Industrial Training Report on

Radio Broadcast and Multimedia

Done at
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF BROADCATING AND MULTIMEDIA
RADIO COLONY, GTB NAGAR NEW DELHI

Submitted in partially fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication
Engineering
By

SARTHAK (1609720043)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
(B.Tech ECE - Accredited by NBA),
Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida.
(Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow)

October 2019
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the industrial training repot entitled “Radio Broadcasting
and Multimedia” done at “NATIONAL ACADEMY OF BROADCASTING AND
MULTIMEDIA” submitted by me, for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics and Communication Engineering to Galgotias College of
Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Technical University, Lucknow is a record of bonafide work carried done between
10/06/2019 and 05/07/2019.

Place : Greater Noida

Date : Signature of the Candidate

The report is satisfactory / unsatisfactory

Signature of the Faculty Coordinator

&
Approved by

Head of the Department

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter CONTENTS Page No.
No.
Declaration ii
Table of Contents iii

List of figures vi

List of tables viii

Weekly course schedule ix

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Audio broadcast and receive chain 1
1.2 Sound 1
1.2.1 Creation of 1
sound
1.3 Audio 2
1.3.1 Audio Frequency 2
bands
1.3.2 Audio wiring and connections 2
1.3.2.1 Unbalanced wiring 2
1.3.2.2 Balanced wiring 3
1.3.3 Audio Quality 3
1.4 Microphones 4
1.4.1 Microphones classification 4
1.4.2 Types of microphones 5
1.4.3 Guidelines for choices of microphones 6
1.4.4 Placements of microphones 6
2. RADIO ANTENNA SYSTEM AND SPECTRUM
ANALYZER
2.1 Radio broadcast antenna used by AIR 7
2.2 AM transmission frequency bands 7
2.3 Minimum usable field strength for AM 7
2.4 Spectrum Analyzer 8

i
 2.4.1 Measurement categories of spectrum 8
analyzer
2.4.2 Block diagram of Spectrum analyzer 9
2.4.3 Characteristics 9
2.4.4 Applications 9
2.4.5 TODAPUR Earth station 10
2.4.6 TODAPUR Satellites 11
3. FM ANTENNA SYSTEM AND SITE MASTER
3.1 Minimum usable field strength for FM 12
3.2 What is Site Master 12
3.2.1 Calibration of site master 13
3.2.2 Return loss measurement 13
3.2.3 Insertion loss measurement 14
3.2.4 DTF ratio 14
3.3 Satellite Communication 14
3.3.1 Ways in which satellite orbits the 15
earth
3.3.2 Geosynchronous Earth orbit 16
3.3.3 GSAT 17
4. DRM RADIO BROADCAST TRANSMITTERS
4.1 DRM frequency bands 18
4.2 Block diagram of DRM system 19
4.3 Basic technologies of DRM 19
4.4 Differences between DRM and DRM+ 22
4.5 Conclusion (DRM) 22
4.6 Analog Transmitter 23
4.6.1 Frequencies for TV transmission 23
4.6.2 Block Diagram of TV transmitter 23
4.6.3 Channel offset in TV transmission 24
4.6.4 Modulation techniques in TV 24
Transmission
4.6.5 Positive and Negative Modulation 24

iv
 4.6.6 TV signal propagation 25
4.7 Interferences suffered by TV channels 26

5. CONCLUSION 27
REFERENCES 28

v
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page No.
No.

1.1 Audio broadcast and receive chain 1

1.2 Creation of sound 2

1.3 Unbalanced wiring 3

1.4 Balanced wiring 3

1.5 Types of microphones 4

2.1 Spectrum analyzer 8

2.2 Measurement categories of spectrum analyzer 8

2.3 Block diagram of spectrum analyzer 10

2.4 Block diagram of earth station transmitter 10

2.5 Block diagram of earth station receiver 10

3.1 FM antenna 11

3.2 Site master 12

3.3 Single port calibration 12

3.4 Dual port calibration 12

3.5 Satellite links 14

3.6 Different orbits of satellites 15

3.7 CLARKE’S orbits 15

3.8 Geostationary satellites of ISRO 16

4.1 Frequency bands of DRM transmitter 17

4.2 Block diagram of DRM transmitter 18

4.3 COFDM 19

4.4 QAM 19

vi
4.5 Block diagram of TV transmitter 22

4.6 Modulation in TV transmission 23

4.7 Advantages of negative modulation 24

4.8 Propagation of TV signal 24

vi
 LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page No.

1.1 Types of microphones 5

2.1 Field strengths for AM 7

2.2 Applications of spectrum analyzer 9

3.1 Field strength for FM 11

4.1 Differences between DRM and DRM+ 21

4.2 Frequency bands for TV transmission 22

vi
 WEEKLY COURSE SCHEDULE
WEEK 1
Date Day Topic

10/06/2019 Monday General Discussion

11/06/2019 Tuesday Audio signal and its attributes

12/06/2019 Wednesday Digital audio signals

13/06/2019 Thursday Microphones and its types

14/06/2019 Friday LAB visit of microphones

WEEK 2
Date Day Topic

17/06/2019 Monday Antenna Basics

18/06/2019 Tuesday Spectrum Analyser

Block Diagram of spectrum analyser

19/06/2019 Wednesday Demo on spectrum analyser

20/06/2019 Thursday Visit to HPT Pitampura for L/D on FM

transmitter and TV transmitter

21/06/2019 Friday Visit to Todapur earth station

i
 WEEK 3
Date Day Topic

24/06/2019 Monday FM antenna

25/06/2019 Tuesday Site master and its calibration

26/06/2019 Wednesday Demo on site master

27/06/2019 Thursday Satellite communication

28/06/2019 Friday Geostationary satellites

WEEK 4
Date Day Topic

01/07/2019 Monday DRM Transmitter and its

block diagram
02/07/2019 Tuesday Basic technologies involved in
DRM transmitters

03/07/2019 Wednesday Analog TV transmitter

04/07/2019 Thursday TV signal propagation

05/07/2019 Friday Discussion on topics covered

in above three weeks
Certificate distribution

x
 CHAPTER-1

ANALOG AUDIO
INTRODUCTION
For radio broadcasting, the sound is primarily source of input, its quality and purity
determine the quality of transmission. In order to send and produce good quality audio
with minimum noise, we need to understand the fundamentals & the application of
Sound, Audio, frequencies, levels and Human Hearing Response. Audio& sound
equipment/transducers and the interconnections/ interfaces. Audio Quality and the
Measurements like level, SNR, frequency response, harmonic distortion, etc. Analog
Audio and Digital Audio characteristics etc.

1.1 AUDIO BROADCAST AND RECEIVE CHAIN

Fig. 1.1: Audio broadcast and receive chain[1]

1.2 SOUND

It is a vibration of air molecules that propagates a typically audible mechanical wave

of pressure and displacement. It creates sensational stimulation in ears by vibrations
transmitted through the air or other medium.

1.2.1 CREATION OF SOUND -Sound is created by vibrations: Vibrating vocal

cords, instrument strings, reeds, drum heads, lips, etc. Sound travel as vibrations
progresses: Air molecules vibrate, transmitting changes in air density.

1
 Fig.1.2: Creation of sound [2]

1.3 AUDIO

Audio signal is an electrical representation of sound within the audible frequency

range (frequency limit of hearing) i.e., 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Audio signals may be
synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone musical
instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head.

1.3.1 AUDIO FREQUENCY BANDS

Audio Frequency Range: From 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

1. Low frequency (LF): From 20 Hz to 300 Hz

2. Mid frequency (MF): From 300 Hz to 5000 Hz
3. High frequency (HF): From 5000 Hz to 20000 Hz
1.3.2 AUDIO WIRING AND CONNECTIONS

There are two types of audio wiring-

1. Unbalanced
2. Balanced

1.3.2.1 UNBALANCED WIRING

An unbalanced audio cable requires two wires, one wire for the signal and another for
ground. Example: Connecting a DVD player through the RCA jacks on your TV,
hook some speakers to your computer sound card. It is more susceptible to noise, so
cable length should be kept as short as possible and it is important to keep unbalanced
cables away from power cords and supplies.

2
 Fig. 1.3 Unbalanced wiring [3]

1.3.2.2 BALANCED WIRING

A balanced audio cable requires three wires, two wires for the audio signal and
another for the shield. The audio signals on the two signal wires are equal, but of
opposite polarity

Fig. 1.4 Balanced wiring [4]

1.3.3 AUDIO QUALITY

Quality of audio is affected by many factors. Mainly these are –

1. Signal to Noise Ratio

2. Frequency Response

3. Harmonic Distortion

4.Noise Level

5.Inter - Modulation Distortion

6.Cross-talk

3
1.4 MICROPHONES
Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a
transducer which converts acoustical energy into electrical energy. In the professional
broadcasting field microphones have primarily to be capable of giving the highest
fidelity of reproduction over audio bandwidth.

1.4.1 MICROPHONE CLASSIFICATION

Depending on the relationship between the output voltage from a microphone and
the sound pressure on it, the microphones can be divided into two basic groups:

1.4.1.1 PRESSURE OPERATED TYPE

In such microphones only one side of the diaphragm is exposed to the sound wave.
The output voltage is proportional to the sound pressure on the exposed face of the
diaphragm with respect to the constant pressure on the other face. Moving coil
(Dynamic), carbon, crystal and condenser microphones are mostly of this type. In
their basic forms, the pressure operated microphones are Omni-directional.

1.4.1.2VELOCITY OR PRESSURE GRADIENT TYPE

In these microphones both sides of the diaphragm are exposed to the sound wave.
Thus the output voltage is proportional to the instantaneous difference in pressure on
the two sides of the diaphragm. Ribbon microphone belongs to this category and its
polar diagram is figure- of- eight.

Fig. 1.5: Pressure and Velocity Operated Microphones[5]

4
1.4.2 TYPES OF MICROPHONES

S.N Type Pattern Freq. Imp Sensitivit Applicatio Remarks

O y n
1 AKG- Cardioid 30 280W 1.6 Reporter’s
190E Hz- mV/Pa Mic.
16000
Hz
2 D-202 Cardioid 20 300W 1.6 Studio use Switchab
Dynamic Hz- mV/Pa le bass
20000 cut (0, -7,
Hz -12 dB)
3 D-222 Cardioid 20 320W 1.5 Instrument Switchab
Dynamic Hz- mV/Pa al Mic. le bass
18000 cut (0, -7,
Hz -12 dB)
4 D-330 Hyper- 50 370W 1.2 Flute, Switchab
BT Cardioid Hz- mV/Pa Harmonica le bass
Dynamic 20000 , Acoustic cut (0, -
Hz Guitar 15,-25
dB)
5 CK5 Cardioid 20 100W 9.5 Piano, Boost 0,
Condens Hz- mV/Pa Guitar, +2, +4
er 20 Horns dB at 4
kHz kHz
6 D-900 Uni- 60 200W 3 mV/Pa Distant Min load
Dynamic direction Hz- + at Pick-up Imp.
al 12 1000 500W
kHz Hz
7 Lapel (E/ Omni 30 100W 2.5 Announcer Supply
condense Hz-18 + 20% mV/Pa at s News Int/Ext.
r) kHz 1 kHz Readers
8 D-109 C Omni 120Hz 220W 1.0 OB
Lavaliere - mV/Pa Coverage
12000
Hz
9 D-130 Omni 50 220W 1.7 Min load
Dynamic Hz- + 20% mV/Pa imp.
13000 at 600W
Hz 1000
Hz
Table 1.1 Types of microphones

5
1.4.3 GUIDELINES FOR CHOICES OF MICROPHONES
Frequency response: A flat frequency response (50-10000 Hz) is preferred for music
and drama programmes whereas a gentle roll on low frequency side below 200 Hz is
preferred for talks and announcements.
Directivity pattern: For announcements, in modern practice cardioid microphones
without proximity effect (like AKG-2-way cardioids) are preferred.
1.4.4 PLACEMENTS OF MICROPHONES
Placement of microphone has important bearing on the quality of its output. A few
general guidelines given in the following paragraphs should help in improvement of
programme production. As far as possible, microphones should be placed with its 0 o
axis facing the source of sound to avoid off axis colouration. Whenever two or more
microphones are used with their outputs mixed together, it should be ensured that
their outputs are in phase. In order to have better quality of audio, the microphones
fairly be placed 30-45 cm away from the source of sound. Microphone should not be
placed very close to a reflecting surface such as announcer table top or bare walls of a
studio. A talker should not hold the script between his face and the microphone
otherwise shadowing effect will occur at high frequencies.

6
 CHAPTER 2
RADIO ANTENNA SYSTEM AND SPECTRUM
ANALYZER
ANTENNA
Antenna is a transducer that converts Radio-Frequency (RF) fields into Alternating
Current (AC) or vice-versa. It is an interface medium or launching pad to send
electromagnetic waves from guided medium (transmission line) to near to unguided
medium in the space and vice versa. The first radio antenna was built in 1888 by
German physicist Heinrich Hertz to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves
predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. In transmission, a radio transmitter
supplies radio frequency (RF) to the antenna's terminals and the antenna radiates RF
energy as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, a receiving antenna
intercepts some of the power of electromagnetic wave (RF Waves) to produce a tiny
voltage at its terminals, and applied to a receiver to be amplified. Antennas are
required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the
electromagnetic field. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves which carry signals
through the air (or through space) at the speed of light with almost no transmission
loss.
2.1 RADIO BROADCAST ANTENNA USED BY AIR
AM BROADCAST ANTENNA- There are two types of AM broadcast antenna used
by All India Radio. These are as follows-
1. Medium Wave (MW) antenna
2. Short Wave (SW) antenna

2.2 AM TRANSMISSION FREQUENCY BANDS

Medium wave: 526.5-1606.5 KHz
Short-wave: 2.3-26.1 MHZ
MF range: 300 kHz-3 MHz
HF range: 3 MHz – 30 MHz

7
2.3 MINIMUM USABLE FIELD STRENGTH FOR AM
SERVICE COVERAGE AM DRM
AREA
Rural 63 dBv/m 40 dBv/m (day time)
41 dBv/m (night time)
Urban 71 dBv/m 40 dBv/m (day time)
41 dBv/m (night time)
Large Cities 77 dBv/m 40 dBv/m (day time)
41 dBv/m (night time)
Table 2.1 Field strength for AM

2.4 SPECTRUM ANALYZER

A measuring instrument that displays an electrical signal according to its frequency.
Each frequency component contained in the input signal is displayed as a signal level
corresponding to that frequency.

Fig. 2.1 spectrum analyser [6]

2.4.1 MEASUREMENT CATEGORIES IN SPECTRUM ANALYZER

There are three types of measurement categories in spectrum analyser-
Frequency vs. Level
Time vs. Level
Frequency vs. Time

8
 Fig. 2.2 Measurement categories [7]

2.4.2 BUILDING BLOCK OF SPECTRUM ANALYZER

Fig. 2.3 Block diagram of spectrum analyser [8]

2.4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECTRUM ANALYZER

1. Suitable Input Level
2.Maximum Input Level
3.Measurement Frequency Range
4.Sideband Noise
5. Resolution bandwidth for frequency (RBW)
6. RBW and Sweep
Time 7.Detection method
8.Video filter (VBW)
9.Dynamic Range (Average Noise Level, Residual response, Distortion).

9
2.4.5 APPLICATIONS

Table 2.2 Applications of spectrum analyser [9]

2.4.6 TODAPUR EARTH STATION

The Earth Station mainly consists of three parts:
1. PORTA CABIN (Earth Station)
2. Compression Room (Encryption)
3. Monitoring Room (Real-time flow)

Fig 2.4 Block Diagram of earth station Transmitter [10]

Fig 2.5 Block Diagram of Earth Station Receiver [11]

1
2.4.7 TODAPUR EARTH STATION SATELLITES

Fig 2.6 TODAPUR Station Satellites [12]

1
 CHAPTER-3
FM (VHF) ANTENNA SYSTEM AND SITE MASTER
FM ANTENNA
Basic FM antenna is a dipole antenna (2 dipoles - horizontal and vertical polarized
circularly). Each dipole is approximately half of the wavelength.

Fig 3.1 FM Antenna [13]

3.1 MINIMUM USABLE FIELD STRENGTH FOR FM (VHF)

SERVICE COVERAGE MONOPHONIC STEREOPHONIC
AREA
Rural 48dB(v/m) 54dB(v/m)

Urban 60dB(v/m) 66dB(v/m)

Large cities 70dB(v/m) 74dB(v/m)

Table 3.1 Field strength for FM antenna

3.2 WHAT IS SITE MASTER?

Site master is an electronic device which performs the following functions and
operations-
Calibration
Perform Return Loss/VSWR and Insertion Loss/Cable Loss
Distance to Fault Setup.

1
 Fig. 3.2 Site Master [14]

3.2.1 CALIBRATION
The procedure of calibrating the site master is being shown by the following figure:

Fig. 3.3 Single port calibration [15]

Fig. 3.4 Dual port calibration [16]

3.2.2 RETURN LOSS MEASUREMENT

The site master measures the reflected power of the system in decibels (dB).This
measurement can also be taken in the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) mode,

1
which is the ratio of the transmitted power to the reflected power. However, the return
loss measurement is typically used for most field applications. Return loss is given as-
Maximum Return Loss= -
20 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅−1 ...(3.1)
log ( )
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅+1

3.2.3 INSERTION LOSS MEASUREMENT

Insertion loss is the loss of signal power resulting from the insertion of a device in
a transmission line or optical fibre and is usually expressed in decibels (dB).The site
master measures the energy absorbed, or lost, by the transmission line in dB/ft or
dB/meter. Different transmission lines have different losses, and the loss is frequency
and distance specific. The higher the frequency or longer the distance, the greater the
loss. If the power transmitted to the load before insertion is PT and the power received
by the load after insertion is PR, then the insertion loss in dB is given by:

IL=10log 𝑃𝑇
10 𝑃𝑅 ...(3.2)

3.2.4 DISTANCES-TO-FAULT RATIO

The site master is helpful in finding faults in the transmission line. Return Loss /
VSWR measurement characterizes the performance of the overall system. If either of
these is failing, The DTF measurement can be used to troubleshoot the system and
locate the exact location of a fault. It reveals the precise fault location of components
in the transmission line system. This test helps to identify specific problems in the
system, such as connector transitions, jumpers, kinks in the cable or moisture
intrusion.
3.3 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
Satellite communication is the branch of telecommunication which establishes and
communication using satellites across the globe. We can divide the whole satellite
communication into two parts namely space segments and earth segments. These
satellites are specifically designed to relay information from a source to a receiver.
Types of information that can be transferred include: television, telephone, radio,
internet, and military.
In order to communicate wirelessly, signals must be sent using electromagnetic
waves. However, these waves cannot bend around the curvature of the Earth. So, in
order for people to communicate over long distances, a satellite (or multiple satellites)

1
must be used to help redirect the signals.

1
 Fig 3.5 Satellite Link [17]

There are two major classes of communications satellites:

1) Passive satellite: This type of satellite only redirects the signal coming from the
source, and points in the direction of the receiver. With passive satellites, the
transmitting signal has the tendency to be weak. This is because, as the
electromagnetic wave moves through the atmosphere, particles will interrupt the wave
and cause it to be muffled.

2) Active satellites: on the other hand, allow for a signal that is much clearer. These
satellites can take a signal that they receive, and amplify it to make it clearer.
However, these satellites will often times amplify unwanted signals. Because of this,
they also need a processor on board. A processor will filter out any of the unwanted
amplified signals before sending it back down to earth.

3.3.1 WAYS IN WHICH SATELLITE ORBITS THE EARTH

There are three major ways in which communication satellites orbits the earth:
1) Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO), which is 19,300 nautical miles from Earth’s
surface. This orbit has the special characteristic in which satellites placed in this orbit
can stand still with respect to a certain location on earth. That is, if a viewer on Earth
were to look up into the sky and spot a satellite in GEO, it would seem as if it isn’t
moving.
2) Below GEO is Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). It ranges from 500-1200 nautical
miles above Earth.

1
3) Below MEO is Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and is about 200 nautical miles above
Earth. MEO and LEO are not able to keep satellites ―stationary like GEO, so more
satellites would be needed to cover a certain area. However, they transmit clearer
signals because of their relatively small distance from earth.

Fig 3.6 Different orbits of satellite [18]

3.3.2 GEOSYNCHRONOUS EARTH ORBIT

A geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) is an orbit whose orbital period is equal to
Earth's rotational period If such an orbit were in the plane of the equator and circular,
it would remain stationary with respect to a given point on the equator. For the
satellite to have such an orbital velocity, it needs to be at a height of about 36000km,
35786km to be precise, above the surface of the Earth.
The use of Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) was first suggested by ARTHUR C.
CLARKE in the mid1940s. Clarke stated:-An artificial satellite at the correct
distance from the earth could make one revolution every 24 hours, i.e., it would
remain stationary above the same spot and would be within optical range of nearly
half of the earth’s surface. Three repeater stations, 120 degrees apart in the correct
orbit, could give television and microwave coverage to the entire planet.

Fig 3.7 Clarke’s Orbit [19]

1
3.3.3 GEOSTATIONARY SATTELITE
The GSAT satellites are India's indigenously developed communications satellites,
used for digital audio, data and video broadcasting. As of 5 December 2018, 20
GSAT satellites of ISRO have been launched out of which 14 satellites are currently
in service. The GSAT series of geosynchronous satellites is a system developed by
ISRO with an objective to make India self-reliant in broadcasting services. The
repertoire of 10 GSAT satellites, a total of 168 transponders (out of which 95
transponders are leased out to provide services to the broadcasters) in the C, Extended
C and Ku-bands provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting,
weather forecasting, disaster warning and search and rescue operations.

Fig 3.8 Geostationary Satellites of ISRO in Service [20]

Fig 3.9 Location of Geostationary Satellite of ISRO [21]

1
 CHAPTER 4

DIGITAL RADIO MONDIAL (DRM)

RADIO BROADCAST
TRANSMITTERS
INTRODUCTION
DRM is a digital commercial broadcasting mode used to deliver FM-comparable
sound quality to AM (LW, MW, and SW) and CD quality on FM. DRM has 2 groups
of operating modes as per the frequency spectrum:
DRM 30: It operates on AM (LW, MW and SW) of the RF frequencies.
DRM+: It operates on FM (VHF band II and III).
DRM standards are recommended by ITU and published by ETSI.DRM 30 is a digital
alternative to AM (MW and SW).DRM+ is a digital alternative to FM radio broadcast
system. DRM uses COFDM (Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
with QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).

4.1 DRM FREQUENCY BANDS

Fig 4.1 Frequency bands for DRM transmitter [22]

1
4.2 BLOCK DIADRAM OF DRM SYSTEM

Fig. 4.2 Block diagram of DRM system [23]

4.3BASIC TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVED IN DRM

1. COFDM (Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

2. QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)
3. Energy Dispersal
4. Source coding/Channel coding, Channel Encoder
5. Interleaving, Cell interleaving
6. pilot generator
7. OFDM cell – mapper
8. SBR
9. Guard Interval
10. Pilot carriers
11. Source coding/Channel coding
12. Interleaving
13.Framing and super framing.

2
4.3.1 CODED ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
In COFDM, forward error correction (convolutional coding) and time/frequency
interleaving are applied to the signal being transmitted. This is done to overcome
errors in mobile communication channels affected by multipath
propagation & Doppler effects.
OFDM has become used in combination with such coding and interleaving, so that the
terms COFDM and OFDM co-apply to common applications.

Fig 4.3 COFDM [24]

4.3.2 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

QAM is a modulation scheme used for both digital and analog signals. The two
carrier waves of the same frequency, usually sinusoids, are out of phase with each
other by 90, called quadrature carriers or quadrature components . The final waveform
is a combination of both phase-shift keying (PSK) and amplitude-shift keying (ASK),
or, of phase modulation (PM) and amplitude modulation.

Fig. 4.4 QAM [25]

2
4.3.3 ENERGY DISPERSAL
It provides a 'randomising' of the bits that reduces the possibility of unwanted
regularity in the transmitted signal.
4.3.4 CHANNEL ENCODER
It adds redundant bits to the data in a defined way, in order to provide a means for
error protection and correction, and defines the mapping of the digitally encoded
information into QAM cells.
4.3.5 CELL INTERLEAVING
It rearranges the time sequence of the signal bits in a systematic way as a means of
"scrambling" the signal, so that the final reconstruction of the signal at a receiver will
be less affected by fast fading than would be the case if speech or music data were
transmitted in its original continuous order.
4.3.6 PILOT GENERATOR
It injects non-data carriers of prescribed amplitude and phase which permits a receiver
to derive channel-equalisation information, thereby allowing coherent demodulation
of the signal.
4.3.7 OFDM CELL-MAPPER
It collects the different classes of cells and places them on a time-frequency grid, in
effect distributing the information across the sub-carriers.

4.3.8 SBR (SPECTRAL BAND REPLICATION)

It is a new audio coding bandwidth extension technology, which is standardized in
ISO/IEC 14496-3:2001/Amd.1: 2003.It improves the performance of low bitrate
audio and speech codes by either increasing the audio bandwidth at a given bitrate or
by improving coding efficiency at a given quality level. SBR can be used with mono
and stereo as well as with multichannel audio.
4.3.9 GUARD INTERVAL
Reflection causes signals arriving with delay, therefore, to prevent inter-symbol
interference a guard band is introduced. This allows single frequency networks.

2
4.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DRM and DRM+

Table 4.1 Difference between DRM and DRM+[26]

4.5 CONCLUSION (DRM)

Digital Radio has better technical performance than Analog Radio. DRM has more
features/channels on less power than on AM . DRM has more coverage on same

power than that of AM/FM. DRM transmitter power varies from 20 kW to 1000 kW
in India.DRM30 for AM (LW, MW & SW) and DRM+ for FM in VHF Band II & III
Analyse data and minimizes deviations from the standards/specs. ItUpdate & assure
compliance of the broadcast regulatory standards (ITU-T/ITU-
R/ISO/IEC/AES/EBU/IEEE/ ANSI/ETSI/BIS/WPC/TRAI). It Maintain the

parameters of analog and digital chain in the transmitter. It Apply methods to Define,
Measure, Analyse, Improve, Control the system with minimum
breakdowns/deviations.It Improve & maintain the broadcast service quality for the
coverage.

2
4.6 ANALOG TV TRANSMITTER
DOORDARSHAN has following types of TV transmitter-
1. High Power Transmitters
2. Low Power Transmitters
3. Very Low Power Transmitters
4. Transposers

4.6.1 FREQUENCIES ALLOTTED FOR TV TRANSMISSION

There are mainly four bands allotted for the tv transmission. Carrier frequency ranges
for broadcast tv transmission vary from country to country in most of north America
there are multiple bands that range from 42 MHz to 88 MHz (VHF band 1) and 164
MHz to 216 MHz (VHF band 3). UHF has several bands that range from 470 MHz to
900 MHz.

Table 4.2 Frequency bands for TV transmission [27]

4.6.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TV TRANSMITTER

Fig. 4.5 Block diagram of TV transmitter [28]

2
4.6.3 CHANNEL OFFSET IN TV TRANSMISSION

Sometimes, picture carrier frequency is offset slightly to avoid interference due to:

Unintended long- range reception from far off transmitter operating at same
frequency, under certain weather conditions/height of antenna.

Spurious radiations from nearby transmitters.

Picture carrier frequency is offset according to the formula:

𝑓𝑙.𝑝
fos = fc +
12 ...(4.1)

4.6.4 MODULATION TECHNIQUES IN TV TRANSMISSION

1. Video Signal is amplitude modulated (negative). Vestigial side band transmission is

used to further save the bandwidth.

2. Audio signal is frequency modulated.

4.6.5 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE MODULATION

Positive modulation-When the intensity of picture brightness causes increase in
amplitude of the modulated envelope, it is called ‘positive modulation’.
Negative modulation-When the intensity of picture brightness causes decreases in
amplitude of modulated envelope, it is called ‘negative modulation’.

Fig. 4.6 Modulation in TV transmission [29]

4.6.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE MODULATION

Impulse noise peaks appear only in black region in negative modulation. This black
noise is less objectionable compared to noise in white picture region. Best linearity
can be maintained for picture region and any non-linearity affects only sync which
can be corrected easily.

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 Fig. 4.7 Advantage of negative modulation [30]

4.6.6 TV SIGNAL PROPAGATION

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves, which when radiated from transmitting
antennas, travel through space to distant places, where they are picked up by receiving
antennas. Although space is the medium through which electromagnetic waves are
propagated, but depending on their wavelength, there are three distinctive methods by
which wave propagation takes place. These are:
Ground wave propagation
Sky wave propagation
Space wave propagation.

Fig. 4.8 Propagation of TV signal [31]

4.7 INTERFERENCES SUFFERED BY TV CHANNELS

There are three types of interference which are suffered by TV channels-
Co-channel interference- Two channels operating at same frequency, located close
by, will interfere with each other. This phenomenon is called co-channel interference.

2
Adjacent channel interference- Stations located close by and occupying adjacent
channels causes adjacent channel interference. As a result, beats between two
frequencies or between a carrier and sideband takes place.
Ghost interference- It arises as a result of discrete reflections of the signal from the
surface of buildings, bridges, hills, towers etc.

2
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
The four weeks of summer training at “National Academy of
Broadcasting and Multimedia” has generated a lot more interest in my
subject. It made me more aware of the scope of electronic and
communication engineering. It has also made me appreciative of work
environment. I feel that without this opportunity my own understanding of
the subject also the motivation acquires more knowledge would have
remainder incomplete. The well, regarding future scope I think my training
has given me enough motivation and an exposure. At this stage there has
been advancement in signal reception quality as system has changed from
analog to digital with advancement in different audio and video
compression techniques. In AIR, there has been a lot of advancements
being made such as transmission of more value-added services. These
value-added services have added a different taste in listening radio. At
presently the Prasar Bharati, is also going to broadcast commonwealth
games to be held in New Delhi. Slowly but steadily, the AIR and
Doordarshan family of Prasar Bharati is growing day by day and working
for next generation in India.

2
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[31]https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/d9StkpVRTeCrwN3D343UHzq7TsN734AjX
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