HAZARDS OF TEMPERATURE EXTREMES

Important terms related to temperature include conduction, convection,

metabolic heat, ambient heat, and radiant heat. Heat stress is the net stress a
worker may be exposed to because of the cumulative effects of metabolic costs,
environmental factors, and clothing requirements at work. Key concepts of heat
stress include heat exhaustion, heat cramps, heat fainting spells, and heat rash.
The purpose of protecting employees from hypothermia is to prevent the core
body temperature from falling below 36 °C (98.6 °F).

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Cold stress can be prevented by implementing the following strategies: physical

examination and observation, orientation and training, good work practices,
and engineering and administrative control. The body feels cold beyond the
register of the thermometer due to the movement of wind or wind. This
phenomenon is known as the cold factor. This should be considered while
planning the work schedule.

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The most common form of cold stress is hypothermia. The most widely used
method of classifying burns by degree: first; second; and third; degree burns.
The surface area covered by a burn is expressed as a percentage of the Body
Surface Area (BSA). Burns are also classified as mild, moderate, and severe. The
severity of a chemical burn depends on the corrosivity of the chemical, the
concentration and temperature of the chemical, and the duration of contact.

The main dangers associated with chemical burns, in addition to the damage to
body tissues, are infection, fluid loss, and shock. The most important first aid
for chemical burns is immediate and frequent washing with water.
PRESSURE HAZARDS
In physics, pressure is defined as a force acting on an opposing fluid or solid.
Pressure is perceived relative to the Earth's atmosphere. Barometers are used to
measure atmospheric pressure. Boyle's law states that the product of a given
pressure and volume is constant with a constant temperature:

P1V1 = P2V2 when T is constant

Inspiration involves breathing air into the lungs. Exhale when air escapes from
the lungs. Dalton's law of partial pressure states that in a mixture of ideal
gases, the pressure applied by the mixture is the sum of the pressures applied
by each gas in the mixture:

PA = PO + PN + Pulse

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Water vapor is a gas, but it does not comply with Dalton's law. Increased
pressure on the body does not cause any problems on its own. Decompression
sickness can occur with a sharp rise of 18,000 feet above sea level or a sharp
rise of approximately 132; 66 feet in the water.

Under extreme conditions, such as underwater diving sharp rise from high
altitude decompression, the lungs can rupture. Factors associated with
decompression sickness include past exposure history, age, physical fitness,
exercise, low temperature, rate of decompression, and length of exposure.
Bend is an example of decompression sickness. Bone aseptic necrosis can be a
delayed effect of decompensation. Hypoxia is a lack of available oxygen.

Excessive nitrogen absorption into body tissues can be caused by breathing

nitrogen-rich air and is called nitrogen narcosis. The effects of the gas
generated are related to the absorption of nitrogen in the body tissues. Altitude
sickness is a form of hypoxia. Altitude sickness can be accompanied by a loss
of useful consciousness.

Hyperoxia is an increase in oxygen levels in the air and is not common. The
effects of trapped gas can result from changes in total pressure. Dysbarism is
the rapid formation of air bubbles in a tissue due to a sharp drop in ambient
pressure.

Drag is caused by the formation of bubbles on the skin. The formation of

bubbles in the airways is called chalk. There are various types of pressure
vessels, such as deaerators, amines, wet hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and pulp
digestion tanks.

Non; destructive inspection of pressure vessels can be performed by visual

inspection, liquid penetration test, magnetic particle defect detection test,
radiography, and ultrasonic test. Various methods are used to detect pressure
hazards, including sound, fabric streamers, soaps, scents, leak detectors, and
visual checks for corrosion and contamination. Pressure hazard detection
includes destructive and non; destructive inspection. The calibration pressure
can be used to test the resistance of the container to contain the pressurized
gas.

Pressurized cylinders and other containers should be stored away from cold
sources, including the sun. Do not throw spray cans into fire or heat. A water
hammer is a series of loud noises caused by a sudden interruption of the flow
of pressurized liquid. Negative pressure or vacuum is caused by pressure below
atmospheric pressure.
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Electricity is the flow of negatively charged particles through an electrically
conductive material. Atoms have a centrally located nucleus which is made up
of protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus.

Conductors are materials that contain many free electrons at room temperature
and can let electricity through. Insulators do not contain many free electrons at
room temperature and do not conduct electricity. When there is no excess or
lack of electrons on the surface of an object, a constant current is generated. 6.
Resistance is measured in ohms. Current flow is measured in amps or amps.

 Ohm's law reads V = IR, where V = volts, I = amps, and R = ohms.

 Power is measured in watts. Watt (W) is calculated by W = VI or W = I2R.
 Frequency is measured in Hertz.

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A load is a device that uses electrical power. The NEC defines electrical safety
precautions for industry and homes. UL determines whether electrical system
equipment and materials are safe in various NEC site categories. Common 110-
volt electrical circuits include a hot wire, a neutral conductor, and a ground
wire.

A short circuit is a short circuit in which the load is removed or bypassed.

Sources of electrical hazards include bare wires, poor insulation, non; UL
marked devices, improper device grounding, short circuits, moisture, static
electricity discharges, metal conductors, power sources discarded during
electrical maintenance, and lightning strikes. Contacts are included.
Electrostatic hazards may cause mild shock.

The spark or arc has less energy and is released in a smaller space. If the
conductor is not capable of carrying a certain amperage current, the material
around the conductor may heat and burst or catch fire.

Lightning is a collection of stationary charges from clouds that follow the path
of least resistance on Earth. Lightning strikes the tallest object on Earth.
Securing ground wire to neutral wire is unsafe wiring. Open grounds have
misaligned ground wires. The reversing of hot and neutral wires creates a state
of polarity and insecurity. In permanent buildings, cables that fit the fixed wires
should not be replaced.

Most insulation failures result from a toxic environment for insulation. Electrical
equipment designers strive to create explosion-resistant, dust-combustible,
and spark; proof devices.

The NEC classifies places as hazardous to electrical equipment. The greatest

danger to humans with electric shock is the flow of current and the way it
passes through the body. On a specific amperage of a current, people are
frozen with conductors and are unable to leave the conductor. Circuit
examiners can make sure the power is turned off. The receptacle wiring tester
correctly indicates the wired outlet.

A continuity tester can be used to check if the conductor is properly grounded

or if there is a break in the circuit. Grounding ensures a path to the ground for
additional flood flow. Binding and Grounding increase safety for the entire
electrical system.
FIRE HAZARDS AND LIFE SAFETY
Conditions that facilitate the development or growth of fire are known as fire
risks. The ingredients of oxygen, fuel, and heat are necessary to start and
maintain a shouldering fire. Heat, an oxidizing agent, a reducing agent, and a
chemical chain reactive are necessary to start and sustain a fire in the flame
mode.

The combustion process produces energy in the form of heat. Light and smoke
are; products of combustion. Either a source of ignition or a sufficiently high
temperature for the fuel is required for a fire to ignite. Fire is a chemical
reaction that produces heat. Heat is produced through exothermic processes.

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Endothermic reactions use up more energy than they produce. In a fire,

chemical reactions break down materials into their essential elements. Loose
atoms combine to form compounds that were not present at the start.

Cooling is one of the most common strategies to control or extinguish a fire.

Carbon may be found in practically all combustible materials. When carbon
atoms are released in a fire, they react with oxygen to generate carbon dioxide
or carbon monoxide.

Carbon dioxide can break down the concentration of oxygen in the air near the
fire. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, lethal gas. Hydrogen, which is
found in most fuels, combines with oxygen to form water. Synthetic polymers
in plastics and vinyl produce often lethal, toxic fumes when consumed, melted,
or decomposed in the presence of fire or extreme heat.

Liquid and solid fuels are first converted into steam before combustion. The
trend in security standards is moving from a traditional specification; based
approach to performance: based approach. Removing fuel, starving the oxygen
in the fire, or cooling it below the fire point can extinguish the fire. An
explosion is a very rapid, contained fire.

Carbon dioxide can reduce the oxygen concentration in the air near a fire.
Carbon Monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and deadly gas. Hydrogen, found in
most fuels, combines with oxygen to form water. Synthetic polymers in plastics
and vinyl often produce deadly toxic fumes when inhaled, melted, or dispersed
in the presence of fire or high temperatures. Liquid and solid fuels turn into
steam before burning.

The trend in terms of safety standards is away from the traditional

specification: based and performance-based approach. Extinguishing a fuel,
depriving a fire of oxygen, or cooling it below a point of combustion can
extinguish a fire. An explosion is a very fast-contained fire. Heat always travels
from high to low temperatures.

Excess heat is transferred to other objects by conduction, radiation, or

convection. Conduction is the transfer of heat of direct thermal energy, from
atom to atom, solid and liquid. Radiation is an electromagnetic wave heat
transfer that travels through the air in a straight line to surrounding solids.
Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of hot gases.

Sudden combustion is rare, but not impossible. Almost everything can burn in
an industrial environment. Fires are classified according to their properties,
which are related to fuel. Class A fires contain solid fuels. Class B fires contain
flammable liquids and gases. Class C fires involve direct electricity. Class D
fires contain flammable metals. Special types include highly active oxidizers
and oxygen; containing flammable substances. All common packing materials
burn easily. Firewalls are defined by their ability to slow down the spread of
fire.

Wood and textiles can be treated to reduce their flammability. The flashpoint is
the lowest temperature at which vapors are released in a concentration
sufficient to ignite, considering the ignition source. The flashpoint is the lowest
temperature at which the vapors will continue to burn, considering the ignition
source.

The auto; ignition temperature is the lowest point at which the vapors of a
liquid or a solid ignite spontaneously without a source of ignition. Flammable
liquids have a flashpoint below 37.8 ° C (100.04 ° F). Flammable liquids have a
flashpoint of at least 37.8 ° C (100.04 ° F). Flammable and flammable liquids
are classified into three categories.

Most flammable liquids are lighter than water; therefore, water cannot be used
to extinguish these fires. Most gases are lighter than air. Many gases present in
smoke and at the site of fire are toxic to humans.

Most fire deaths are caused by inhalation of toxic gases and fumes or by
suffocation due to lack of oxygen. Red, blue, yellow, and white diamond labels
are used to identify the hazards that may arise when a substance is burned.
Natural and generated electricity plays an important role in the development of
fire.

Heat in the form of hot surfaces can be a source of ignition. Automatic fire
alarm systems use a variety of means of fire detection. The best way to reduce
fires is to prevent them from happening. OSHA fire brigade regulations include
requirements for a pre; fire plan, an organizational description, physical ability,
education and training, firefighting equipment, protective clothing, and
breathing apparatus.
A comprehensive fire safety program should include at least the following
elements: assessment, planning, awareness; raising, and prevention and
response. OSHA provides specific requirements for manual firefighting in three
alternative approaches: all employees, certain employees, and fire departments.

RADIATION HAZARDS AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

Widely used terms related to ionizing radiation are radiation, radioactive
material, restricted areas, uncontrolled areas, doses, reds, rams, air doses,
personal monitoring equipment, radiation areas, and high radiation areas.
Individual radiation exposure should be carefully controlled and closely
monitored. The dose is usually measured in RAM.
Employers must use personal surveillance equipment such as film badges,
pocket chambers, pocket dosimeters, and film rings. Employers also need to
conduct extensive research to identify and assess the hazards of radiation
present in the workplace.

Both OSHA and NRC require signs of caution in the following areas and
situations: radiation areas, high radiation areas, aerial radiation areas, areas
with radioactive material, and containers in which radioactive material is stored
or transported.

Companies that produce, use, store or transport radioactive materials must

have a signal-generating system to warn workers to evacuate immediately. All
individuals should have adequate signaling devices to evacuate.

Employees must be informed and instructed about potential radiation hazards,

precautions to be taken, and records of exposure. Radioactive substances
stored in restricted areas must be labeled accordingly. Materials stored in freely
accessible areas should be protected against unauthorized removal.

Radiation events in which the exposure exceeds the prescribed limit values
must be reported immediately or within 24 hours depending on the dose. Such
incidents must be reported in writing within 30 days. Reports of over; exposure
should include the following information: area of exposure, radiation exposure,
radiation concentration, cause of exposure, and corrective measures.

Non; ionizing radiation is radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum that does

not lack sufficient energy radiation to ionize atoms. These include visible,
ultraviolet, infrared, radio, microwave, and AC frequencies. Electromagnetic
fields or EMFs contain a long list of radiation and electrical devices from the
power line. There are concerns and signs of a link between EMF and cancer.

INDUSTRIAL SPACES AND CONFINED SPACES

The responsibilities of industrial hygienists include the following: ensuring the
health of employees; objectively recognizing, assessing, controlling, and
preventing health hazards: helping employees understand precautions, and
making the health of employees a high priority.

The OSH Act established the following requirements relating to industrial

hygiene: use of warning labels, use of personal protective equipment, medical
testing, records maintenance, accessibility of information about monitoring
activities open to employees, availability of such records to employees, and
notification of exposure to environmental stressors. The most prominent
hazards in the workplace are chemical, physical, biological, and ergonomic.

The main routes of entry for toxic agents are inhalation, absorption, and
ingestion. The most common types of airborne contaminants are dust, fumes,
smoke, aerosols, mists, gases, and vapors.
Confined spaces

Asbestos, once considered a miracle material, is now known to be an extremely

dangerous substance. It has been linked to cancer of the airways, scarring of
the lungs, and cancer of the chest or abdominal lining. When identified in the
workplace, asbestos must be handled through removal, fencing, or
encapsulation. The three most important concepts to understand about
exposure thresholds are the time: weighted average (TWA), the short; term
exposure limit, and the exposure limit. The key concepts of the standard are
application flexibility, acceptable air quality, and tobacco smoke.

Risk identification processes include Determining the exposure threshold for

each hazardous substance in the workplace, determining the exposure level of
each, what employees are exposed to and for how long, and calculating the
TWA.

Common prevention and control strategies include Replacement, process

modification, isolation, moisture reduction for dust, exhaust techniques,
ventilation, personal protective equipment, good housekeeping, special control
methods, medical programs, and education and training.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is part of the
Health and Human Services (DHHS). Its two broad functions are research and
education on toxic substances and human tolerance levels. A toxic substance is
a substance that adversely affects the health of a person or animal. The
effectiveness of a toxic substance depends on its characteristics, dose,
exposure level, and individual resistance.

Accessibility to a toxic substance is an important factor. Common ways of entry

include intake, injection, absorption, and inhalation. The threshold is the
minimum amount of toxic substance needed to produce a measurable effect.
Fatality is the rate that causes death. The lethal concentration of the inhaled
substance can cause death. Exposure to toxic substances can be acute or
chronic.

Acute exposure involves sudden exposure to a high concentration of the

substance in question. Long; term exposure involves limited but continuous
exposure to the substance in question.

Air pollutants are classified based on how they affect the body. There is
inflammation, asthma, drugs, and anesthetics. A carcinogen is any substance
that can cause malignant tumors or neoplastic growth. Relevant standards for
toxic substances include OSHA Chemical Process Standards, EPA Chemical Risk
Management Standards, Toxic Substances Control Act, and Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act. OSHA's Confined Space Standard defines a hazardous
environment as "an environment that exposes employees to the risk of death,
inability to work, loss of self: defense, injury or serious illness".
A limited space management policy should include management, controls,
training, permits, and work team requirements. Threshold value (TLV) is related
to the concentration of substances in the air and represents the conditions
under which it is assumed that almost all workers can be exposed repeatedly
after a day without adverse effects. TLVs are expressed as time; weighted
averages, short-term exposure limits, and upper limits. Safety Data Sheets
(SDS) are an excellent tool for safety and health personnel who are concerned
about the potential hazards of a particular toxin. The information in the safety
data sheet is presented in eight sections: general information, hazardous
components, physical and chemical properties, data on fire and explosion
hazards, data on reactivity, health hazards, safe handling, and use, and control
measures. Important concepts related to explosives include flammable
substances, flammable substances, flashpoints, auto: ignition temperature,
oxygen limit, and instability. The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (29
CFR 1910.1200) requires organizations to provide their employees and
contractors with comprehensive information on the presence of hazardous
substances in the field.

PREPARING FOR EMERGENCIES

A crisis is a potentially fatal situation, usually sudden and unexpected. Crisis
can be the result of natural or man-made causes. Emergency preparedness
includes planning, study, evaluation, and adjustment. The immediate response
to a crisis is complex. The Emergency Planning and Community Rights to
Knowledge Act has the following four main components:

 Emergency Planning
 Emergency Notification
 Information Requirements
 Toxic Chemical Release Reporting
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For proper communication in response to an internal crisis, one person must be

in charge, and everyone involved knows who that person is. Since there is no
way to assess where first aid may be needed, personnel should be trained to
provide first aid as part of emergency preparedness. In some cases, OSHA
wants companies to have at least one employee on site who has received first
aid. In addition to providing first aid, well-stocked first aid kits should be
readily available, personal safety equipment should be available, emergency
telephone numbers should be posted, and all employees should be kept
informed.

A company's emergency action plan should be a set of small plans for each
anticipated emergency. These plans should include the following elements:
procedures, coordination, assignments and responsibilities, accident prevention
strategies, and programs. The OSHA standard for evacuation planning is 29
CFR 1910.38. This standard requires a written emergency facility assessment
plan. The essential elements of the plan are marking exit routes,
communication, external assembly, and training.

The EAP should be customized to be location-specific by including maps,

flowcharts, local coordinate information, and local training programs. They
should consider the needs of all employees, including those with disabilities. An
emergency response team is a specialized team tasked with managing general
and local emergencies, facilitating evacuation and closure, protecting, and
recovering company assets, and working with civil authorities. An emergency
response network is a network of emergency response teams that cover a
specified geographic area. Computers can help simplify some of the
complexities that come with technological advancement. Expert systems mimic
human thought processes by making if-then decisions about emergency
responses.

Trauma is psychological stress. It is usually the result of a disaster or

emergency that is so shocking that it affects a person's safety or well-being.
Untreated trauma can manifest as post-traumatic stress disorder. The condition
is caused by interfering thoughts, flashbacks, paralysis, difficulty concentrating,
rapid heartbeat, and irritability. A disaster recovery plan should have at least
the following components:

 Recovery coordinator
 Recovery team
 Recovery planning and analysis
 Damage assessment and rescue operations
 Recovery communications
 Employee support and assistance

Employers can help reduce the likelihood of terrorist attacks at the facility by
taking the following actions:

 Perform safe and compassionate operations.

 Listen to employees. Train employees. Conversation: I know your
personnel. Privileged personnel: strengthens the site against external
threats and restricts access.
  Remove obstacles to clear the view around the facility.
 Enforcement and enforcement of parking and distribution regulations.
 Allows visitors to be seen from a distance.
 Keep all unmanned entrances away from the outside and be vigilant.
 Prevent access to air intakes and other utilities from anyone except
designated personnel.
 Block access to terraces and upper floors. Safe Trash: Make sure
employees, contractors and visitors are wearing badges.
 Make an emergency response plan and put it into practice regularly.
 Please note the information provided on the company website. Keep your
latest safety and security strategies up to date. Protects the integrity of
the facility's key systems.
 Secure dangerous goods so that terrorists cannot access them for use in
the production of bombs and other weapons of mass destruction.
 Hazard protection plans must include two components: personnel safety
and physical safety.
 All systems, conditions, and potential hazards should be checked and
corrected before starting a business after a disaster.

ETHICS AND SAFETY

Ethics is the use of ethics in a context established by cultural and professional
values, social norms, and accepted norms of behavior. Morality refers to the
values subscribed to and promoted by society.
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Morality seeks to apply reason to determine the rules of human conduct that
translate morality into everyday behavior. Moral conduct falls within the limits
determined by morality. Legal and moral are not the same. If something is
illegal, it is also immoral. However, just because something is legal does not
mean that it is moral. The act can be legal but also unethical. To determine if
the choice is ethical, you can apply the following tests: the day after, cover,
mirror, roll reversal, and common sense.
Health and safety professionals have a tripartite role in terms of ethics. They
are responsible for setting an ethical example, helping employees identify
ethical options when faced with ethical issues, and helping employees pursue
and make ethical choices.

There are three approaches available to health and safety professionals when
dealing with ethical dilemmas:

 Best Ratio
 Black and White
 Full Probability

The ethical function of the company is to create an ethical environment and set
an ethical example. One effective way is to develop a written ethical philosophy
and share it with all employees.

The three characteristics of personality that can influence an employee's moral

behavior are ego power, Machiavellianism, and control. People facing moral
dilemmas should use ethical determination tests, take one of the three basic
approaches, and work consistently. Whistleblowing is the act of informing an
external authority or media of suspected illegal or immoral acts by an
organization or person.

HAZARD ANALYSIS, PREVENTION, AND SAFETY

MANAGEMENT
A crisis is a combination of conditions or conditions that, if left unchecked, can
lead to an accident, illness, or damage to property. Risk analysis is a
systematic process for identifying risks and recommending corrective actions.
There are two approaches to risk analysis:

 Preliminary
 Detailed

Risks can be classified as potentially destructive, complex, marginal, and

disruptive. Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) involves the formation of an ad-
hoc team of experienced employees who are familiar with the tools, materials,
and process of analysis. Experience and appropriate skills are important for
conducting early risk analysis.

Failure Conditions and Effects of Analysis (FMEA) is a detailed method of risk

analysis in which the system is divided into its various components, each
component is checked for possible defects, the probability of failure is
evaluated, and a decision is made on what effect these failures have. Is.
HAZOP is a detailed hazard analysis method developed for use in the chemical
industry. This includes forming a team of experts and think tanks.

Human Fault Analysis (HEA) is used to predict human error and its possible
effects. It can be used in conjunction with FMEA and HAZOP to strengthen these
methods.

The Technique of Operations Review (TOR) is a risk analysis method that allows
workers and supervisors to analyze. It uses a simple worksheet that allows team
members to answer a series of yes / no options.

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) is an effective analysis method that uses a graphic
model to view the analysis process. The model looks like a logical figure.

Risk analysis, although more commonly associated with the insurance industry,
can be used for risk and safety analysis. This process revolves around the
answers to two questions:

 How often does a given event take place?

 How serious are the consequences of a given event?

The basic principle of risk analysis is that risk is reduced by reducing the
frequency and severity of risk-related events.

The Risk Assessment must answer four questions:

 How serious are the potential injuries?

 How often are employees exposed to potential risks?
 What is the probability of survival if there is a risk?
 What is the probability of injury if the safety control system fails?
Safety management concerns include strategic planning, safety policy, written
procedures, personnel training, communication, human resource management,
self-assessment, safety, and health promotion, accident investigation, and
reporting and monitoring. Security Management Systems provides a
comprehensive model to address the above concerns.

PROMOTING SAFETY
The company's security policy should include the following messages:

 Throughout the company

 Expect employees to perform their duties safely
 The company's commitment to customers and the community

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From a legal point of view, the employer's responsibilities regarding safety laws
can be summarized as follows:

 Employers must ensure that all employees are familiar with the rules.
 Employers must ensure that safety rules are applied impartially and
consistently.

The Basic Principle of Management is:

If you want employees to be committed, engage them from the beginning. This
is especially important when formulating safety rules. Safety training should be
a key part of any effort to promote safety. Safety training ensures that
employees know how to work safely and shows that they are committed to
safety.
Well-run counseling programs promote safety by seeking information from
people who know where the risks are and involving employees in a way that
gives them a sense of ownership in the safety program.

Safety committees, if properly formed, can help promote safety. The formation
of the committee is a key factor in its success of the committee. Highly effective
committees consist of a wide division representing all sectors. An agreement
between employees and management is essential to ensure safety. Fortunately,
safety is an issue that employees and management can generally agree on.

Concessions can contribute to safety if implemented properly. The following

steps need to be taken to improve the effectiveness of incentives:

 Involve employees in the incentive plan

 Reward teams

However, financial incentives can create tax problems, and poorly designed
incentives can hide wounds, unfair conditions, and moral issues. Competition
can promote safety, but it can also get out of hand and do more harm than
good. To keep the competition positive, involve employees in the planning of
competitive programs and encourage competition between teams rather than
individuals. Safety and health promotional strategies have a common goal: to
achieve and maintain the commitment of all personnel to safe work. The two
approaches to persuasive communication are projective and receptive
communication.