Broadcast Engineering:

AM and FM Broadcasting
Broadcasting
 Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or video signals
(programs) to a number of recipients ("listeners" or
"viewers") that belong to a large group.
 Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called
narrowcasting.
 The term "broadcast" was coined by early radio engineers
from the midwestern United States. "Broadcasting", in
farming, is one method of spreading seed using a wide toss of
the hand, in a broad cast.
 Television and radio programs are distributed through radio
broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously.
 Broadcasting forms a very large segment of mass media.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Amplitude Modulation
 The process of varying the amplitude of a high-frequency
carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Uses of AM
1. AM broadcast (535 – 1605 kHz)
2. Citizen’s Band Radio (27 MHz)
3. Aircraft communications (108 – 136 MHz)
4. International shortwave (3 – 30 MHz) broadcast – via
sky wave
5. TV picture (using vestigial sideband)
 Limiting condition for AM:
 The amplitude of the modulating signal must not exceed
that of the carrier, else overmodulation(clipping) occurs.
AM Broadcasting Standards (FCC)
 Frequency allocation:535 to 1605 kHz (525 to 1705 kHz)
divided into 106 (130) channels
 Channel spacing: 10 kHz (9 kHz)
 Permitted channel bandwidth: 30 kHz (maximum
modulating signal frequency: 15 kHz)
*Note: geographically co-located stations must be spaced at
least 3 channels apart for sideband interference protection)
 Carrier tolerance: ± 20 Hz
 Unmodulated carrier power: 100 W to 50 kW
 Type of emission: A3E (double sideband, full carrier)
 Intermediate Frequency: 455 kHz
AM Station Performance
Requirements (FCC)
 Modulation percentage: 85% to 95%
 Audio frequency distortion harmonics (AFDH): <5%
rms amplitude up to 84% modulation
 Audio frequency response: transmission characteristic
must be flat from 100 Hz to 5 kHz (± 2 dB referred to 1
kHz)
 Carrier stability: ± 20 Hz
Service Areas in AM
 Primary
Area in which the ground wave field is measured at 1 mV/m,
and is not subject to objectionable interference and fading.
 Secondary
The area serviced by the sky wave, having a sky wave field
strength equal to or greater than 500 µV/m for 50% or more of
the time. May be subject to fading but no objectionable co-
channel interference.
 Intermittent
The area receiving service from the ground wave but beyond
the primary service area and subject to objectionable
interference and fading.
Times of Day in AM Broadcasting
 Daytime
 From local sunrise to local sunset
 6 AM to 6 PM (2200 UTC to 1000 UTC)

 Nighttime
 Between local sunset to local sunrise
 6 PM to 6 AM (1000 UTC to 2200 UTC).
 Experimental period
 Midnight to local sunrise
 12 MN to 6 AM (1600 UTC to 2200 UTC)
 Used for experimental purposes in testing and maintaining apparatuses
by the licensee, provided that no interference is caused to other stations
maintaining a regular operating schedule within such a period
3 Important Requirements in
Broadcasting
 Timing
Programming schedule must be followed (programs should
start and end within the allotted time).

 Fidelity
Program material shall not have any reasonable distortion.

 Modulation depth
The audio signal must modulate the transmitter properly.
Power Allocations

 The transmitter of existing Metro Manila stations may be

located outside of Metro Manila, provided that Metro Manila
remains within the 80 dBu contour of the transmitter.

 The station shall not operate more than 5% and lower than
10% of its authorized operating power.
Classification of Powers
 Licensed power or authorized operating power
That which is actually supplied or fed to the antenna by the
transmitter. Should have a tolerance of -5% or +10%.
 Maximum rated carrier power
The maximum power that the transmitter is capable of supplying to
the antenna and still operate satisfactorily.
 Plate input power
Product of the voltage and current at the output of the last radio
stage, measured without modulation.
 Antenna input power
Product of the square of the antenna current and the antenna
resistance at the point where the current is measured.
Two Methods of Measuring Antenna Input
Power
 Direct method
Po = Ia2Ra
 Where
 Po = Output Power
 Ia = antenna current with no modulation
 Ra = impedance or resistance of the antenna where the current is measured
 Direct method
 Indirect method
 used to determine the output power of FM broadcast stations and TV aural
transmitters
 used for AM broadcast stations in emergencies
Po = VPIP2F
 where
 Vp = plate voltage of the final amplifier
 Ip = plate current of the final amplifier
 F = power factor correction
AM Antennas and Site
Considerations
 Standard AM broadcast stations use either a single
omnidirecitonal vertical antennas, or multi-element, phased
vertical directional arrays
 Generally, antennas are erected on flat lands, preferably those
having good ground conductivities (e.g. marsh lands).
 Earth mat – a network of buried wires directly under the
antenna, extending outward from the base, buried about 6 to 12
inches (15 to 30 cm) below the ground.
 Counterpoise – a smaller version of the earth mat above
ground.
Antenna Towers:
Obstruction Painting and Lighting
 Must be painted with equal-width stripes of aviation (emergency)
orange and white, each stripe approximately one-seventh of the height of
the tower, but not over 100 ft (30 m) in width on tall towers. The top and
bottom stripes must be orange.
 To mark the tower at night (sunset to sunrise), towers up to 150 ft (46 m)
must have two (2) steady-burning 116-W or 125-W lamps in an aviation
red light globe at the top of the tower (beacon).
 For towers over 150 ft, the top beacon light consists of 620-W or 700-W
PS-40 Flashing Code Beacon lamps with aviation red filters.
 At half-, third-, quarter-, etc. tower height points (depending on the height
of the tower), flashing 620-W to 700-W beacons are installed.
 Lights should be automatically controlled by a device sensitive to the night
sky.
 Lights should be inspected at least once a day, or by automatic indicators.
Logs
 A listing of the date and time of events, programs,
equipment parameters, tests, malfunctions, corrections,
and other such information.
Types of Logs in Broadcast Operations
 Program Log
Contains entries with regard to the nature of the program, its name and
title, start and end times, source, sponsors of announcements, duration
of advertisements, etc.
 Operating Log
Contains the technical details of the transmitter during operation, such
as operating parameters (Vp, Ip, Ia, etc.), the time the transmitter is put
on and off the air, the time antenna lights are turned on or off, etc.
 Maintenance Log
Contains the results of transmitter and other equipment tests, repairs,
calibration, checks, etc.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Frequency Modulation
 The process of varying the frequency of a high-frequency
carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude variations of the
modulating signal.
 Uses of FM
1. FM broadcast (88 – 108 MHz)
2. Television sound
3. Satellite Television (both audio and video)
4. Mobile radio services
FM Broadcasting Standards (FCC)
 Frequency allocation: 88 to 108 MHz divided into 100
channels
 Channel spacing: 200 kHz
 Permitted channel bandwidth: 200 kHz (±75 kHz
deviation for maximum modulating frequency of 15 kHz,
and a 25 kHz guard band on both sides).
 Type of emission: F3E (monoaural) or F8E
(stereophonic)
 Intermediate Frequency: 10.7 MHz (10.61 to 10.79
MHz)
 Pilot Subcarrier Frequency: 19 kHz
Classes of FM Stations
 Class-A
Shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 25 kW and an
ERP not exceeding 125 kW. Minimum transmitter power is 10 kW.
 Class-B
Shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10 kW and an
ERP not exceeding 30 kW. Minimum transmitter power is 1 kW.
 Class-C
A non-commercial, community station having an ERP not exceeding 1
kW.
 Class-D
Shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10 W. Used
for educational purposes.
FM Antennas and Site Considerations
 The antenna used in FM broadcasting is a half-wave dipole.
 The transmitting antenna location should be chosen so that
line-of-sight can be obtained from the antenna over the general
service area.
 To provide LOS within the principal area, the antenna must be
conveniently above the average terrain.
 A tower, elevated structures (buildings) can be used to elevate
the antenna.
 Hills and mountains can also act as natural towers.
Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
 Since noise sideband power in FM decreases inversely with the
modulating frequency, higher modulating frequencies are more
susceptible to noise than the lower ones.
 A method of artificially boosting the affected frequencies with
respect to a pre-arranged curve before transmission to improve
noise immunity is termed as pre-emphasis.
 The compensation at receiver side is called de-emphasis.
 The amount of pre/de-emphasis for FM broadcasting has
been standardized as 75µs.
 In the UK, the amount of emphasis is standardized to
50µs.
Stereophonic FM
 Stereo (also stereoscope)
 Originally referred to a special photographic technique used to
give the viewer the impression of observing a scene in three
dimensions.
 In stereophonic audio, a sound source is recorded from two
different angles (in this case, the left and right sides). During
playback, these signals simulate the sound to the left and right
ears, giving the illusion of a three-dimensional sound source.
 Problems encountered with initial design of stereophonic
FM broadcasts:
1. Original FM broadcasts were monophonic. The system
should be compatible with existing monophonic receivers.
2. The stereo information had to be transmitted within the
200 kHz bandwidth allotment.
Block Diagram of a Stereophonic
Transmission System
Spectrum of a Stereo FM Multiplex System
Some Notes on FM Stereo
 Why are the L & R signals not sent independently and simultaneously?
ANSWER: So that the system will be compatible with existing monoaural
receivers.
 What’s the use of the 38 kHz subcarrier?
ANSWER: To serve as the carrier for the balance modulation process of the
difference signal.
 Why 38 kHz?
ANSWER: The difference signal must not interfere with the original sum signals.
 Why suppress the 38 kHz subcarrier?
ANSWER: Too much of the total composite modulating signal would be taken up
by the subcarrier voltage.
 What’s with the 19 kHz pilot subcarrier?
ANSWER: It is used as the reference to obtain the difference signal.
 Why 19 kHz?
ANSWER: Most people cannot hear beyond 15 kHz, much more 19 kHz.
Subsidiary Communications Authorization
(SCA)
 The transmission of programs which are of a broadcast nature, but
which are of interest primarily to limited segments of the public
wishing to subscribe thereto.
 Typical applications of SCA
 Background music, weather, time signals
 Educational information
 Talk-back for remote stations
 Telemetry
 Facsimile
 Slow-scan TV
 Uses a subcarrier of 67 kHz and is modulated to a depth of 7.5
kHz
The Broadcast Studio
 The studio usually contains equipment for program origination.
 It is a usual practice to co-locate the studio and transmitter in a
single facility, mostly for economic purposes.
Remote Studio Facilities
 In cases where the studio and the transmitter cannot be located
in the same facility, or it is better for the transmitter to be
located elsewhere (economically or technically), then a studio-
to-transmitter link (STL)may be employed.