes
highly organized and automatic through practice, responding effortlessly
to external stimuli. Motor skills also consist of part skills, which are
simpler components of the overall skill, and an executive subroutine that
represents the basic sequence of movements. Typically, we learn this
subroutine during the initial stages of skill development. Even if we don't
use a motor skill for a long time, the executive subroutine remains intact,
although our performance may become somewhat hesitant and rough.
 B. Memory organization

In English instructional design, when we learn something and store it in our

long-term memory, we can think of it as a proposition (a statement) or an image or
a motor program (a sequence of movements). These individual things are
organized into networks in our brain that can be searched and retrieved when we
need them for some activity or for further learning.

The networks in our brain that represent different kinds of things we have
learned often take the form of a schema. A schema is like a mental framework
where ideas are organized based on a general topic or how they are used. For
example, we might have a schema for "going to a restaurant" or "shopping in a
supermarket."
Another way to think about what we have learned and stored in our
memory is through abilities. Abilities can be measured by tests that evaluate our
performance in different areas of activity. Some common areas of ability are
verbal skills, numerical skills, visual skills, and spatial skills. These areas can be
further broken down into more specific abilities, like how well we can speak or
reason with numbers, remember visual shapes, or understand directions in space.
There are also other characteristics of learners related to their emotions and
personality, like anxiety and motivation to learn. These characteristics are often
called traits. Abilities and traits are important because they can influence how we
learn, especially depending on the type of instruction we receive. For example,
people with strong verbal skills might do well with written text that is concise and
to the point. People who are very anxious might benefit from instruction that has a
clear and organized structure. These are just a few examples, and we will discuss
them in more detail later.

In summary, when we learn and store information in our memory, it is

organized into networks and schemas. Our abilities and traits also play a role in
how we learn. Understanding how memory works and how our abilities and traits
affect learning can help us design effective instructional materials in English.
 C. Schemas

Schema theory is a cognitive theory that explains how people organize and
process information in their minds. Schemas are clusters of knowledge or memory
that are stored in the mind, and they are a system for categorizing and organizing
information and memory. Schemas can influence cognition by affecting our ability
to comprehend new information. When we are exposed to new information, we
relate it to our existing knowledge (our schemas), and this can improve our
comprehension of that information.

The role of schemas in learning has been studied extensively, and research has
shown that schemas can have a significant impact on reading comprehension and
memory. Most schema research in the 1960s and 1970s was based on school-like
procedures, such as remembering facts and reading comprehension. However,
Brewer and Treyens wanted to see how schemas would affect memory in a more
"ecologically valid situation" - an office. They conducted a study to investigate
how schemas affect memory in an everyday life situation, like the memory of
places. The researchers proposed five hypotheses about how schemas are used in
such memories.

It is worth mentioning that schemas are flexible, and they can change over
time as new information is acquired. The development of schemas is not a job for
a single teacher, but more for an integrated and thorough set of educational
principles. It is the duty of every educator to ensure that the information given is
presented in the most appropriate way to enable not only understanding but also
retention and retrieval.

Schema theory has practical applications in various fields, including

education, psychology, and data science. In education, schema theory can be used
to design instructional materials that are tailored to the needs of specific learners.
In psychology, schema theory can be used to understand how people process and
remember information. In data science, schema theory can be used to explain
machine learning models, share software architectures, and document pipelines.
 Overall, schema theory is an essential concept in understanding how people
organize and process information in their minds. It has practical applications in
various fields and can be used to design effective instructional materials,
understand how people process and remember information, and explain complex
systems.

D. Learners as a participant in instruction

Traditional Roles

With the advent of more and more student-centered learning approaches and
other new methods to increase the active involvement of learners in their own
learning process, the traditional roles and responsibilities of both teacher and
learner have changed in several ways. However, in one area, they remain the
same.

In the traditional educational model roles and responsibilities are clear and
well-defined. Teachers are responsible for the effective delivery of content as well
as assessing learning achievement. They are the knowledge experts and their
primary role is to impart that knowledge to their learners in effective ways.

Learners are responsible for attending class and completing reading and other
assignments as proscribed by the teacher. Although their first role in the process is
as passive listeners, listening requires paying attention during class. Outside the
class, their role becomes more active, requiring reading and completion of
assignments selected by the teacher.

Some traditional teachers felt their responsibility began and ended with
excellent presentation of content and later assessment through examination. The
responsibility for paying attention and studying was left up to the learner. In some
university and post-graduate environments, class attendance is left up to the
student.
Today’s educational approaches
 Today we look for active student involvement in the learning process. But
what does that mean? Are all learners capable of making decisions on their own
with little or no input from the teacher? Do they know enough to select their own
class projects and assignments?

Some critics see student-learning environments that allow unabridged freedom

of choice as an abdication of the teacher’s most important responsibility – to
ensure learning is taking place. Indeed, some go so far as to say some
contemporary attempts at active involvement are little more than anarchy,
allowing the “inmates to run the asylum.”

Even under traditional approaches, good teachers often refused to accept

without question the actions of students who showed no interest in learning. So it
should be with today’s educational approaches, be they discovery learning,
student-centered learning, or any other active involvement technique.

When John Dewey’s progressive education led to some classrooms allowing

total student freedom, Dewey himself cautioned the teacher was still ultimately
responsible to ensure learning took place. He saw the teacher’s role as that of
coach and facilitator who still maintained the ultimate responsibility for ensuring
an effective educational environment.

In today’s language, one might say the teacher is still “the adult in the room”,
in that he or she knows what needs to happen for learning to take place. Some
teachers approach the challenge of achieving appropriate student involvement as
something of a contract negotiation.

At the first learning session, focus is on what the teacher will bring to the
process and what the learners are expected to do. A good teacher allows sufficient
time to ensure expectations and standards are discussed and understood by all. In
addition, good teachers are willing to modify expectations if necessary and to
accept student input.

However, once the expectations for teacher and learner roles and
responsibilities are set, it is the teacher’s job to see that they are adhered to.
 CHAPTER III
Conclusion
Conclusion
In conclusion, understanding the characteristics of learners is crucial for
instructional designers in creating effective instructional materials. Learner
characteristics, such as motivation, goals, prior knowledge, memory organization,
and schemas, play a significant role in the learning process. By incorporating
learner characteristics into instructional design, designers can tailor materials to
meet the specific needs of learners, resulting in more engaging and effective
learning experiences.
The study of learner characteristics is still an area that requires further
research. While some characteristics, such as innate sensory abilities, cannot be
changed through learning, instructional designers must design materials that align
with learners' capabilities. Moreover, other characteristics, such as intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitudes, and motor skills, can be
learned and influence the learning process. Understanding these characteristics
allows instructional designers to create materials that promote efficient and
effective learning.
Additionally, the use of schemas in instructional design can enhance
comprehension and memory. Schemas help organize and categorize information
in the mind, facilitating the learning process by connecting new information to
existing knowledge. Designing instructional materials that align with learners'
schemas can improve their ability to comprehend and retain information.
Furthermore, involving learners as active participants in the instructional design
process can enhance the effectiveness of instructional materials. By considering
learners' input, interests, and preferences, instructional designers can create
materials that resonate with learners and promote their engagement in the learning
proces.
 Refferences
Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. 1992. Principles of Instructional
Design (4th Edition). Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
https://digilib.uns.ac.id/dokumen/download/50326/MjAzNDE5/English-
instructional-design-for-the-teaching-of-english-at-smp-negeri-24-
Surakarta-A-Naturalistic-Study-abstrak.pdf